Effect of pulse flour storage on flour and bread baking properties

Effect of pulse flour storage on flour and bread baking properties

LWT - Food Science and Technology 121 (2020) 108971 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect LWT - Food Science and Technology journal homepage: ww...

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LWT - Food Science and Technology 121 (2020) 108971

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

LWT - Food Science and Technology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Effect of pulse flour storage on flour and bread baking properties a,∗

a

E. Sopiwnyk , G. Young , P. Frohlich A. Dyckb, L. Malcolmsonb a b

a,1

a

a

a

a

T a

, Y. Borsuk , S. Lagassé , L. Boyd , L. Bourré , A. Sarkar ,

Canadian International Grains Institute (Cigi), 1000- 303 Main Street, Winnipeg, MB, R3C 3G7, Canada Warburton Foods Ltd., 409 McKay Street, Saint Francois Xavier, MB, R4L 1A9, Canada

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Pulse flours Storage Flour properties Bread quality Sensory properties

The effect of storage on flour and baking properties of pulse flours was investigated. Commercially milled whole (yellow pea, navy bean, and chickpea) and dehulled/decorticated (yellow pea, red lentil) flours were stored in a warehouse, heated in the winter months. Flours were evaluated at 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24 months for water absorption capacity (WAC), colour, pasting properties, and lipoxygenase (LOX) activity. Stored pulse flours were combined with wheat flour (stored at −18 °C) as a 20% pulse/80% wheat flour blend, baked into bread and assessed for quality. Flour and baking properties of the pulse flours were not greatly affected with storage but whole flours showed greater changes than dehulled/decorticated flours. The greatest changes were found for flour colour (decreased L*) and bread crumb colour (increased a*). Bread flavour (increased bitterness/aftertaste/pulse flavour) and appearance (lower acceptability) were affected for most pulse flours with storage. The freshly milled flours had the highest LOX activity which decreased significantly by 1 month of flour storage. WAC was higher in the stored flours except for chickpea flour. Pasting properties, bread volume, and C-Cell properties were not consistently altered with flour storage but crumb firmness increased with storage for some flours.

1. Introduction There is growing interest in partially substituting wheat flour with pulse (pea, bean, chickpea, lentil) flours to enhance the nutritional properties of foods. Unlike wheat flour, little information is known about the desired properties of pulse flours nor the effect of pulse flour properties on end-use characteristics. There is also limited knowledge about the effect of storage on the flour and baking properties of pulse flours. It is well documented that the properties of wheat flour improve with time after milling (Baik & Donelson, 2018; Bell, Chamberlin, Collins, Daniels & Fisher, 1979; Cenkowski, Dexter, & Scanlon, 2000; Ewart, 1988; Pratt, 1957; Hruškova & Machova, 2002; Srivastava & Haridas Rao, 1991). However, the benefits of flour storage are only achieved to a certain point after which, the flour deteriorates and it is no longer suitable for bread making (Pyler & Gorton, 1973, pp. 352–358). Research has shown that the nutritional content (Chapman, Jeffries & Pike, 2010; Molina, De La Fuerte & Bressani, 1975), seed quality (Chapman, Jefferies, & Pike, 2010; Reyes-Moreno, Milan-Carrillo,

Amienta-Rodelo, & Okamura-Esparza, 2000; Yousif et al., 2003; Yousif, Kato, & Deeth, 2007), sensory properties (Chapman et al., 2010) and volatile flavour compounds (Azarnia, Boye, Warkentin, & Malcolmson, 2011) of pulses are affected with storage. A recent study by Ferreira et al. (2017) reported that microbial, chemical and functional properties of flour milled from stored black beans were affected with storage. Few studies have been undertaken to examine the effect of storage on the properties of pulse flours. Sosulski, Kasirye & Sumner (1987a) reported that whole and dehulled cowpea flour showed little change in nutritional and sensory properties when stored for 6 months at 64% relative humidity (RH) but, when stored at 79% RH the flours became darker, had reduced lysine content and nitrogen solubility, and had lower emulsification and foaming properties. Fasoyiro, Hovingh, Gourama, and Cutter (2016) reported changes in water activity and fungal counts during storage of a fermented maize pigeon pea flour using different packaging materials. Rehman et al. (2017) found changes in the nutritional composition of a wheat chickpea flour blend and a wheat maize chickpea soy flour blend with storage. To the best of our knowledge, no one has examined the effect of storage on the flour and baking properties of pulse flours. Thus, it was



Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Sopiwnyk). 1 Present address: Richardson Centre for Functional Foods & Nutraceuticals, 196 Innovation Drive, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, R3T 2E1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108971 Received 8 May 2019; Received in revised form 13 December 2019; Accepted 15 December 2019 Available online 16 December 2019 0023-6438/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

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the objective of this study to investigate the flour and baking properties of stored pulse flours. The storage period selected for this study was 0–24 months under ambient warehouse conditions defined as the air temperature and relative humidity (RH) of the warehouse environment.

mixing time and resting time. At the end of the resting time, colour measurements (CIE L*, a*, b*) were taken in duplicate through the bottom of the sample cup. Flour pasting properties were measured using a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) 4500 (Perten Instruments, Sweden) according to AACCI 76–21.01 (AACC International, 2010; STD1, 13 min profile). Peak viscosity (PV), final viscosity (FV), and peak time were determined. Viscosity measurements are reported in rapid visco units (RVU; 1 RVU = 10 cP) and time was reported in minutes. All flour analysis was performed in duplicate.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Commercially milled whole and split yellow pea, whole navy bean, whole kabuli chickpea, and decorticated red lentil flours (regular grind) were obtained from Avena Foods (Portage la Prairie, Manitoba). Straight grade wheat flour, milled from a grist of Canadian Western Spring Wheat (CWRS) and English wheat was sourced from Nelstrop William & Co Ltd (Stockport, UK).

