Monomers, Polymers, and Plastics

CHAPTER

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Monomers, Polymers, and Plastics Contents 1. Introduction 2. Polymerization 3. Polymers 3.1. Chain length 3.2. Structure 3.3. Copolymers 3.4. Repeat unit placement 3.5. Chemical properties 3.6. Polymer degradation 3.7. Phase separation 3.8. Glass transition temperature 3.9. Molecular weight 4. Plastics 4.1. Classification 4.2. Chemical structure 4.3. Properties 4.3.1. 4.3.2. 4.3.3. 4.3.4.

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Mechanical properties Chemical properties Electrical properties Optical properties

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4.4. Thermoplastics 4.5. Hydrocarbon fibers References

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1. INTRODUCTION Monomers are the basic molecular form in which polymers and plastics are produced. Polymers consist of repeating molecular units which usually are joined by covalent bonds. Polymerization is the process of covalently bonding the low-molecular-weight monomers into a high-molecularweight polymer. A polymer may also be referred to as a macromolecule (Ali et al., 2005). For a molecule to be a monomer, it must be at least bifunctional insofar as it has the capacity to interlink with other monomer molecules. While not truly bifunctional in the sense that they contain two functional groups, Handbook of Industrial Hydrocarbon Processes ISBN 978-0-7506-8632-7, doi:10.1016/B978-0-7506-8632-7.10014-3

Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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olefins have the ability to acts as bifunctional molecules though the extra pair of electrons in the double bond. A polymer may be a natural or synthetic macromolecule comprised of repeating units of a smaller molecule (monomers). The terms polymer and plastic are often used interchangeably but polymers are a much larger class of molecules which includes plastics, plus many other materials, such as cellulose, amber, and natural rubber. Examples of hydrocarbon polymers include polyethylene and synthetic rubber (Schroeder, 1983). In the current context, a monomer is a low-molecular-weight hydrocarbon molecule that has the potential of chemically bonding to other monomers of the same species to form a polymer. The lower-molecularweight compounds built from monomers are also referred to as dimers (two monomer units), trimers (three monomer units), tetramers (four monomer units), pentamers (five monomer units), octamers (eight monomer units), continuing up to very high numbers of monomer units in the product. The structure of monomer units in the polymer is retained by the chemical bonds between adjacent atoms, thereby conferring upon the polymer the configuration. However, there can be many different configurations for a given set of atoms of a particular type. Different isomers of the monomer unit, which have different properties, confer different properties on the polymer. This structural configuration of the monomer is an important structural feature and plays a major role as the complexity of the monomer increases and is a major determinant of the structure and properties of the polymer chains. In addition to structural isomerism in the monomer, which can be represented simply by the position of the double bond in butylene and is shown as butylene-1 and butylene-2, there is also a second type of isomerism. CH3 CH2 CH]CH2

CH3 CH]CHCH3

butylene-1

butylene-2

1-butene

2-butene

This type is isomerism (geometrical isomerism) occurs with various monomers, and is present in both natural rubber and butadiene rubber. In these cases, the single double bond in the final polymer can exist in two ways: a cis form and a trans form.

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The pendant methyl group appears on the same side as the lone hydrogen atom or on the opposite side of the lone hydrogen atom. Similarly, commencing with 2-butylene, the final polymer may have the methyl group on the same side of the final product or on alternate sides of the final product. Because of the variations in monomer structure, the chemical structure of many polymers is rather complex because the polymerization reaction does not necessarily produce identical molecules. In fact, a polymeric material typically consists of a distribution of molecular sizes and sometimes also of shapes. The properties of polymers are strongly influenced by details of the chain structure. The structural parameters that determine properties of a polymer include the overall chemical composition and the sequence of monomer units in the case of copolymers, the stereochemistry or tacticity of the chain, and geometric isomerization in the case of diene-type polymers. The properties of a specific polymer can often be varied by means of controlling molecular weight, end groups, processing, and cross-linking. Therefore, it is possible to classify a single polymer in more than one category. For example, some polymer nylon can be produced as fibers in the crystalline forms, or as plastics in the less crystalline forms. Also, certain polymers can be processed to act as plastics or elastomers.

2. POLYMERIZATION Polymerization is the process by which polymers are manufactured and, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer and the polymer does not always retain the chemical properties or the reactivity of the monomer unit (Rudin, 1999; Braun et al., 2001; Carraher, 2003; Odian, 2004).

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Generally, polymerization is a relatively simple process, but the ways in which monomers are joined together vary and it is more convenient to have more than one system of describing polymerization. Polymerization occurs via a variety of reaction mechanisms that vary in complexity due to functional groups present in reacting compounds. One system of separating polymerization processes asks the question of how much of the original molecule is left when the monomers bond. In addition polymerization, monomers are added together with their structure unchanged. Alkenes, which are relatively stable due to s bonding between carbon atoms, form polymers through relatively simple radical reactions:

The chain terminating group can be a hydrogen atom (H) or any nonreactive (in this case) hydrocarbon moiety. On the other hand, condensation polymerization results in a polymer that is less massive than the two or more monomers that form the polymer because not all of the original monomer is incorporated into the polymer. Water is one of the common molecules chemically eliminated during condensation polymerization. Polymers such as polyethylene are generally referred to as homopolymers as they consist of repeated long chains or structures of the same monomer unit. Polymerization occurs via a variety of reaction mechanisms that vary in complexity due to functional groups present in reacting compounds and their inherent steric effects. In more straightforward polymerization, alkenes, which are relatively stable due to s bonding between carbon atoms, form polymers through relatively simple radical reactions. For hydrocarbon polymers, chain-growth polymerization (or addition polymerization) involves the linking together of molecules incorporating double or triple chemical bonds. These unsaturated monomers (the identical molecules that make up the polymers) have extra internal bonds that are able to break and link up with other monomers to form the repeating chain. Chain-growth polymerization is involved in the manufacture of polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene. All the monomers from which addition polymers are made are alkenes or functionally substituted alkenes. The most common and thermodynamically

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favored chemical transformations of alkenes are addition reactions and many of these addition reactions are known to proceed in a stepwise fashion by way of reactive intermediates:

In principle, once initiated, a radical polymerization might be expected to continue unchecked, producing a few extremely long-chain polymers. In practice, larger numbers of moderately sized chains are formed, indicating that chain-terminating reactions must be taking place. The most common termination processes are radical combination and disproportionation (Figure 14.1). In both types of termination two reactive radical sites are removed by simultaneous conversion to stable product(s). Since the concentration of radical species in a polymerization reaction is small relative to other reactants (e.g., monomers, solvents, and terminated chains), the

Figure 14.1 Examples of chain termination reactions

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rate at which these radical–radical termination reactions occurs is very small, and most growing chains achieve moderate length before termination. The relative importance of these terminations varies with the nature of the monomer undergoing polymerization. For acrylonitrile and styrene combination is the major process. However, methyl methacrylate and vinyl acetate are terminated chiefly by disproportionation. Another reaction that diverts radical chain-growth polymerizations from producing linear macromolecules is chain transfer (Figure 14.1) in which a carbon radical from one location is moved to another by an intermolecular or intramolecular hydrogen atom transfer. Chain transfer reactions are especially prevalent in the high-pressure radical polymerization of ethylene, which is the method used to make lowdensity polyethylene. The primary radical at the end of a growing chain is converted to a more stable secondary radical by hydrogen atom transfer. Further polymerization at the new radical site generates a side chain radical, and this may in turn lead to creation of other side chains by chain transfer reactions. As a result, the morphology of low-density polyethylene is an amorphous network of highly branched macromolecules. In the radial polymerization of ethylene, the p-bond is broken, and the two electrons rearrange to create a new propagating center. The form this propagating center takes depends on the specific type of addition mechanism. There are several mechanisms through which this can be initiated. The free radical mechanism was one of the first methods to be used. Free radicals are very reactive atoms or molecules that have unpaired electrons. Taking the polymerization of ethylene as an example, the free radical mechanism can be divided in to three stages – chain initiation, chain propagation, and chain termination:

The free radical addition polymerization of ethylene must take place at high temperatures and pressures, approximately 300 C and 29,000 psi. While most other free radical polymerizations do not require such extreme temperatures and pressures, they do tend to lack control. One effect of this lack of control is a high degree of branching. Also, as termination occurs randomly, when two chains collide, it is impossible to control the length of individual chains. A newer method of polymerization similar to free radical, but allowing more control, involves the Ziegler – Natta catalyst, especially with respect to polymer branching.