2.3.1. Bread baking procedure All baking was performed in the pilot bakery at Cigi using the following commercial bread formulation (quantities expressed in baker's %): 20% pulse flour; 80% wheat flour; water (variable); 2% gluten; 6.5% fresh yeast; 1.5% salt; 0.5% sugar; 1% canola oil; 1% dough conditioner (AB Mauri, UK). The addition of pulse flour was based on previous work in our laboratory which showed that replacing wheat flour with 20% pulse flours along with the addition of 2% gluten resulted in bread with acceptable quality (Bourre et al., 2019). Farinographs were performed on flour blends (20% pulse flour; 80% wheat flour) according to AACCI 54–21.02 (AACC International, 2010) to determine farinograph absorption (%) which was used as a starting point for water addition. Baking absorption (%) was optimized at the mixer by an experienced baker to obtain a soft dough. All ingredients were placed in a spiral mixer (Erka, Germany) and mixed on slow speed (130 rpm) for 2 min then mixed on fast speed (230 rpm) until the dough was fully developed as determined by an experienced baker. Doughs were then scaled into 460 g pieces, rounded using a Glimek CR-310 conical rounder (Glimakra, Sweden) and rested on the bench for 3 min before moulding as previously described. The moulded dough pieces were then placed into baking pans (19 cm L x 10.9 cm W x 11.5 cm D), proofed (80% RH; 42 °C) to a height of 0.7 cm below the top edge of the pan (measurement taken at center of pan) and baked at 200 °C for 25 min in a Picard reel oven (Drummondville, QC). A 100% wheat flour sample was baked each day to monitor any day to day variability in the bakery and to serve as a control. Two baking replications of each flour blend were completed for each storage interval. Each baking replicate produced five loaves of bread.

2.2. Storage of pulse flours and wheat flour Pulse flours were stored in standard triple layer paper bags with a moisture barrier (20 kg) under ambient warehouse conditions (Future Transfer Co, Winnipeg, Manitoba) defined as the air temperature and RH of the warehouse environment. Temperature (°C) and RH (%) values were recorded every two hours and expressed as an average for each month. One bag of each pulse type was removed from storage at 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18 and 24 months for testing. Flours, for each pulse type, were also stored at −18 °C in 20 L food grade plastic pails with lids, which served as the frozen pulse flour controls. The wheat flour was also stored at −18 °C in 20 L food grade plastic pails with lids for the duration of the study. The wheat flour was used for blending with the pulse flours and also served as a 100% wheat flour control. Frozen storage of flour was based on previous work by Sarkar, Morgan, Preston, and Dexter (2002) who reported no changes in physical dough properties for wheat flour stored up to 30 months at −15 °C. 2.3. Flour analysis Protein content (N x 6.25 for pulses, N x 5.7 for wheat) was determined according to Williams, Sobering, and Antoniszyn (1998) using the LECO FP-528 (LECO Corp; St. Joseph, MI). Daily drift corrections were done using EDTA. Fat content was analyzed based on the oil extraction procedure of Troëng (1955). Ash content was determined using AACCI 08–01.01 (AACC International, 2010). Samples were weighed into previously dried dishes (600 °C, minimum of 1 h) and incinerated overnight in a muffle furnace (600 °C; 16 h). Starch content and dietary fibre were analyzed according to AACCI 76–13.01 (AACC International, 2010) and AACCI 32–05.01 (AACC International, 2010) respectively. Moisture was analyzed according to AACCI 44–15.02 (AACC International, 2010) using the single-stage procedure (130 °C, 1 h) and was used to correct flour weights for pasting properties, water absorption capacity (WAC), and colour and for correcting results on a dry moisture basis. Results for protein, fat, ash, starch, dietary fibre and moisture contents are expressed in percent (%). Lipoxygenase activity (LOX) was analyzed according to the method of Chang and McCurdy (1985) and was determined by measuring the change in absorbance (234 nm) of linoleic acid test solution over time. Results are expressed in activity units per gram (AU/g). One unit of lipoxygenase activity was equivalent to an increase in absorbance of 0.001/min at 234 nm. WAC was determined using the method of Beuchat (1977) with modifications as described by Maskus, Bourré, Fraser, Sarkar, and Malcolmson (2016) and results expressed as the amount of water (g) absorbed per g of flour. Flour colour was measured using the Minolta CR-410 colorimeter (Konica Minolta, Japan) using a D65 illuminant. A slurry of flour and water was prepared according to AACCI 14–30.01 (AACC International, 2010) with respect to the sample cup, flour weight, volume of water,

2.4. Evaluation of bread quality Specific volume was measured after the loaves had cooled according to AACCI 10–14.01 (AACC International, 2010) using the TexVol BVM – L370 (Perten Instruments, Sweden). Results are reported in cm3/g. Cooled bread was placed in sealed plastic bags to maintain freshness. The following day, one loaf of each bread was used to score the bread. The remaining four loaves were sliced using a commercial bread slicer (Oliver Machinery, Grand Rapids, MI). Each loaf of bread yielded 9 useable slices. Select slices were taken from the centre of the loaf and used for measuring C-Cell properties, crumb colour and firmness. The remaining bread was placed in the freezer until evaluated for their sensory properties, approximately 1 month. C-Cell (Calibre Control International Ltd., Warrington, UK) imaging was used to measure crumb characteristics of the bread using three slices taken from the center of the loaf. The following parameters were determined: number of cells/slice area (the number of cells present in a slice/total area of a slice measured in mm2, with higher values indicating a finer cell structure), cell contrast (the ratio of the average brightness of the cells to the average brightness of the cell walls, with higher values indicating more shallow and uniform cells), cell wall thickness (the average cell wall thickness measured in mm, with lower values indicating thinner cell walls) and cell diameter (the average cell diameter measured in mm, with higher values indicating coarser, more open cell structure). Crumb firmness was determined according to AACCI 74–09.01 2

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As shown in Table 2, pulse flour colour was affected by storage which is consistent with the results of Sosulski, Kasirye-Alemu & Sumner (1987a). For whole yellow pea flour, L* values were significantly lower at 18 and 24 months of storage and b* values were also lower than most other storage intervals at 12 and 24 months. No consistent trend was observed for a* values. For the split yellow pea flour, a higher L* value was found at 12 months of storage but lower values were found at 18 and 24 months of storage. No consistent trends were observed for a* and b* values. Whole navy bean flour had reduced L* values beginning at 3 months of storage with values continuing to decrease throughout storage. Values for a* tended to increase with storage and higher b* values were found at 18 and 24 months of storage compared to all other storage intervals. For whole kabuli chickpea flour, lower L* values were observed beginning at 1 month of storage with the exception of the 9 month storage interval. At 12, 18 and 24 months of storage, the L* value was lower than all previous storage intervals. No consistent trend was observed for a* but, at 24 months of storage the a* value was lower than at any other storage interval. There was a steady decrease in b* values until 9 and 12 months after which b* values continued to decrease. Although significant differences were found among the storage intervals for decorticated red lentil flour, no consistent trends were observed for L*, a* or b* values. The colour changes observed in the stored pulse flours can most likely be attributed to the Maillard reaction which is thought to occur during the storage of pulses (Karathanos, Bakalis, Kyristsi, & Rodis, 2006). Nevertheless, furosine, a compound formed after acid hydrolysis of Amadori products from the Maillard reaction, was not found to increase in stored pea and bean flours (Moussou et al., 2017) but it is possible that the storage conditions used in the study were not ideal for the formation of furosine. In our study, changes in flour colour were more apparent for the flours milled from whole pulses (yellow pea, chickpea, navy bean) than those milled from dehulled or decorticated pulses (split yellow pea, red lentil). This may be explained in part by the presence of polyphenol compounds, including tannins, found in the seed coat which can darken over time. LOX catalyzes the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids to form fatty acid hydroperoxides (Baysal & Demirdöven, 2007) which can further undergo enzymatic or spontaneous degradation, to produce a range of carbonyl compounds with characteristic flavors (Eskin, Grossman, Pinsky, & Whitaker, 1977). LOX enzymes are present in a wide range of plant tissues including seeds, and are abundant in pulses, especially soybeans. LOX can also play an important role in wheat dough processing as both an oxidative improving agent and in the bleaching of carotenoid pigments (Hayward, Cillers, & Swart, 2017). LOX can also have negative effects on colour, off-flavour development and antioxidant status of plant based foods (Casey, Domoney, Forster, Robinson, & Wu, 1996). In our study, LOX activity was highest in the freshly milled pulse flours (0 storage interval) (Table 2). At one month of storage, LOX activity decreased significantly but thereafter no differences in LOX activity were found. This finding was consistent with Sosulski, Kasirye-Alemu, and Sumner (1987b). These researchers also found no differences in LOX activity values between whole and dehulled cowpea flours regardless if the flours were freshly milled or stored. This finding is similar to our results with whole and dehulled split yellow pea flours although there was an increase in LOX activity at 24 months in the split yellow pea flour compared to the 18 month stored flour. Despite the higher fat content in chickpea flour (7.19%) compared to the other pulse flours (0.90–1.94%) the effect of storage on LOX activity in chickpeas was similar to what was found in the other pulse flours. Significant differences were found among the storage intervals for WAC for all of the pulse flours (Table 3). Compared to 0 month of storage, WAC values were consistently higher beginning at 3 months of storage for whole pea flour, at 6 months for split yellow pea flour, and at 2 months for decorticated red lentil flour. In contrast, WAC values were consistently lower than at 0 month of storage beginning at 1

(AACC International, 2010) using the TA.HDplus Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, England) equipped with a 30 kg load cell. A cylindrical probe (TA-4) was used to measure the force of compression in the centre of two stacked slices of bread taken from the centre of the loaf and was measured in N. Test speed setting was 1.7 mm/s and the compression depth setting was 40% of the height of the two slices. Crumb colour was evaluated using the Minolta Chroma Meter CR410 with a D65 illuminant. Colour measurements (CIE L*, a*, b*) were taken in the center of two stacked slices of bread taken from the center of the loaf. 2.5. Sensory evaluation of bread Eight experienced and trained panelists evaluated the breads and informed consent was obtained from all panelist prior to their participation on the panel. Frozen sliced bread was thawed overnight at room temperature, cut into quarters, and coded with three digit random numbers. Panelists were given the same quarter from each slice of bread and instructed to evaluate the bread for aroma, pulse flavor, sweetness, bitterness and aftertaste using 7 point intensity scales where 1 = not intense and 7 = very intense. Appearance and overall acceptability were also evaluated using 7 point acceptability scales where 1 = not acceptable and 7 = very acceptable which was based on accepted industry standards for bread. Two training sessions were held to familiarize panelists with the sensory attributes and to determine where to place the breads made with the frozen pulse flours (0 month storage interval) on the scales. At each panel session, breads made with the stored pulse flours were evaluated with their corresponding frozen pulse flour control. For each storage interval, a total of four panel sessions were required to complete the evaluation of two baking replication of all five pulse flours. 2.5.1. Statistical analysis All data, with the exception of the sensory data, was analyzed using one-way ANOVA using JMP software version 14 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Tukey HSD test was used to determine differences among means for the flour data. A two-sample pooled t-test was used to determine differences between each storage interval and its frozen control for the bread data. Sensory data was analyzed using a one sample t-test to determine difference between each storage interval and its frozen control. The type I error rate for significance was 0.05. 3. Results and discussion The average monthly temperature and RH of the warehouse used for storing the pulse flours was between 11.9 and 21.4 °C and 27.4–56.9% respectively (data not shown). These conditions are consistent with heated warehouse conditions in Canada where the warehouse is heated during the winter months (November to March) after which the heat is turned off (April to October). It should be noted that most pulse processors in Canada do not heat their warehouse facilities during the winter months where the average outside temperature is well below freezing. 3.1. Flour properties Table 1 provides the proximate composition for the five pulse flours. Whole navy bean and decorticated red lentil flours had the highest protein levels compared to the other pulse flours. As expected, the decorticated red lentil flour and the dehulled split yellow pea flour had lower levels of fibre and the whole chickpea flour had a higher fat content than the other pulse flours. Similar values for proximate composition have been reported by Wang and Daun (2004 and 2006) and Wang, Hatcher, Tyler, Toews, and Gawalko (2010) for these same pulse market classes. 3