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Figure 14.2 Cationic chain-growth polymerization

As alkenes can be formed in somewhat straightforward reaction mechanisms, they form useful compounds such as polyethylene when undergoing radical reactions. Polymers such as polyethylene are generally referred to as homopolymers as they consist of repeated long chains or structures of the same monomer unit, whereas polymers that consist of more than one type of monomer are referred to as copolymers. Polymerization of isobutylene (2-methylpropene) by traces of strong acids is an example of cationic polymerization (Figure 14.2). The polyisobutylene product is a soft rubbery solid (Tg ¼ –70 C), which is used for inner tubes. This process is similar to radical polymerization and chain growth ceases when the terminal carbocation combines with a nucleophile or loses a proton, giving a terminal alkene. Hydrocarbon monomers bearing cation-stabilizing groups such as alkyl, phenyl, or vinyl can be polymerized by cationic processes. These are normally initiated at low temperature in methylene chloride solution. Strong acids, such as perchloric acid (HClO4), or Lewis acids containing traces of water (Figure 14.2) serve as initiating reagents. At low temperatures, chain transfer reactions are rare in such polymerizations, so the resulting polymers are cleanly linear (unbranched). An example of anionic chain-growth polymerization is the treatment of a cold tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution of styrene with 0.001 equivalents of n-butyl lithium, causing an immediate polymerization (Figure 14.3). Chain growth may be terminated by water or carbon dioxide, and chain transfer seldom occurs. Only monomers having anion-stabilizing substituents, such as phenyl, cyano, or carbonyl, are good substrates for this polymerization technique. Many of the resulting polymers are largely isotactic in configuration, and have high degrees of crystallinity. Species that have been used to initiate anionic polymerization include alkali metals, alkali amides, alkyl lithium compounds, and various electron sources.

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Figure 14.3 Anionic chain-growth polymerization

Finally, the use of Ziegler–Natta catalysts provides a stereospecific catalytic polymerization procedure (discovered by Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta in the 1950s). Their catalysts permit the synthesis of unbranched, highmolecular-weight polyethylene (HDPE), laboratory synthesis of natural rubber from isoprene, and configurational control of polymers from terminal alkenes, such as propylene (e.g., pure isotactic and syndiotactic polymers). In the case of ethylene, rapid polymerization occurs at atmospheric pressure and moderate to low temperature, giving a stronger (more crystalline) high-density polyethylene than that from radical polymerization (low-density polyethylene). Ziegler–Natta catalysts are prepared by reacting specific transition metal halides with organometallic reagents such as alkyl aluminum, lithium, and zinc reagents. The catalyst formed by reaction of triethylaluminum with titanium tetrachloride has been widely studied, but other metals (e.g., vanadium and zirconium) have also proven effective (Figure 14.4). Other catalysts have been suggested, with changes to accommodate the heterogeneity or homogeneity of the catalyst. Polymerization of propylene

Figure 14.4 Mechanism of Ziegler–Natta catalysis

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through action of the titanium catalyst gives an isotactic product, whereas vanadium-based catalyst gives a syndiotactic product.

3. POLYMERS A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units (monomers) typically connected by covalent chemical bonds (Rudin, 1999; Braun et al., 2001; Carraher, 2003; Odian, 2004). While polymer in the present context refers to hydrocarbon polymers, the term actually refers to a large class of natural and synthetic materials with a wide variety of properties, many of which are not true hydrocarbons. Prior to the early 1920s, chemists doubted the existence of molecules having molecular weights greater than a few thousand. This limiting view was challenged by Hermann Staudinger, a German chemist with experience in studying natural compounds such as rubber and cellulose. In contrast to the prevailing rationalization of these substances as aggregates of small molecules, Staudinger proposed they were made up of high-molecularweight molecules composed of 10,000 or more atoms. He formulated a polymeric structure for rubber, based on a repeating monomer, isoprene. Recognition that polymers make up many important natural materials was followed by the creation of synthetic analogs having a variety of properties. Indeed, applications of these materials as fibers, flexible films, adhesives, resistant paints, and tough but light solids have transformed modern society. Polymers are formed by chemical reactions in which a large number of monomers are joined sequentially, forming a chain. In many polymers, only one monomer is used. In others, two or three different monomers may be combined. Polymers are classified by the characteristics of the reactions by which they are formed. If all atoms in the monomers are incorporated into the polymer, the polymer is called an addition polymer (Table 14.1). If some of the atoms of the monomers are released into small molecules, such as water, the polymer is called a condensation polymer. Most addition polymers are made from monomers containing a double bond between carbon atoms and are typical of polymers formed from olefins (alkenes), and most commercial addition polymers are polyolefins. Condensation polymers are made from monomers that have two different groups of atoms which can join together to form, for example, ester or amide links. Polyesters are an important class of commercial polymers, as are polyamides (nylon).

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Table 14.1 Selected hydrocarbon addition polymers Name(s) Formula Monomer Properties

Polyethylene low density (LDPE) Polyethylene high density (HDPE)

e(CH2CH2)ne

Soft, waxy Ethylene solid CH2]CH2

e(CH2CH2)ne

Rigid, Ethylene translucent CH2]CH2 solid

Uses

Film wrap, plastic bags

Electrical insulation, bottles, toys e[CH2-CH Propylene Polypropylene Atactic: soft, Similar to (PP) different LDPE (CH3)]ne CH2] elastic solid grades Isotactic: hard, Carpet, CHCH3 upholstery strong solid Polystyrene (PS) e[CH2-CH Styrene Toys, cabinets, Hard, rigid, packaging (C6H5)]ne CH2] clear solid (foamed) soluble in CHC6H5 organic solvents cis-Polyisoprene - e[CH2-CH] Isoprene Soft, sticky Requires natural rubber CH2]CHC(CH3)solid vulcanization for practical CH2]ne C(CH3)] use CH2

Hydrocarbons (alkenes) are prevalent in the formation of addition polymers but do not usually participate in the formation of condensation polymers. The term polymer in popular usage suggests plastic but actually refers to a large class of natural and synthetic materials with a wide range of properties. A simple example is polyethylene (a polymer composed of a repeating ethylene unit) in which the range of properties varies depending upon the number of ethylene units that make up the polymer. It is produced by the addition polymerization of ethylene (CH2]CH2). The properties of polyethylene depend on the manner in which ethylene is polymerized. When catalyzed by organometallic compounds at moderate pressure (220– 450 psi), the product is high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Under these conditions, the polymer chains grow to very great length, and molecular weights of the order of many hundreds of thousands are recorded. Highdensity polyethylene is hard, tough, and resilient. Most high-density polyethylene is used in the manufacture of containers, such as milk bottles and laundry detergent jugs.

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When ethylene is polymerized at high pressure (15,000–30,000 psi), elevated temperatures (190–210 C, 380–410 F), and catalyzed by peroxides, the product is low-density polyethylene (LDPE). This form of polyethylene has molecular weights of the order of 20,000–40,000. Low-density polyethylene is relatively soft, and most of it is used in the production of plastic films, such as those used in sandwich bags. Polypropylene is produced by the addition polymerization of propylene (CH3CH]CH2). The molecular structure is similar to that of polyethylene, but has a methyl group (eCH3) on alternate carbon atoms of the chain. The molecular weight falls in the range 50,000–200,000. Polypropylene is slightly more brittle than polyethylene, but softens at a temperature of approximately 40 C (104 F). Polypropylene is used extensively in the automotive industry for interior trim, such as instrument panels, and in food packaging, such as yogurt containers. It is formed into fibers of very low absorbance and high stain resistance, and is used in clothing and home furnishings, especially carpeting. Briefly, and by way of explanation, a fiber is often a polymer with a length-to-diameter ratio of at least 100 (Browne and Work, 1983). Fibers (synthetic or natural) are polymers with high molecular symmetry and strong cohesive energies between chains that result usually from the presence of polar groups. Fibers possess a high degree of crystallinity characterized by the presence of stiffening groups in the polymer backbone, and of intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Also, they are characterized by the absence of branching or irregular space-dependent groups that will otherwise disrupt the crystalline formation. Fibers are normally linear and drawn in one direction to make them long, thin, and threadlike, with great strength along the fiber. These characteristics permit formation of this type of polymers into long fibers suitable for textile applications. Typical examples of fibers include polyesters, nylons, and acrylic polymers such as polyacrylonitrile, and naturally occurring polymers such as cotton, wool, and silk. Styrene (C6H5CH]CH2) polymerizes readily to form polystyrene, a hard, highly transparent polymer. The molecular structure is similar to that of polypropylene, but with the methyl groups of polypropylene replaced by phenyl (C6H5) groups. A large portion of production goes into packaging. The thin, rigid, transparent containers in which fresh foods, such as salads, are packaged are made from polystyrene. Polystyrene is readily foamed or formed into beads. These foams and beads are excellent thermal insulators and are used to produce home insulation and containers for hot foods. Styrofoam is a trade name for foamed polystyrene.

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When rubber is dissolved in styrene before it is polymerized, the polystyrene produced is much more impact-resistant. This type of polystyrene is used extensively in home appliances, such as the interior of refrigerators and air conditioner housing. Natural polymeric materials such as natural rubber have been in use for centuries and a variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood and paper. In spite of claims to the contrary, coal is not a polymer (Speight, 1994, 2005, 2008). Polypropylene is also a common polymer and is based on the propylene monomer but, in contrast to polyethylene, has a methyl group attached to the hydrocarbon backbone:

Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that was originally derived from latex, a milky colloidal suspension found in the sap of some plants. It is useful directly in this form but the invention of vulcanization in which natural rubber was heated with sulfur forming crosslinks between polymer chains (vulcanization) improved elasticity and durability. Elastomers are amorphous polymers that have the ability to stretch and then return to their original shape at temperatures above the glass transition temperature, which is important in applications such as gaskets and O-rings. At temperatures below the glass transition temperature elastomers become rigid glassy solids and lose all elasticity. Isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) is a common organic compound with the formula CH2]C(CH3)CH]CH2:

Isoprene is present under standard conditions as a colorless liquid and is the monomer of natural rubber as well as a precursor to an immense variety of other naturally occurring compounds. Natural rubber is a polymer of isoprene – most often cis-1,4-polyisoprene – with a molecular weight of 100,000–1,000,000. Typically, a few percent of other materials, such as proteins, fatty acids, resins, and inorganic

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materials, are found in high-quality natural rubber. Some natural rubber sources called gutta percha are composed of trans-1,4-poly-isoprene, a structural isomer that has similar, but not identical, properties. Synthetic rubber is any type of artificial elastomer, invariably a polymer. An elastomer is a material with the mechanical (or material) property that it can undergo much more elastic deformation under stress than most materials and still return to its previous size without permanent deformation. Synthetic rubber serves as a substitute for natural rubber in many cases, especially when improved material properties are required. Synthetic rubber can be made from the polymerization of a variety of monomers including isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene), 1,3-butadiene, and iso-butylene (methylpropene) with a small percentage of isoprene for cross-linking. These and other monomers can be mixed in various desirable proportions to be copolymerized for a wide range of physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. The monomers can be produced pure and the addition of impurities or additives can be controlled by design to give optimal properties. Polymerization of pure monomers can be better controlled to give a desired proportion of cis and trans double bonds.

3.1. Chain length The physical properties of a polymer are strongly dependent on the size or length of the polymer chain. For example, as chain length is increased, melting and boiling temperatures increase quickly. Impact resistance also tends to increase with chain length, as does the viscosity, or resistance to flow, of the polymer in its melt state. Chain length is related to melt viscosity in the approximate ratio of 1:10 – a tenfold increase in polymer chain length results in a viscosity increase of over 1,000 times. Increasing chain length furthermore tends to decrease chain mobility, increase strength and toughness, and increase the glass transition temperature (Tg). This is a result of the increase in chain interactions such as Van der Waals attractions and entanglements that come with increased chain length. These interactions tend to fix the individual chains more strongly in position and resist deformations and matrix breakup, both at higher stresses and higher temperatures.

3.2. Structure Polymer properties are broadly divided into several classes based on the scale at which the property is defined as well as upon its physical basis. The most

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basic property of a polymer is the identity of its constituent monomers. A second set of properties, known as microstructure, essentially describe the arrangement of these monomers within the polymer at the scale of a single chain. These basic structural properties play a major role in determining bulk physical properties of the polymer, which describe how the polymer behaves as a continuous macroscopic material. Chemical properties, at the nano-scale, describe how the chains interact through various physical forces. At the macro-scale, they describe how the bulk polymer interacts with other chemicals and solvents. The identity of the monomer units comprising a polymer is the first and most important attribute. Polymer nomenclature is generally based upon the type of monomer residues comprising the polymer. Polymers that contain only a single type of repeat unit are known as homopolymers (e.g., polystyrene):

The repeating structural unit of most simple polymers not only reflects the monomer(s) from which the polymers are constructed, but also provides a concise means for drawing structures to represent these macromolecules. For polyethylene, ethylene is the monomer, and the corresponding linear polymer is high-density polyethylene (HDPE). High-density polyethylene is composed of macromolecules in which n ranges from 10,000 to 100,000 (molecular weight 2  105 to 3  106):

If Y and Z represent moles of monomer and polymer respectively, Z is approximately 105 Y. The two open bonds remaining at the ends of the long chain of carbons are normally not specified, because the atoms or groups found there depend on the chemical process used for polymerization. Unlike simpler pure compounds, most polymers are not composed of identical molecules. The high-density polyethylene molecules, for example,

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are all long carbon chains, but the lengths may vary by thousands of monomer units. Because of this, polymer molecular weights are usually given as averages. Symmetrical monomers, such as ethylene, can join together in only one way. Mono-substituted monomers, on the other hand, may join together in two organized ways, described in the following diagram, or in a third random manner. Most monomers of this kind, including propylene and styrene, join in a head-to-tail fashion, with some randomness occurring from time to time:

If the polymer chain (above) is drawn in a plane of the paper (above) each of the substituent groups (Z) will necessarily be located above or below the plane defined by the carbon chain. Consequently, configurational isomers of such polymers can be identified. If all the substituents lie on one side of the chain the configuration is isotactic but if the substituents alternate from one side to another in a regular manner the configuration is syndiotactic. A random arrangement of substituent groups is referred to as atactic:

Many common hydrocarbon polymers, such as polystyrene, are atactic as normally prepared. Customized catalysts that effect stereo-regular polymerization of polypropylene and some other monomers have been developed, and the improved properties associated with the increased crystallinity of these products have made this an important field of investigation.

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The properties of a given polymer vary considerably with its stereoconfiguration. For example, atactic polypropylene is employed mainly as a component of adhesives or as a soft matrix for composite materials. In contrast, isotactic polypropylene is a high-melting solid (ca. 170 C) which can be molded or machined into structural components and used as a solid construction material.