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Table 1 Composition of pulse floursa,b. Pulse Flour

Moisture, %

Protein, %

Starch, %

Fibre, %

Fat, %

Whole Yellow Pea Split Yellow Pea Whole Navy Bean Whole Kabuli Chickpea Decorticated Red Lentil

10.4 10.2 11.7 10.1 10.4

21.1 22.9 25.4 20.4 25.9

48.0 50.1 35.8 44.5 50.1

17.4 ± 0.3 10.6 ± 0.0 21.4 ± 0.3 12.0 ± 0.0 9.5 ± 0.2

1.37 1.32 1.94 7.19 0.90

a b

± ± ± ± ±

0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

± ± ± ± ±

0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1

± ± ± ± ±

0.4 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3

± ± ± ± ±

Ash, % 0.01 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.02

2.60 2.69 4.66 2.91 2.55

± ± ± ± ±

0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01

Analysis was done on freshly milled flours (0 month storage). Means and SD of duplicate results; Results are reported on a dry weight basis.

Table 2 Effect of pulse flour storage on colour and lipoxygenase activity of pulse flours. Parameter

L*

a*

b*

LOXb, AUb/g

Storage Interval (month)

0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24

Floura Whole Yellow Pea

Split Yellow Pea

Whole Navy Bean

Whole Kabuli Chickpea

Decorticated Red Lentil

75.5 ± 0.1a 75.3 ± 0.0a 75.8 ± 0.1a 75.6 ± 0.1a 75.7 ± 0.1a 75.6 ± 0.1a 75.8 ± 0.4a 74.7 ± 0.0b 74.5 ± 0.0b 2.18 ± 0.01abc 2.25 ± 0.01 ab 2.07 ± 0.08cd 2.17 ± 0.04bc 2.32 ± 0.05 ab 2.30 ± 0.01 ab 1.92 ± 0.06d 2.32 ± 0.01 ab 2.34 ± 0.01a 34.3 ± 0.1a 33.9 ± 0.0 ab 34.2 ± 0.0a 33.6 ± 0.1abc 32.9 ± 0.0cd 33.2 ± 0.1bc 31.8 ± 0.7e 33.6 ± 0.1abc 32.1 ± 0.1de 33179 ± 2283a 2417 ± 209b 1183 ± 80b 1809 ± 233b 1567 ± 164b 1165 ± 49b 1378 ± 53b 1629 ± 96b 1002 ± 83b

77.1 ± 0.1b 77.0 ± 0.0b 77.1 ± 0.0b 77.2 ± 0.2b 77.1 ± 0.0b 77.0 ± 0.0b 77.7 ± 0.1a 75.9 ± 0.1c 76.1 ± 0.1c 3.07 ± 0.01 ab 2.94 ± 0.01b 3.03 ± 0.04 ab 3.08 ± 0.09 ab 3.17 ± 0.03a 3.05 ± 0.04 ab 2.31 ± 0.08c 3.10 ± 0.06 ab 3.01 ± 0.08 ab 32.0 ± 0.3 ab 32.0 ± 0.0 ab 32.4 ± 0.1a 31.6 ± 0.0bc 31.4 ± 0.1c 31.8 ± 0.3abc 32.2 ± 0.2 ab 32.1 ± 0.1 ab 31.9 ± 0.1abc 28431 ± 411a 2588 ± 42b 2329 ± 421bc 2411 ± 470bc 1672 ± 124bc 1365 ± 7c 1457 ± 33c 1433 ± 332c 2275 ± 103bc

70.8 ± 0.3a 69.7 ± 0.0b 70.6 ± 0.0a 69.7 ± 0.0b 68.9 ± 0.1c 68.4 ± 0.1d 67.8 ± 0.1e 67.2 ± 0.1f 67.0 ± 0.1f 2.29 ± 0.02c 2.30 ± 0.00c 2.37 ± 0.02bc 2.43 ± 0.04 ab 2.52 ± 0.01a 2.52 ± 0.03a 2.29 ± 0.04c 2.49 ± 0.01a 2.46 ± 0.03 ab 15.0 ± 0.1cd 15.2 ± 0.0bc 14.8 ± 0.0d 15.3 ± 0.0bc 15.3 ± 0.1bc 15.4 ± 0.1b 15.2 ± 0.1bc 15.8 ± 0.1a 16.0 ± 0.1a 21913 ± 170a NDb ND ND 880 ± 83b 472 ± 54c 713 ± 78bc 624 ± 44bc 758 ± 83bc

77.2 ± 0.0a 76.5 ± 0.1b 76.8 ± 0.0b 76.5 ± 0.2b 76.6 ± 0.0b 77.3 ± 0.1a 75.6 ± 0.0cd 75.5 ± 0.1d 75.9 ± 0.1c 2.04 ± 0.01bc 2.15 ± 0.02a 2.02 ± 0.00bc 2.15 ± 0.04a 2.08 ± 0.02 ab 1.98 ± 0.04c 2.09 ± 0.03 ab 2.06 ± 0.00abc 1.68 ± 0.01d 28.5 ± 0.1b 27.8 ± 0.0d 27.3 ± 0.0e 27.4 ± 0.1e 26.9 ± 0.0f 28.3 ± 0.1c 29.2 ± 0.1a 27.3 ± 0.0e 26.9 ± 0.0f 10349 ± 248a ND ND ND 621 ± 126b 726 ± 37b 248 ± 59b ND ND

72.1 ± 0.1c 72.0 ± 0.1c 72.1 ± 0.0bc 72.3 ± 0.1abc 72.5 ± 0.1 ab 72.2 ± 0.2abc 72.5 ± 0.0a 71.2 ± 0.1d 71.0 ± 0.1d 17.33 ± 0.05 ab 17.33 ± 0.07 ab 17.51 ± 0.04a 17.35 ± 0.06 ab 17.04 ± 0.04b 17.27 ± 0.18 ab 17.02 ± 0.04b 17.25 ± 0.04 ab 17.16 ± 0.19 ab 29.4 ± 0.0bc 29.3 ± 0.1bc 29.6 ± 0.1b 29.0 ± 0.0cde 28.6 ± 0.1e 28.7 ± 0.1de 30.9 ± 0.2a 29.2 ± 0.0bc 29.1 ± 0.2cd 19095 ± 500a ND ND ND 1604 ± 429b 486 ± 81b 1367 ± 42b ND 827 ± 0b

a Means and SD of duplicate results; Least squares means with a different letter in a column within a parameter are significantly different from each other (p < 0.05). b LOX is lipoxygenase activity; AU is activity unit; ND is not detected.