3.3. Copolymers Polymers containing a mixture of different repeat units are known as copolymers (e.g., styrene–ethylene copolymer). The synthesis of macromolecules composed of more than one monomeric repeating unit has been explored as a means of controlling the properties of the resulting material. In this respect, it is useful to distinguish several ways in which different monomeric units might be incorporated in a polymeric molecule. The following examples refer to a two-component system (A and B). Also called random copolymers. Here the monomeric units are distributed randomly, and sometimes unevenly, in the polymer chain: ~ABBAAABAABBBABAABA~. Here the monomeric units are distributed in a regular alternating fashion, with nearly equimolar amounts of each in the chain: ~ABABABABABABABAB~. Instead of a mixed distribution of monomeric units, a long sequence or block of one monomer is joined to a block of the second monomer: ~AAAAA-BBBBBBB~AAAAAAA~BBB~. The side chains of a given monomer are attached to the main chain of the second monomer: ~AAAAAAA(BBBBBBB~)AAAAAAA(BBBB~)AAA~. Most direct copolymerization processes of equimolar mixtures of different monomers give statistical copolymers, or if one monomer is much more reactive a nearly homopolymer of that monomer. Radical polymerization gives a statistical copolymer. In cases where the relative reactivity is different, the copolymer composition can sometimes be controlled by continuous introduction of a biased mixture of monomers into the reaction. A growing number of commercial polymers are actually composed of different types of unit attached together by chemical covalent bonds (copolymers) and can comprise just two different units (binary copolymers) or three different units (ternary copolymers), and so on. This allows

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Figure 14.5 Variations in polymer structure. 1: Regular polymer. 2: Alternating copolymer. 3: Random copolymer. 4: Block copolymer. 5: Grafted copolymer

manipulation of the polymer properties to gain just the right combination of properties for a specific application. Monomers within a copolymer may be organized along the backbone in a variety of ways (Figure 14.5): (1) alternating copolymers possess regularly alternating monomer residues; (2) periodic copolymers have monomer residue types arranged in a repeating sequence; (3) random copolymers have monomer residues arranged in no particular order; (4) block copolymers have two or more homopolymer subunits linked by covalent bonds; (5) graft or grafted copolymers contain side chains that have a different composition or configuration than the main chain. Graft copolymers are a special type of branched copolymer in which the side chains are structurally distinct from the main chain (Figure 14.5). However, the individual chains of a graft copolymer may be homopolymers or copolymers. Block copolymers are made up of blocks of different monomers and can be in the form of a di-block copolymer, which contains two different chemical blocks; there are also tri-block copolymers, tetra-block copolymers, and multi-block copolymers. The most powerful strategy to prepare block copolymers is the chemo-selective stepwise coupling between polymeric precursors and heterofunctional linking agents. One of the best-known examples of property modification using a copolymer involves polystyrene. In the homopolymer form, polystyrene is a rigid (hence, brittle), transparent thermoplastic which finds little application for stressed applications in its original state. Polystyrene also shows a glass transition temperature (Tg) of approximately 97 C (approximately 206 F) and is not suitable for use in manufacturing containers to hold boiling water.

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The properties can be changed by copolymerizing styrene with acrylonitrile to produce a styrene–acrylonitrile (SAN) polymer, where the styrene and acrylonitrile units alternate along the backbone chain of the material:

The glass transition temperature of the styrene–acrylonitrile polymer is approximately 107 C (225 F), which is above the boiling point of water. Furthermore, if rubber (polybutadiene polymer) chains are grafted onto the main backbone polystyrene chain (to produce high-impact polystyrene, HIPS), the graft copolymer so formed is much tougher owing to molecular segregation of the rubber chains. This reduces the stiffness of the copolymer compared with the parent polystyrene and the bulk material is ductile and tough. The benefits of both a high glass transition temperature and toughness are achieved by use of an acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) terpolymer of the three component repeat units, which toughens the otherwise brittle product by adding rubber particles (rubber-toughening). In copolymers, the different repeat units added to the original polymer are always covalently bonded and are locked into the structure, so the

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composition is highly variable. As an example, if the amount of rubber component in a copolymer is increased, the properties change from those of a plastic to that of a reinforced rubber. In fact, copolymerization of butadiene and styrene was employed at a very early stage in the development of synthetic rubber during World War II after it was discovered that the stiffness of polybutadiene rubber could be improved by copolymerization of styrene (approximately 24% w/w) to give a random copolymer of the two units, known as styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR). In the 1960s there came the discovery that another way of putting the units together was possible and this involved an alternate route to using a mixture of monomers. The units were added sequentially and a block copolymer was the result, in which the properties are different to those of the random copolymer because each type of chain segregates together to form minute domains. Such materials retain thermoplastic behavior yet behave as cross-linked rubbers, and the styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) block copolymer was the first commercial thermoplastic elastomer (TPE).

3.4. Repeat unit placement The microstructure of a polymer (sometimes called configuration) relates to the physical arrangement of monomer residues along the backbone of the polymer. These are the elements of polymer structure that require the breaking of a covalent bond in order to change. Structure has a strong influence on the other properties of a polymer. For example, two samples of natural rubber may exhibit different durability, even though their molecules comprise the same monomers. An important micro structural feature determining polymer properties is the polymer architecture. The simplest polymer architecture is a linear chain: a single backbone with no branches. A related unbranching architecture is a ring polymer. A branched polymer molecule is composed of a main chain with one or more substituent side chains or branches. Branching of polymer chains affects the ability of chains to slide past one another by altering intermolecular forces, in turn affecting bulk physical polymer properties. Long-chain branches may increase polymer strength, toughness, and the glass transition temperature due to an increase in the number of entanglements per chain. The effect of such long-chain branches on the size of the polymer in solution is characterized by the branching index. On the other hand, random length and atactic short chains may reduce polymer strength due to disruption of organization and may likewise reduce the crystallinity of the polymer.

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Increased crystallinity is associated with an increase in rigidity, tensile strength, and opacity (due to light scattering). Amorphous polymers are usually less rigid, weaker and more easily deformed. They are often transparent. Three factors that influence the degree of crystallinity are: (1) chain length, (2) chain branching, and (3) inter-chain bonding. The importance of the first two factors is illustrated by the differences between low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene. Low-density polyethylene is composed of smaller and more highly branched chains which do not easily adopt crystalline structures. This material is therefore softer, weaker, less dense and more easily deformed than high-density polyethylene. Generally, mechanical properties such as ductility, tensile strength, and hardness rise and eventually level off with increasing chain length. On the other hand, high-density polyethylene is composed of very long unbranched hydrocarbon chains. These pack together easily in crystalline domains that alternate with amorphous segments, and the resulting material, while relatively strong and stiff, retains a degree of flexibility. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) has significant numbers of both long and short branches, is quite flexible, and is used in applications such as plastic films, whereas high-density polyethylene (HDPE) has a very low degree of branching, is quite stiff, and is used in applications such as milk jugs. In contrast, natural rubber is a completely amorphous polymer and the potentially useful properties of raw latex rubber are limited by temperature dependence; however, these properties can be modified by chemical change. The cis-double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain provide planar segments that stiffen, but do not straighten, the chain. If, these rigid segments are completely removed by hydrogenation the chains lose all constraints, and the product is a low melting paraffin-like semisolid of little value. If, instead, the chains of rubber molecules are slightly cross-linked by sulfur atoms (vulcanization – discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839) the desirable elastomeric properties of rubber are substantially improved. At 2–3% cross-linking a useful soft rubber is produced which no longer suffers stickiness and brittleness problems on heating and cooling. At 25–35% cross-linking a rigid hard rubber product is formed. Dendrimers are a special case of polymer where every monomer unit is branched. This tends to reduce intermolecular chain entanglement and crystallization. Alternatively, dendritic polymers are not perfectly branched but share similar properties to dendrimers due to their high degree of branching. The architecture of the polymer is often physically determined by the functionality of the monomers from which it is formed. This property of a monomer is defined as the number of reaction sites at which may form

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chemical covalent bonds. The basic functionality required for forming even a linear chain is two bonding sites. Higher functionality yields branched or even cross-linked or networked polymer chains. An effect related to branching is chemical cross-linking – the formation of covalent bonds between chains, which tends to increase strength and the glass transition temperature (Tg). Among other applications, this process is used to strengthen rubbers in a process known as vulcanization (crosslinking by sulfur). Car tires, for example, are highly cross-linked in order to reduce the leaking of air out of the tire and to toughen their durability. Eraser rubber, on the other hand, is not cross-linked to allow flaking of the rubber and prevent damage to the paper. A cross-link suggests a branch point from which four or more distinct chains emanate. A polymer molecule with a high degree of cross-linking is referred to as a polymer network. Sufficiently high cross-link concentrations may lead to the formation of an infinite network, also known as a gel, in which networks of chains are of unlimited extent – essentially all chains have linked into one molecule. In the saturated hydrocarbons it is not possible to form distinct isomers with just three or less carbon atoms linked together (Chapter 1). There is only one way in which one carbon and four hydrogen atoms can be linked together, the single compound being methane. A similar situation holds for ethane and propane but, with butane, two possible structures can be formed: n-butane, which has a linear structure, and iso-butane, where the central carbon atom is linked to three adjacent carbons rather than one. Their physical properties are slightly different, for example their boiling points differ by 10 C, but otherwise they are very similar compounds. The number of possible isomeric structures increase with carbon number: there are three isomers for pentane, five for hexane, nine for heptane. As the number of possible structures increases, their properties diverge: the boiling points of the heptanes range over 20 C and the melting points by no less than 110 C. The increase in isomeric structures is so rapid that, at C30, there are no less than 4,111,846,763 theoretically possible compounds. So with even the lowest-molecular-mass polyethylene, there is an almost infinite number of isomers. Fortunately, the situation is simplified enormously by the way polymerization occurs and in fact there are relatively few chemically distinct polyethylene polymers. The concept of a distinct molecular formula is redundant with most commercial polymers since chain lengths are very variable even within a single sample, but the idea of branching is important for polyethylene in particular.

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In addition, the formulas for 2- and 3-methyl pentane show that a single methyl group (CH3) can occur in two different positions along an essentially linear carbon–carbon chain. The methyl group is a very simple kind of branch along the chain, and it is easy to extend the idea to much larger molecules. Thus low-density polyethylene is a polymer based on a linear backbone chain with the repeat unit (CH2CH2), but is in addition branched with very long chains at infrequent points along the main chain (about 1 in 1,000). Branching is caused during polymerization at high pressure by growth sometimes starting from an initiation point in a chain rather than at the end. An alternative way of making polyethylene is at low pressure using a special catalyst, and this usually results in a linear chain without branching (high-density polyethylene). However, it is easy to polymerize a mixture of ethylene with a higher alkene such as hex-1-ene, so that the new units copolymerize together to form a chain where a certain proportion of the chains have tails or short branches along the linear sequence. This and similar copolymers are generally part of the polyethylene family, and are known as linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE). This kind of structural variation is important because it affects the properties of the polymers, as their names indicate. Thus branches along the chain hinder crystallization of the chains, resulting in a less dense and lower modulus material. Low-density polyethylene typically has a density of 0.92, while high-density polyethylene has a higher density of 0.96. A second type of isomerism occurs with diene monomers, and is present in both natural rubber and butadiene rubbers (BR) because the single double bond in the final polymer can exist in two ways: a cis form and a trans form. The two parts of the chain in which this single repeat unit sits lie on the opposite side of the double bond:

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A final type of isomeric variation occurs as a result of the three-dimensional structure of some polymers. It is possible because a four-valent atom like carbon can exist in two different forms when the subsidiary groups or atoms attached to the carbon are all different (asymmetric carbon atom). The carbon atom in a vinyl polymer to which is attached the pendant side group (i.e., every alternate carbon atom in the main chain) is another example of an asymmetric carbon atom, which gives rise to tacticity. The methyl groups in polypropylene, for example, can occur all on one side (isotactic), on alternate sides (syndiotactic) or placed at random (atactic). The properties of each type of polymer are quite different to one another, primarily because isotactic and syndiotactic polypropylene have ordered chains and so can crystallize, but atactic chains are quite irregular and cannot crystallize. Isotactic polypropylene is the common form of the commercial material, although atactic polypropylene is used as a binder for paper, for example. Another type of polymer structure relates to the addition of adding monomer units to a growing chain in reverse rather than in their normal position. Monomer molecules have a particular shape in space and will usually approach a growing chain end to minimize any spatial interaction, and a regular chain structure results from head-to-tail joints (structure a, below). A defective joint can sometimes occur, however, when heads combine to form a head-to-head joint (structure b, below):

Structure b has a high potential to change the properties of the polymer since it may induce weakness in the bonding. For example, the change on bonding may cause degradation (thermal or oxidative) at this point.

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3.5. Chemical properties The attractive forces between polymer chains play a large part in determining a polymer’s properties. Because polymer chains are so long, these inter-chain forces are amplified far beyond the attractions between conventional molecules. Different side groups on the polymer can lend the polymer to ionic bonding or hydrogen bonding between its own chains. These stronger forces typically result in higher tensile strength and higher crystalline melting points. The intermolecular forces in polymers can be affected by dipoles in the monomer units. Polymers containing non-hydrocarbon groups can form hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains, which can result in the high tensile strength and melting point of the polymers. Other non-hydrocarbon groups can have dipole–dipole bonding between the non-hydrocarbon functions. However, dipole bonding is not as strong as hydrogen bonding and the melting points of such polymers will be lower than hydrogen-bonded polymers but the dipole-bonded polymers will have greater flexibility. In a true hydrocarbon polymer, such as polyethylene, the salutation is different. Ethylene has no permanent dipole. The attractive forces between polyethylene chains arise from weak van der Waals forces. Molecules are often pictured (rightly or wrongly) as being surrounded by a cloud of negative electrons. As two polymer chains approach, their electron clouds repel one another. This has the effect of lowering the electron density on one side of a polymer chain, creating a slight positive dipole on this side. This charge is enough to attract the second polymer chain. However, since Van der Waals forces are weak, polyethylene can have a lower melting temperature compared to other polymers.

3.6. Polymer degradation Polymer degradation is a change in the properties of the polymer – such as tensile strength, color, shape, molecular weight – or of a polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental factors, such as heat, light, chemicals, or any other applied force. Degradation is often due to a change in the chemical and/or physical structure of the polymer chain, which in turn leads to a decrease in the molecular weight of the polymer. These changes may be undesirable, such as changes during use, or desirable, as in biodegradation or deliberately lowering the molecular weight of a polymer. Such changes occur primarily because of the effect of these factors on the chemical composition of the polymer.

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The susceptibility of a polymer to degradation depends on its structure. Epoxies and chains containing aromatic functionality are especially susceptible to ultraviolet degradation while hydrocarbon-based polymers are susceptible to thermal degradation and are often not ideal for high-temperature applications. The degradation of polymers to form smaller molecules may proceed by random scission or specific scission. The degradation of polyethylene occurs by random scission – a random breakage of the bonds within the polymer. When heated above 450 C (840 F), polyethylene degrades to form a mixture of hydrocarbons. Other hydrocarbon polymers, such as poly-a-methylstyrene, undergo specific chain scission with breakage occurring only at the ends and such polymers depolymerize (unzip) to produce the constituent monomer. While the degradation process represents failure of the polymer to perform in service, the process can be useful from the viewpoints of understanding the structure of a polymer or recycling/reusing the polymer waste to prevent or reduce environmental pollution. The sorting of polymer waste for recycling purposes may be facilitated by the knowledge of the degradation process and assist in recycling.

3.7. Phase separation Block copolymers can microphase separate to form periodic nanostructures, as in the styrene–butadiene–styrene block copolymer. Due to incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo separation but, because the chemical blocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot separate macroscopically. In microphase separation the blocks form nanometer-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block, several morphologies can be obtained. In di-block copolymers, sufficiently different block lengths lead to nanometer-sized spheres of one block in a matrix of the second. Using less different block lengths, a hexagonally packed cylinder geometry can be obtained. Blocks of similar length form layers (lamellae) and between the cylindrical and lamellar phase is the gyroid phase.