yellow pea flour. No consistent trend was observed for the other three pulse flours with storage time. Ferreira et al. (2017) reported a reduction in PV and FV in bean flours that had been stored over time. No significant differences were observed in peak time for any of the pulse flours with the exception of whole kabuli chickpea flour where the peak time at 24 months was significantly lower than at any other storage interval.

month of storage for the whole kabuli chickpea flour. Results for whole navy bean flour showed higher WAC at 2 months and again at 18 and 24 months compared to 0 month of storage. A study by Sosulski, Kasirye-Alemu, and Sumner (1987a) found storage decreased the water hydration capacity of whole cowpea flour but no differences were observed with dehulled flour. According to Wolf (1970), flours with higher WAC may allow for more water to be added to the dough, thereby improving the handling characteristics of the dough and maintaining freshness of the bread. In our study, we did not find a relationship between WAC and baking absorption (data not shown). Significant differences were also found among the storage intervals for pasting properties of the pulse flours (Table 3). Compared to 0 month of storage, PV and FV were consistently lower beginning at 2 months of storage for whole yellow pea flour and at 3 months for split

3.2. Bread quality Baking absorption varied among the doughs made with the different pulse flours, with whole navy bean flour having the highest baking absorption (66%) followed by whole yellow pea and whole chickpea (64%), split yellow pea (63%), and decorticated red lentil (61%) (data 4

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Table 3 Effect of pulse flour storage on water absorption capacity (WAC) and pasting properties of pulse flours. Parameter

b

WAC , g/g

Peak Viscosity, RVUb

Final Viscosity, RVU

Peak Time, min

Storage Interval (month)

0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24

Floura Whole Yellow Pea

Split Yellow Pea

Whole Navy Bean

Whole Kabuli Chickpea

Decorticated Red Lentil

1.19 ± 0.00d 1.22 ± 0.01cd 1.25 ± 0.01cd 1.34 ± 0.02 ab 1.36 ± 0.03 ab 1.40 ± 0.04a 1.36 ± 0.01 ab 1.29 ± 0.01bc 1.35 ± 0.01 ab 124 ± 1a 118 ± 1 ab 105 ± 1d 118 ± 1b 103 ± 0d 106 ± 1cd 105 ± 1d 112 ± 2c 106 ± 2d 193 ± 1a 184 ± 0 ab 161 ± 3c 179 ± 0b 153 ± 0cde 157 ± 2cd 151 ± 3de 156 ± 4cd 146 ± 3e 5.37 ± 0.14a 5.27 ± 0.00a 5.84 ± 0.62a 5.30 ± 0.04a 6.00 ± 0.10a 5.90 ± 0.42a 5.67 ± 0.09a 5.17 ± 0.05a 5.20 ± 0.00a

1.03 ± 0.00d 1.12 ± 0.00c 1.05 ± 0.01d 1.12 ± 0.01c 1.20 ± 0.03b 1.14 ± 0.01c 1.15 ± 0.01bc 1.13 ± 0.02c 1.34 ± 0.01a 160 ± 0a 159 ± 1 ab 155 ± 3abc 151 ± 4bcd 151 ± 2bcd 150 ± 3cd 143 ± 2d 148 ± 1cd 148 ± 1cd 328 ± 1a 325 ± 1 ab 318 ± 6abc 308 ± 6cde 310 ± 1bcd 307 ± 5cde 291 ± 8e 298 ± 4de 294 ± 1de 6.97 ± 0.05a 7.00 ± 0.00a 6.17 ± 0.42a 6.17 ± 0.23a 6.43 ± 0.71a 6.57 ± 0.52a 5.70 ± 0.14a 5.80 ± 0.10a 6.40 ± 0.75a

1.40 ± 0.00cd 1.37 ± 0.01d 1.47 ± 0.00b 1.40 ± 0.01cd 1.45 ± 0.01bc 1.43 ± 0.01bc 1.43 ± 0.01bc 1.47 ± 0.01b 1.67 ± 0.03a 91 ± 1bc 98 ± 4b 85 ± 0c 87 ± 1c 85 ± 2c 87 ± 2c 109 ± 2a 86 ± 1c 84 ± 2c 145 ± 0ef 159 ± 6de 142 ± 1f 145 ± 3ef 163 ± 2d 179 ± 4c 229 ± 7a 206 ± 2b 201 ± 4b 6.90 ± 0.14a 6.97 ± 0.05a 6.90 ± 0.04a 7.00 ± 0.00a 6.93 ± 0.00a 6.97 ± 0.05a 6.90 ± 0.04a 7.00 ± 0.00a 6.97 ± 0.05a

1.38 ± 0.01a 1.14 ± 0.01cd 1.14 ± 0.00cd 1.20 ± 0.00b 1.20 ± 0.01b 1.19 ± 0.01b 1.14 ± 0.01d 1.20 ± 0.01b 1.18 ± 0.01bc 175 ± 0 ab 166 ± 0b 166 ± 1b 172 ± 2 ab 176 ± 1 ab 153 ± 1c 153 ± 9c 164 ± 0bc 181 ± 1a 116 ± 1b 109 ± 1de 114 ± 0bc 112 ± 1bcd 113 ± 1bcd 110 ± 1cde 105 ± 3e 109 ± 0cde 121 ± 1a 6.70 ± 0.24a 6.84 ± 0.23a 7.00 ± 0.00a 7.00 ± 0.00a 6.97 ± 0.05a 7.00 ± 0.00a 6.77 ± 0.33a 6.94 ± 0.09a 4.90 ± 0.04b