3.8. Glass transition temperature The two most important transitions exhibited by polymers are (1) the glass transition temperature, Tg, and (2) the crystalline melting temperature, Tm. The glass transition temperature (vitrification temperature) is the temperature at which a liquid transforms into a glass, which usually occurs upon rapid cooling. It is a dynamic phenomenon occurring between two distinct states

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of matter (liquid and glass), each with different physical properties. Upon cooling through the temperature range of glass transition (glass transformation range), without forming any long-range order or significant symmetry of atomic arrangement, the liquid contracts more continuously at about the same rate as above the melting point until there is a decrease in the thermal expansion coefficient (TEC). The crystalline melting temperature, which is related to the glass transition temperature, is the temperature at which the crystalline domains lose their structure, or melt. As crystallinity increases, so does the crystalline melting temperature. The glass transition temperature often depends on the history of the sample, particularly previous heat treatment, mechanical manipulation, and annealing. It is sometimes interpreted as the temperature above which significant portions of polymer chains are able to slide past each other in response to an applied force. The introduction of relatively large and stiff substituents (such as benzene rings) will interfere with this chain movement, thus increasing the glass transition temperature. The introduction of lowmolecular-weight molecular compounds (plasticizers) into the polymer matrix increases the inter-chain spacing, allowing chain movement at lower temperatures, with a resulting decrease in the glass transition temperature. Many glass transition temperatures (Table 14.2) are mean values because the glass transition temperature depends on the cooling rate, molecular weight distribution and could be influenced by additives. Note also that for a semi-crystalline material, such as polyethylene that is 60–80% crystalline at room temperature, the quoted glass transition refers to what happens to the amorphous part of the material upon cooling. The glass transition temperature, Tg, is lower than melting temperature, Tm, due to supercooling and depends on the time scale of observation Table 14.2 Glass transition temperatures of various polymers Material Tg ( C)

Tire rubber Polypropylene (atactic) Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Polystyrene Polypropylene (isotactic) Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) Polymethylmethacrylate (atactic)

70 20 30 70 85 80 95 0 15 105

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which must be defined by convention. One approach is to agree on a standard cooling rate of 10 K/min. Another approach is by requiring a viscosity of 1013 poises. Otherwise, it is more correct to present or discuss a glass transformation range since the base point has not been standardized.

3.9. Molecular weight A common means of expressing the length of a chain is the degree of polymerization, which defines or quantifies the number of monomers incorporated into the chain and therefore gives an indication of the molecular weight of the polymer. Since synthetic polymerization techniques typically yield a polymer product including a range of molecular weights, the weight is often expressed statistically to describe the distribution of chain lengths present in the same. Common examples are the number average molecular weight (Mn) and the weight average molecular weight (Mw). The ratio of these two values is the polydispersity index, which is commonly used to express the extent of the molecular weight distribution. A final measurement is the contour length, which can be understood as the length of the chain backbone in its fully extended state. The molecular weights of polymers are among the most difficult measurements to make and the reliability of the data may also be questioned. Two experimentally determined values are common: (1) Mn, the number average molecular weight, which is calculated from the mole fraction distribution of different-sized molecules in a sample, and (2) Mw, the weight average molecular weight, which is calculated from the weight fraction distribution of different-sized molecules. Since larger molecules in a sample weigh more than smaller molecules, the weight average Mw is necessarily skewed to higher values, and is always greater than Mn. As the weight dispersion of molecules in a sample narrows, Mw approaches Mn, and in the unlikely case that all the polymer molecules have identical weights (a pure mono-disperse sample), the ratio Mw/Mn becomes unity:

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4. PLASTICS Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic organic (usually solid) materials produced and used in the manufacture of industrial products ( Jones and Simon, 1983; Austin, 1984; Lokensgard, 2010). Plastics are the polymeric materials with properties in chemical structure; the demarcation between fibers and plastics may sometimes be blurred. Polymers such as polypropylene and polyamides can be used as fibers and plastics by a proper choice of processing conditions. Plastics can be extruded as sheets or pipes, painted on surfaces, or molded to form countless objects. A typical commercial plastic resin may contain two or more polymers in addition to various additives and fillers. Additives and fillers are used to improve some property such as the processability, thermal or environmental stability, and mechanical properties of the final product. A plastic is also any organic material with the ability to flow into a desired shape when heat and pressure are applied to it and to retain the shape when they are withdrawn. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular weight, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce costs. The first man-made plastic was created by Alexander Parkes who publicly demonstrated it at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London. The material called Parkesine was an organic material derived from cellulose that once heated could be molded, and retained its shape when cooled. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, which is applied to any material which undergoes a permanent change of shape (plastic deformation) when strained beyond a certain point. A plastic is a type of polymer – all plastics are polymers but not all polymers are plastics. Polymers can be fibers, elastomers, or adhesives, and plastics are a wide group of solid composite materials that are largely organic, usually based on synthetic resins or modified polymers of natural origin, and possess appreciable mechanical strength. A plastic exhibits plasticity and the ability to be deformed or undergo change of shape under pressure, temperature, or both. At a suitable stage in their manufacture, plastics can be cast, molded, or polymerized directly. Resins are basic building materials that constitute the greater bulk of plastics. Resins undergo polymerization reactions during the development of plastics. Plastics are formed when polymers are blended with specific external materials in a process known as compounding. The important

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compounding ingredients include plasticizers, stabilizers, chelating agents, and antioxidants. Hydrocarbon plastics are plastics based on resins made by the polymerization of monomers composed of carbon and hydrogen only. A plastic is made up principally of a binder together with plasticizers, fillers, pigments, and other additives. The binder gives a plastic its main characteristics and usually its name. Binders may be natural materials, e.g., cellulose derivatives, casein, or milk protein, but are more commonly synthetic resins. In either case, the binder materials consist of polymers. Cellulose derivatives are made from cellulose, a naturally occurring polymer; casein is also a naturally occurring polymer. Synthetic resins are polymerized, or built up, from small simple molecules called monomers. Plasticizers are added to a binder to increase flexibility and toughness. Fillers are added to improve particular properties, e.g., hardness or resistance to shock. Pigments are used to impart various colors. Virtually any desired color or shape and many combinations of the properties of hardness, durability, elasticity, and resistance to heat, cold, and acid can be obtained in a plastic. Plastic deformation is observed in most materials including metals, soils, rocks, concrete, and plastics. However, the physical mechanisms that cause plastic deformation can vary widely. At the crystal scale, plasticity in metals is usually a consequence of dislocations and, although in most crystalline materials such defects are relatively rare, are also materials where defects are numerous and are part of the very crystal structure. In such cases plastic crystallinity can result. In brittle materials, plasticity is caused predominantly by slippage at micro-cracks. Plastics are so durable that they will not rot or decay as do natural products such as those made of wood. As a result great amounts of discarded plastic products accumulate in the environment as waste. It has been suggested that plastics could be made to decompose slowly when exposed to sunlight by adding certain chemicals to them. Plastics present the additional problem of being difficult to burn. When placed in an incinerator, they tend to melt quickly and flow downward, clogging the incinerator’s grate; they also emit harmful fumes.

4.1. Classification There are two types of plastics: thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics will soften and melt if enough heat is applied; examples among the truly hydrocarbon polymers are polyethylene and polystyrene.

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Thermosetting polymers can melt and take shape once; after they have solidified, they remain solid. Thermoset plastics harden during the molding process and do not soften after solidifying. During molding, these resins acquire three-dimensional cross-linked structure with predominantly strong covalent bonds that retain their strength and structure even on heating. However, on prolonged heating, thermoset plastics get charred. In the softened state, these resins harden quickly with pressure assisting the curing process. Thermoset plastics are usually harder, stronger, and more brittle than thermoplastics and cannot be reclaimed from wastes. These resins are insoluble in almost all inorganic solvents. Thermoplastics, when compounded with appropriate ingredients, can usually withstand several heating and cooling cycles without suffering any structural breakdown. Examples of commercial thermoplastics are polystyrene, polyolefins (e.g., polyethylene and polypropylene), nylon, poly (vinyl chloride), and poly(ethylene terephthalate). Thermoplastics are used for a wide range of applications, such as film for packaging, photographic, and magnetic tape, beverage and trash containers, and a variety of automotive parts and upholstery. Advantageously, waste thermoplastics can be recovered and refabricated by application of heat and pressure. Thermosets are polymers whose individual chains have been chemically linked by covalent bonds during polymerization or by subsequent chemical or thermal treatment during fabrication. The thermosets usually exist initially as liquids called pre-polymers; they can be shaped into desired forms by the application of heat and pressure. Once formed, these crosslinked networks resist heat softening, creep and solvent attack, and cannot be thermally processed or recycled. Such properties make thermosets suitable materials for composites, coatings, and adhesive applications. Principal examples of thermosets include epoxies, phenol–formaldehyde resins, and unsaturated polyesters. Vulcanized rubber used in the tire industry is also an example of thermosetting polymers. Thermosetting polymers are usually insoluble because the cross-linking causes a tremendous increase in molecular weight. At most, thermosetting polymers only swell in the presence of solvents, as solvent molecules penetrate the network. The designation of a material as thermoplastic reflects the fact that above the glass transition temperature the material may be shaped or pressed into molds, spun or cast from melts, or dissolved in suitable solvents for later fashioning.