1.05 ± 0.01c 1.06 ± 0.01c 1.13 ± 0.01b 1.14 ± 0.00b 1.18 ± 0.01b 1.13 ± 0.00b 1.14 ± 0.03b 1.15 ± 0.01b 1.32 ± 0.02a 162 ± 3a 158 ± 1a 156 ± 1 ab 156 ± 4 ab 153 ± 4 ab 157 ± 1a 154 ± 1 ab 146 ± 5b 154 ± 2 ab 312 ± 4a 306 ± 4a 301 ± 3a 300 ± 6 ab 298 ± 3 ab 307 ± 3a 302 ± 1a 287 ± 4b 299 ± 4 ab 6.97 ± 0.05a 6.57 ± 0.33a 6.60 ± 0.47a 6.70 ± 0.14a 6.30 ± 0.42a 6.70 ± 0.42a 6.27 ± 0.19a 6.74 ± 0.37a 6.64 ± 0.23a

a Means and SD of duplicate results; Least squares means with a different letter in a column within a parameter are significantly different from each other (p < 0.05). b WAC is water absorption capacity; RVU is Rapid Visco Units.

not shown). The presence of hull in the whole pulse flours would explain why these flours had higher baking absorptions compared to the other two flours. No differences in baking absorption were observed with storage of the pulse flours with the exception of the decorticated red lentil flour which showed an increase from 61% to 62% beginning at 3 months of storage (data not shown). No consistent trends in mixing or proofing times were found among the various pulse flours nor with storage of the flours (data not shown). Significant differences in crumb colour and crumb firmness were observed between the bread made with the stored flours and the bread made with the frozen pulse flour control (0 month storage) (Table 4). For the bread made with the stored whole navy bean flour, lower L* (brightness) was found at 3, 6, 12, 18 and 24 months of storage and higher a* (redness) was found at beginning at 6 months of storage months compared to the frozen control flour (0 month storage). Significantly higher b* (yellowness) values were also found for breads made with whole navy bean flour that had been stored for 9, 12, and 18 months compared to the frozen control flour. Crumb firmness values were also found to be consistently higher between the breads made with stored whole navy bean flour and the frozen control flour beginning at 9 months of storage. Consistently higher a* values and crumb firmness values were found between the bread made with stored whole kabuli chickpea flour and the frozen control flour beginning at 1 month and 12 months of storage, respectively. A consistent increase in a* values for the bread made with stored whole yellow pea flour compared to bread made with the frozen control flour beginning at 9 months of

storage. The only significant differences found in specific volume between the breads made with the stored pulse flours and their frozen control flour was for the 9 month and 24 month stored whole navy bean flours and the 18 month stored whole kabuli chickpea flour (Table 4). Although differences were found between the frozen control flours and some of the stored pulse flours for the C-Cell parameters, these differences were small and no consistent trends were observed (data not shown). Thus, storage of the pulse flours did not affect bread volume or crumb structure. As shown in Figs. 1–5, the sensory profiles of the bread differed depending on the pulse flour added to the bread. Changes in the sensory properties were also observed among the breads made with the stored pulse flours. Breads made with stored whole yellow pea flour had a higher pulse aroma, pulse flavour and aftertaste at 9 months of storage but a lower pulse flavour and aftertaste at 12 months of storage (Fig. 1). Sweetness also increased at 12 months of storage and bitterness increased at 18 months of storage. Appearance was also significantly less acceptable at 24 months of storage compared to the frozen control (0 month storage). Bread made with stored split yellow pea flour had a more acceptable appearance and lower bitterness and pulse flavour at 9 months of storage, increased sweetness at 12 months of storage and reduced pulse aroma at 6, 18 and 24 months of storage compared to the bread made with the frozen control flour (0 month storage) (Fig. 2). Bread made with stored whole kabuli chickpea flour had a significantly higher pulse flavour at 18 months of storage, and lower sweetness and 5

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Table 4 Effect of pulse flour storage on breada crumb colour, firmness and specific volume. Parameter

L*

a*

b*

Crumb Firmness, N

Specific Volume, cmc/g

a b c

Storage Interval (month)

0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 18 24

Flour Blendb Whole Yellow Pea

Split Yellow Pea

Whole Navy Bean

Whole Kabuli Chickpea

Decorticated Red Lentil

77.1 ± 0.7 76.9 ± 0.3 77.3 ± 0.1 76.6 ± 0.3 76.0 ± 0.2 74.9 ± 0.2* 76.3 ± 0.2 73.7 ± 0.2 77.1 ± 0.2* 1.84 ± 0.13 1.59 ± 0.03* 1.71 ± 0.10 1.53 ± 0.13 1.40 ± 0.06 1.65 ± 0.02* 1.45 ± 0.04* 2.17 ± 0.02* 1.77 ± 0.05* 17.4 ± 0.7 18.1 ± 0.4 17.8 ± 0.1 18.0 ± 0.5 18.9 ± 0.3 19.3 ± 0.1 19.0 ± 0.1 18.4 ± 0.5 17.5 ± 0.1* 3.10 ± 0.16 3.66 ± 0.36 3.42 ± 0.19 3.48 ± 0.13* 3.34 ± 0.12* 3.91 ± 0.31 3.90 ± 0.25 5.71 ± 3.82* 4.07 ± 0.18 4.4 ± 0.0 4.5 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.0c 4.6 ± 0.1 4.3 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.1 4.2 ± 0.1 4.5 ± 0.1

77.1 ± 0.4 76.7 ± 0.4 77.9 ± 0.3 76.4 ± 0.3 76.2 ± 0.5 75.1 ± 0.8 76.6 ± 0.1* 72.7 ± 0.3 76.7 ± 0.2 1.75 ± 0.14 1.49 ± 0.04 1.45 ± 0.06 1.41 ± 0.20 1.34 ± 0.04 1.53 ± 0.04 1.32 ± 0.06 2.19 ± 0.10* 1.60 ± 0.06 17.0 ± 0.5 18.1 ± 0.3 17.4 ± 0.3 18.3 ± 0.4 18.3 ± 0.3 18.8 ± 0.1 18.6 ± 0.2 18.7 ± 0.8 17.6 ± 0.2 3.02 ± 0.13 3.29 ± 0.12* 3.32 ± 0.24 3.49 ± 0.14* 3.20 ± 0.14 4.14 ± 0.08* 3.75 ± 0.14 5.58 ± 0.32 3.93 ± 0.16 4.4 ± 0.1 4.3 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.0 4.3 ± 0.0 4.5 ± 0.0 4.3 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.0 4.2 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.1

76.9 ± 0.3 76.1 ± 0.3 75.2 ± 0.2 75.8 ± 0.1* 75.6 ± 0.2* 74.6 ± 0.1 75.1 ± 0.2* 72.5 ± 0.5* 75.9 ± 0.3* 1.81 ± 0.17 1.66 ± 0.04 1.73 ± 0.05 1.56 ± 0.11 1.51 ± 0.03* 1.77 ± 0.10* 1.56 ± 0.09* 2.44 ± 0.08* 1.97 ± 0.13* 14.9 ± 0.5 16.0 ± 0.3 15.9 ± 0.3 16.3 ± 0.5 16.3 ± 0.2 17.3 ± 0.1* 16.8 ± 0.1* 16.0 ± 0.2* 15.9 ± 0.3 2.70 ± 0.17 2.93 ± 0.08* 2.97 ± 0.13 3.30 ± 0.27 3.07 ± 0.20 4.46 ± 0.09* 3.91 ± 0.37* 6.05 ± 0.91* 4.34 ± 0.14* 4.3 ± 0.0 4.2 ± 0.0 4.3 ± 0.1 4.2 ± 0.1 4.2 ± 0.1 3.9 ± 0.1* 4.1 ± 0.1 3.9 ± 0.1 4.0 ± 0.1*

77.2 ± 0.1 76.8 ± 0.1 76.9 ± 0.5* 76.7 ± 0.2 76.1 ± 0.2* 75.2 ± 0.1 76.4 ± 0.1 74.7 ± 0.2* 77.5 ± 0.2 1.68 ± 0.21 1.62 ± 0.10* 1.48 ± 0.04* 1.36 ± 0.05* 1.51 ± 0.05* 1.57 ± 0.07* 1.26 ± 0.05* 2.10 ± 0.09* 1.64 ± 0.04* 17.1 ± 0.2 17.7 ± 0.2 18.2 ± 0.2 18.4 ± 0.1* 18.7 ± 0.1* 18.9 ± 0.2 19.0 ± 0.2 18.3 ± 0.5 17.4 ± 0.3 2.64 ± 0.10 3.42 ± 0.31 3.57 ± 0.29* 3.63 ± 0.25 3.68 ± 0.27* 4.16 ± 0.13 3.83 ± 0.17* 6.36 ± 0.51* 4.31 ± 0.25* 4.7 ± 0.0 4.5 ± 0.1 4.5 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.0 4.4 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.0 4.3 ± 0.1* 4.3 ± 0.0

77.0 ± 0.8 76.4 ± 0.1 75.9 ± 0.1* 76.2 ± 0.3 75.7 ± 0.1 74.7 ± 0.1 75.9 ± 0.1 74.0 ± 0.2 76.4 ± 0.1* 2.09 ± 0.12 1.89 ± 0.05 1.90 ± 0.06* 1.73 ± 0.06 1.82 ± 0.10 1.93 ± 0.05 1.64 ± 0.10 2.43 ± 0.02* 2.06 ± 0.14* 17.2 ± 0.6 18.2 ± 0.2 18.3 ± 0.1 18.3 ± 0.2 18.1 ± 0.2 18.9 ± 0.1* 19.0 ± 0.1 17.4 ± 0.2* 17.5 ± 0.3 3.52 ± 0.40 3.80 ± 0.38 3.36 ± 0.19* 3.93 ± 0.16 3.84 ± 0.23 4.31 ± 0.58 4.10 ± 0.30 5.17 ± 0.34 4.29 ± 0.10 4.4 ± 0.1 4.5 ± 0.1 4.3 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.0 4.4 ± 0.1 4.2 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.0 4.3 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.1

Bread prepared using a blend of 20% pulse flour and 80% wheat flour. Means and SD of two baking replications; Least squares means with an asterisk (*) are significantly different from the frozen control (p < 0.05). Test Statistic could not be estimated because the standard error was zero.

lentil flour at 12 months of storage and appearance was also lower with the flour stored for 24 months, compared to the bread made with the frozen control flour. Changes in the intensity of bitterness found in the whole yellow pea, chickpea, and navy bean flours and aftertaste in the whole navy bean and decorticated red lentil flour at the higher storage intervals can likely be attributed to lipoxgenase-induced oxidation of unsaturated lipids (Usuki & Kaneda, 1980). The dehulled split yellow pea flour had the best flavour stability of all the stored pulse flours.

higher bitterness at 18 and 24 months of storage compared to the bread made with the frozen control flour (0 month storage) (Fig. 3). Bread made with storage whole kabuli chickpea also had reduced scores for appearance at 18 and 24 months of storage and overall acceptability at 6, 9, 18 and 24 months of storage compared to the frozen control flour. Bread made with stored whole navy bean flour had significantly higher pulse flavour at 18 and 24 months of storage, higher bitterness at 12, 18 and 24 months of storage, and higher aftertaste beginning at 6 months of storage with the highest levels found at 12 and 24 months of storage compared to the bread made with the frozen control flour (0 month storage) (Fig. 4). Bread made with the stored whole navy bean flour also had significantly lower appearance and overall acceptability at 18 and 24 months of storage compared to the bread made with the frozen control flour. For the bread made with stored decorticated red lentil flour, decreased bitterness was found at 9 and 18 months of storage, whereas aftertaste increased at 18 and 24 months of storage compared to the bread made with the frozen control flour (0 month storage) (Fig. 5). Overall acceptability was higher with the decorticated red

4. Conclusions The effect of storage on the flour and baking properties of pulse flours is important to food processors interested in partially replacing wheat flour with pulse flours in various food formulations. In the present study, pulse flours were stored under ambient warehouse conditions, which involved heated storage during the winter months. Changes in flour colour (decreased L*) were found for all of the stored pulse flours except decorticated red lentil flour. Higher WAC was 6

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Fig. 1. Effect of storage on the sensory attributes of breads made with whole yellow pea (1 = not intense and 7 = very intense for aroma, pulse flavor, sweetness, bitterness and aftertaste and 1 = not acceptable and 7 = very acceptable for appearance and overall acceptability). Solid line (black): 0 months; Dotted line (black): 6 months; Short dashed line (black): 9 months; Long dashed line (black): 12 months; Solid line (grey): 18 months; Short dashed line (grey): 24 months.