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The polymers that are characterized by a high degree of cross-linking resist deformation and solution once their final morphology is achieved. Such polymers (thermosets) are usually prepared in molds that yield the desired object and these polymers, once formed, cannot be reshaped by heating. Plastics can be classified by chemical structure, namely the molecular units (the monomers) that make up the polymer’s backbone and side chains. Plastics can also be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation, poly-addition, and cross-linking. Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design and include classes such as: the thermoplastic and thermoset, elastomers, structural, conductive, and biodegradable. Plastics can also be classified by various physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, glass transition temperature, and resistance to various chemical products. The use of plastics is constrained chiefly by their organic chemistry, which seriously limits their hardness, density, and their ability to resist heat, organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt or decompose when heated above 200 C (390 F).

4.2. Chemical structure Common thermoplastics range in molecular weight from 20,000 to 500,000, while thermosets have higher, almost indefinable molecular weights. The molecular chains are made up of many repeating monomer units and each plastic will have several thousand repeating units. In the current context, the plastics are composed of polymers of hydrocarbon units with hydrocarbon moieties attached to the hydrocarbon backbone, which is that part of the chain in which a large number of repeat units are linked together. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups are attached to the backbone. This fine tuning of the properties of the polymer by repeating unit’s molecular structure has allowed plastics to become such an indispensable part of the twenty-firstcentury world. Some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (temperatures above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). The so-called semi-crystalline hydrocarbon plastics include polyethylene and polypropylene. Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as polystyrene and its copolymers, and all thermosets.

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4.3. Properties A thermoplastic (thermo-softening plastic) is a polymer that turns to a liquid when heated and freezes to a very glassy state when cooled sufficiently. Most hydrocarbon-based thermoplastics are high-molecular-weight polymers whose chains associate through weak van der Waals forces (polyethylene) or even stacking of aromatic rings (polystyrene). Thermoplastic polymers differ from thermosetting polymers since they can, unlike thermosetting polymers, be re-melted and re-molded. Many thermoplastic materials are additional polymers which result from vinyl chain-growth polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene. 4.3.1. Mechanical properties Plastics have the characteristics of a viscous liquid and a spring-like elastomer, traits known as viscoelasticity. These characteristics are responsible for many of the characteristic material properties displayed by plastics. Under mild loading conditions, such as short-term loading with low deflection and small loads at room temperature, plastics usually react like springs, returning to their original shape after the load is removed. Under long-term heavy loads or elevated temperatures many plastics deform and flow similar to high viscous liquids, although still solid. Creep is the deformation that occurs over time when a material is subjected to constant stress at constant temperature. This is the result of the viscoelastic behavior of plastics. Stress relaxation is another viscoelastic phenomenon. It is defined as a gradual decrease in stress at constant temperature. Recovery is the degree to which a plastic returns to its original shape after a load is removed. Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of any volume to the weight of an equal volume of some other substance taken as the standard at a stated temperature. For plastics, the standard is water. Water absorption is the ratio of the weight of water absorbed by a material to the weight of the dry material. Many plastics are hygroscopic, meaning that over time they absorb water. Tensile strength at break is a measure of the stress required to deform a material prior to breakage. It is calculated by dividing the maximum load applied to the material before its breaking point by the original crosssectional area of the test piece. Tensile modulus (modulus of elasticity) is the slope of the line that represents the elastic portion of the stress–strain graph.

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Elongation at break is the increase in the length of a tension specimen, usually expressed as a percentage of the original length of the specimen. Compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress a material is capable of sustaining. For materials that do not fail by a shattering fracture, the value depends on the maximum allowed distortion. Flexural strength is the strength of a material in bending expressed as the tensile stress of the outermost fibers of a bent test sample at the instant of failure. Flexural modulus is the ratio, within the elastic limit, of stress to the corresponding strain. Izod impact is one of the most common ASTM tests for testing the impact strength of plastic materials. It gives data to compare the relative ability of materials to resist brittle fracture as the service temperature decreases. The coefficient of thermal expansion is the change in unit length or volume resulting from a unit change in temperature. Commonly used unit is 10–6 cm/cm/ C. Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat, a physical constant for the quantity of heat that passes through a unit cube of a material in a unit of time when the difference in temperature of two faces is 1 C. The limiting oxygen index is a measure of the minimum oxygen level required to support combustion of the polymer. 4.3.2. Chemical properties Many applications require that plastics retain critical properties, such as strength, toughness, or appearance, during and after exposure to natural environmental conditions. Furthermore, the rapid growth of the use of plastics in major appliances has forced an examination of how best to manage this material once these products have reached the end of service. Integrated resource management requires that alternatives be developed to best utilize the material value of this post-consumer plastic. Since the value of recovered materials will be determined by composition, the value over time changes as the composition of refrigerators changes. Any recycling process developed for plastics recovered should not only accommodate materials used 15–20 years ago, but also be adaptable for the effective reclamation of the recovery of plastics. Some of the environmental effects that may damage plastic materials are as follows: Corrosion of metallic materials takes place via an electrochemical reaction at a specific corrosion rate. However, plastics do not have such specific rates.

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They are usually completely resistant to a specific corrodent or they deteriorate rapidly. Polymers are attacked either by chemical reaction or solvation. Solvation is the penetration of the polymer by a corrodent, which causes softening, swelling, and ultimate failure. Corrosion of plastics can be classified in the following ways as to attack mechanism: 1. Disintegration or degradation of a physical nature due to absorption, permeation, solvent action, or other factors. 2. Oxidation, where chemical bonds are attacked. 3. Hydrolysis, where ester linkages are attacked. 4. Radiation. 5. Thermal degradation involving depolymerization and possibly repolymerization. 6. Dehydration (less common). The absorption of UV light, mainly from sunlight, degrades polymers in two ways. First, the UV light adds thermal energy to the polymer as in heating, causing thermal degradation. Second, the UV light excites the electrons in the covalent bonds of the polymer and weakens the bonds. Hence the plastic becomes more brittle. Some plastics that are originated from natural products, or plastics that have natural products mixed with them, are potentially susceptible to degradation by microorganisms. This is not a desired property in the use stage of the plastic product. However, at the end of their life cycle, disposal of plastics becomes an important issue. Oxidation is a degradation phenomenon when the electrons in a polymeric bond are so strongly attracted to another atom or molecule (here, oxygen) outside the bond that the polymer bond breaks. The results of oxidation are loss of mechanical and physical properties, embrittlement, and discoloration. Environmental stress cracking occurs when the plastic is exposed to hostile environmental conditions and mechanical stresses at the same time. It is different from polymer degradation because stress cracking does not break polymer bonds. Instead, it breaks the secondary linkages between polymers. These are broken when the mechanical stresses cause minute cracks in the polymer and they propagate rapidly under harsh environmental conditions. Nevertheless, the plastic material would not fail that fast if exposed to either the damaging environment or the mechanical stresses separately. Crazing: in some cases, an environmental chemical embrittles the plastic material even when there is no mechanical stress applied. Cracks may also