Fig. 3. Effect of storage on the sensory attributes of breads made with whole kabuli chickpea (1 = not intense and 7 = very intense for aroma, pulse flavor, sweetness, bitterness and aftertaste and 1 = not acceptable and 7 = very acceptable for appearance and overall acceptability). Solid line (black): 0 months; Dotted line (black): 6 months; Short dashed line (black): 9 months; Long dashed line (black): 12 months; Solid line (grey): 18 months; Short dashed line (grey): 24 months.

Fig. 2. Effect of storage on the sensory attributes of breads made with split yellow pea (1 = not intense and 7 = very intense for aroma, pulse flavor, sweetness, bitterness and aftertaste and 1 = not acceptable and 7 = very acceptable for appearance and overall acceptability). Solid line (black): 0 months; Dotted line (black): 6 months; Short dashed line (black): 9 months; Long dashed line (black): 12 months; Solid line (grey): 18 months; Short dashed line (grey): 24 months.

Fig. 4. Effect of storage on the sensory attributes of breads made with whole navy bean (1 = not intense and 7 = very intense for aroma, pulse flavor, sweetness, bitterness and aftertaste and 1 = not acceptable and 7 = very acceptable for appearance and overall acceptability). Solid line (black): 0 months; Dotted line (black): 6 months; Short dashed line (black): 9 months; Long dashed line (black): 12 months; Solid line (grey): 18 months; Short dashed line (grey): 24 months.

observed in the stored pulse flours except for whole chickpea flour which showed a decrease in WAC with storage. Stored pulse flours showed a significant decrease in LOX activity at one month of storage, but thereafter no differences in LOX activity were found. Pasting properties of the flours were not consistently altered with storage. Storage of the pulse flours did not affect bread volume nor crumb structure but crumb firmness increased for some of the stored pulse flours. Bread crumb colour was altered (increased a*) for stored whole yellow pea, whole navy bean, and whole chickpea flours. Bread flavour (increased bitterness/aftertaste/pulse flavour) was affected with storage of whole yellow pea, whole chickpea, and whole navy bean flours and decorticated red lentil flour as was appearance (lower acceptability) for stored whole yellow pea, whole chickpea, and decorticated red lentil flours at the higher storage intervals. Overall, whole pulse flours (yellow pea, navy bean, chickpea) were more affected by storage

than dehulled/decorticated pulse flours (split yellow pea, red lentil) which suggests that the hull fraction significantly contributed to the storage stability of the flour. The findings of this study will be of interest to food manufacturers and pulse ingredient processors interested in utilizing and promoting the use of pulse flours in foods. Author contribution Elaine Sopiwnyk: Supervision, Project Administration, Visualization, Writing- Reviewing and Editing; Gina Young: Investigation, Data curation; Peter Frohlich: Investigation, Data Curation; Yulia Borsuk: Investigation, Data Curation; Shelley Lagassé: Investigation; Formal Analysis; Lindsey Boyd: Investigation, Formal Analysis; Lindsay Bourré: Investigation, Data Curation, Validation; 7

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Fig. 5. Effect of storage on the sensory attributes of breads made with decorticated red lentil (1 = not intense and 7 = very intense for aroma, pulse flavor, sweetness, bitterness and aftertaste and 1 = not acceptable and 7 = very acceptable for appearance and overall acceptability). Solid line (black): 0 months; Dotted line (black): 6 months; Short dashed line (black): 9 months; Long dashed line (black): 12 months; Solid line (grey): 18 months; Short dashed line (grey): 24 months.

Ashok Sarkar: Supervision; Adam Dyck: Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding Acquisition; Linda Malcolmson: Conceptualization; Supervision; Writing- Original Draft; WritingReviewing and Editing. Declaration of competing interest There are no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgements The financial support of the Saskatchewan Pulse Growers, Canada (PRO1621) is gratefully acknowledged. The authors express their appreciation to the analytical services staff at Cigi, to Stuart Jones, Warburtons, UK for his advice on baking, and to Avena Foods Ltd., Portage la Prairie MB, for providing pulse flours. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108971. References AACC International (2010). Approved methods of analysis (11th ed.). St. Paul, MN: AACC Internationalhttps://doi.org/10.1094/AACCIntMethod Methods 08-01.01, 10-14.01, 14-30.01, 32-05.01, 44-15.02, 54-12.02, 74-09.01, 76.13.01 and 76-21.01. Azarnia, S., Boye, J. I., Warkentin, T., & Malcolmson, L. (2011). Changes in volatile flavour compounds in field pea cultivars as affected by storage conditions. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 46, 2408–2419. https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1365-2621.2011.02764.x. Baik, B. K., & Donelson, T. (2018). Postharvest and postmilling changes in wheat grain and flour quality characteristics. Cereal Chemistry, 95, 141–148. https://doi.org/10. 1002/cche.10013. Baysal, T., & Demirdöven, A. (2007). Lipoxygenase in fruits and vegetables: A review. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 40, 491–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enzmictec. 2006.11.025. Bell, B. M., Chamberlain, N., Collins, T. H., Daniels, D. G., & Fisher, N. (1979). The composition, rheological properties and breadmaking behaviour of stored flours. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 30, 1111–1122. https://doi.org/10. 1002/jsfa.2740301202. Beuchat, L. R. (1977). Functional and electrophoretic characteristics of succinylated peanut flour protein. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 25, 258–261. https:// doi.org/10.1021/jf60210a044. Bourre, L., Frohlich, P., Young, G., Borsuk, Y., Sopiwnyk, E., Sarkar, A., et al. (2019).

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