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appear when the plastic part is stressed (usually in tension) with no apparent environmental solvent present. These phenomena are called crazing and differ from environmental stress cracking in both the direction of the cracks and the extent of the cracking. The crack direction in environmental stress cracking is in the direction of molecular orientation in the part, while in crazing the cracks are much more numerous in a small area but are much shorter than environmental stress cracks. Permeation is molecular migration through micro-voids either in the polymer or between polymer molecules. Permeability is a measure of how easily gases or liquids can pass through a material. All materials are somewhat permeable to chemical molecules, but plastic materials tend to be an order of magnitude greater in their permeability than metals. However, not all polymers have the same rate of permeation. In fact, some polymers are not affected by permeation. 4.3.3. Electrical properties Resistivity of a material is the resistance that a material presents to the flow of electrical charge. Dielectric strength is the voltage that an insulating material can withstand before breakdown occurs. It usually depends on the thickness of the material and on the method and conditions of the test. Arc resistance is the property that measures the ease of formation of a conductive path along the surface of a material, rather than through the thickness of the material as is done with dielectric strength. Dielectric constant or permittivity is a measure of how well the insulating material will act as a dielectric capacitor. This constant is defined as the capacitance of the material in question compared (by ratio) with the capacitance of a vacuum. A high dielectric constant indicates that the material is highly insulating. Dissipation factor of a material measures the tendency of the material to dissipate internally generated thermal energy (i.e., heat) resulting from an applied alternating electric field. 4.3.4. Optical properties Light transmission. Plastics differ greatly in their ability to transmit light. The materials that allow light to pass through them are called transparent. Many plastics do not allow any light to pass through. These are called opaque materials. Some plastic materials have light transmission properties between transparent and opaque. These are called translucent.

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Surface reflectance. The reflection of light off the surface of a plastic part determines the amount of gloss on the surface. The reflectance is dependent upon a property of materials called the index of refraction, which is a measure of the change in direction of an incident ray of light as it passes through a surface boundary. If the index of refraction of the plastic is near the index of air, light will pass through the boundary without significant change in direction. If the index of refraction between the air and the plastic is large, the ray of light will significantly change direction, causing some of the light to be reflected back toward its source.

4.4. Thermoplastics Plastics are available in the form of bars, tubes, sheets, coils, and blocks, and these can be fabricated to specification. However, plastic articles are commonly manufactured from plastic powders in which desired shapes are fashioned by compression, transfer, injection, or extrusion molding. In compression molding, materials are generally placed immediately in mold cavities, where the application of heat and pressure makes them first plastic, then hard. The transfer method, in which the compound is plasticized by outside heating and then poured into a mold to harden, is used for designs with intricate shapes and great variations in wall thickness. Injectionmolding machinery dissolves the plastic powder in a heating chamber and by plunger action forces it into cold molds, where the product sets. The operations take place at rigidly controlled temperatures and intervals. Extrusion molding employs a heating cylinder, pressure, and an extrusion die through which the molten plastic is sent and from which it exits in continuous form to be cut in lengths or coiled. Thermoplastics are elastic and flexible above a glass transition temperature (Tg) which is specific to each plastic. Below a second, higher melting temperature, Tm, most thermoplastics have crystalline regions alternating with amorphous regions in which the chains approximate random coils. The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity. Above Tm all crystalline structure disappears and the chains become randomly interdispersed. As the temperature increases above Tm, the viscosity gradually decreases without any distinct phase change. Some thermoplastics normally do not crystallize: they are termed amorphous plastics and are useful at temperatures below the glass transition temperature. Generally, amorphous thermoplastics are less chemically resistant and can be subject to stress cracking. Thermoplastics will crystallize

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to a certain extent and are called semi-crystalline. The speed and extent to which crystallization can occur depends in part on the flexibility of the polymer chain. Semi-crystalline thermoplastics are more resistant to solvents and other chemicals. If the crystallites are larger than the wavelength of light, the thermoplastic is hazy or opaque. Semi-crystalline thermoplastics become less brittle above the glass transition temperature. If a plastic with otherwise desirable properties has too high a glass transition temperature, it can often be lowered by adding a low-molecular-weight plasticizer to the melt before forming and cooling. A similar result can sometimes be achieved by adding non-reactive side chains to the monomers before polymerization. Both methods make the polymer chains stand off a bit from one another. Another method of lowering the glass transition temperature (or raising the melting temperature) is to incorporate the original plastic into a copolymer (as with graft copolymers) of polystyrene. Lowering the glass transition temperature is not the only way to reduce brittleness. Drawing (and similar processes that stretch or orient the molecules) or increasing the length of the polymer chains also decreases brittleness. Thermoplastics can go through melting/freezing cycles repeatedly and the fact that they can be reshaped upon reheating gives them their name. This quality makes thermoplastics recyclable. The processes required for recycling vary with the thermoplastic. Although modestly vulcanized natural and synthetic rubbers are stretchy, they are elastomeric thermosets, not thermoplastics. Each has its own glass transition temperature and will crack and shatter when cold enough, so that the cross-linked polymer chains can no longer move relative to one another. But they have no melting temperature and will decompose at high temperatures rather than melt.

4.5. Hydrocarbon fibers Fibers fall into a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. Fiber classification in reinforced plastics falls into two classes: (1) short fibers, also known as discontinuous fibers, with a general aspect ratio (defined as the ratio of fiber length to diameter) between 20 and 60, and (2) long fibers; also known as continuous fibers; the general aspect ratio is between 200 and 500. Polyethylene fiber properties depend markedly on the crystallinity or density of the polymer; although high-strength fibers can be made from

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linear polyethylene, resiliency properties are poor, tensile properties are highly time-dependent, and endurance under sustained loading is very poor. On the other hand, polypropylene fibers have good stress-endurance properties, excellent recovery from high extensions, and fair-to-good recovery properties at low strains; recovery at low strains is shown to depend on the extent of fiber orientation and annealing. Anomalies in the change of the sonic modulus of polypropylene yarns during extension and relaxation are noted and interpreted in terms of structure changes in the crystalline phase. The high melting temperature of 235 C (455 F) for poly(4-methyl-1-pentene) appears to be due to its low entropy of melting, and fibers from this polymer are characterized by low tenacity when tested at elevated temperatures. Crystalline polystyrene fibers have relatively good retention of tenacity at elevated temperatures and are characterized by excellent resiliency at low strains, good wash-wear characteristics in cotton blends, and low abrasion resistance.

REFERENCES Ali, M.F., El Ali, B.M., Speight, J.G., 2005. Handbook of Industrial Chemistry: Organic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill, New York. Austin, G.T., 1984. Shreve’s Chemical Process Industries, fifth ed. McGraw-Hill, New York (Chapters 34, 35, and 36). Braun, D., Cherdron, H., Ritter, H., 2001. Polymer Synthesis Theory and Practice: Fundamentals, Methods, Experiments. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. Browne, C.L., Work, R.W., 1983. Man-Made Textile Fibers. In: Kent, J.A. (Ed.), Riegel’s Handbook of Industrial Chemistry, eighth ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (Chapter 11). Carraher Jr., C.E., 2003. Polymer Chemistry, sixth ed. Revised and Expanded. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. Jones, R.W., Simon, R.H.M., 1983. Synthetic Plastics. In: Kent, J.A. (Ed.), Riegel’s Handbook of Industrial Chemistry, eighth ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (Chapter 10). Lokensgard, E., 2010. Industrial Plastics: Theory and Applications. Delmar Cengage Learning, Clifton Park, New York. Odian, G., 2004. Principles of Polymerization, fourth ed. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. Rudin, A., 1999. The Elements of Polymer Science and Engineering, second ed. Academic Press Inc., New York. Schroeder, E.E., 1983. Rubber In: Kent, J.A. (Ed.), Riegel’s Handbook of Industrial Chemistry, eighth ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (Chapter 9). Speight, J.G., 1994. The Chemistry and Technology of Coal, second ed. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York.

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Speight, J.G., 2005. Handbook of Coal Analysis. John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Speight, J.G., 2007. The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, fourth ed. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, Florida. Speight, J.G., 2008. Synthetic Fuels Handbook: Properties, Processes, and Performance. McGraw-Hill, New York.