Removal of fluoride and hydrated silica from underground water by electrocoagulation in a flow channel reactor

Removal of fluoride and hydrated silica from underground water by electrocoagulation in a flow channel reactor

Journal Pre-proof Removal of fluoride and hydrated silica from underground water by electrocoagulation in a flow channel reactor Locksley F. Castañeda...

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Journal Pre-proof Removal of fluoride and hydrated silica from underground water by electrocoagulation in a flow channel reactor Locksley F. Castañeda, Oscar Coreño, José L. Nava, Gilberto Carreño PII:

S0045-6535(19)32657-8

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125417

Reference:

CHEM 125417

To appear in:

ECSN

Received Date: 2 August 2019 Revised Date:

9 November 2019

Accepted Date: 18 November 2019

Please cite this article as: Castañeda, L.F., Coreño, O., Nava, José.L., Carreño, G., Removal of fluoride and hydrated silica from underground water by electrocoagulation in a flow channel reactor, Chemosphere (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125417. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1

Removal of fluoride and hydrated silica from underground water by

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electrocoagulation in a flow channel reactor

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Locksley F. Castañedaa, Oscar Coreñob, José L. Navaa,*, Gilberto Carreñoa

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a

Departamento de Ingeniería Geomática e Hidráulica, Universidad de Guanajuato, Av.

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Juárez 77, Centro, 36000, Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico. E-mail: [email protected];

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[email protected]; [email protected]

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b

Departamento de Ingeniería Civil, Universidad de Guanajuato, Av. Juárez 77, Centro, 36000, Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico. E-mail: [email protected]

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

*Corresponding

author: [email protected]

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Tel: + 52-473-1020100 ext. 2289; fax: + 52-473-1020100 ext. 2209

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1

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 25

Abstract

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This paper concerns simultaneous removal of fluoride and hydrated silica from

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groundwater (4.08 mg L-1 fluoride, 90 mg L-1 hydrated silica, 50 mg L-1 sulfate, 0.23 mg L-

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1

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up-flow EC reactor, with a six-cell stack in a serpentine array, opened at the top of the cell

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to favor gas release. Aluminum plates were used as sacrificial electrodes. The effect of

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current density (4 ≤ j ≤ 7 mA cm-2) and mean linear flow rate (1.2 ≤ u ≤ 4.8 cm s-1), applied

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to the EC reactor, on the elimination of fluoride and hydrated silica was analyzed. The

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removal of fluoride followed the WHO guideline (< 1.5 mg L-1), while the hydrated silica

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was abated at 7 mA cm-2 and 1.2 cm s-1, with energy consumption of 2.48 kWh m-3 and an

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overall operational cost of 0.441 USD m-3. Spectroscopic analyses of the flocs by XRD,

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XRF-EDS, SEM-EDS, and FTIR indicated that hydrated silica reacted with the coagulant

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forming aluminosilicates, and fluoride replaced a hydroxide from aluminum aggregates,

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while sulfates and phosphates were removed by adsorption process onto the flocs. The

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well-engineered EC reactor allowed the simultaneous removal of fluoride and hydrated

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silica.

phosphate, pH 7.38 and 450 µS cm-1conductivity) by electrocoagulation (EC), using an

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Keywords: Hydrated silica removal; Electrocoagulation; Aluminum electrodes; Fluoride

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removal; Groundwater.

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Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 49 50

1. Introduction

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Groundwater is an important source of water supply for human consumption, which in arid

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and semiarid regions worldwide is contaminated by inorganic salts, metalloids, and metals,

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among other pollutants. Mexico is not the exception and in different areas, it is common to

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find groundwater contaminated mainly with fluoride and hydrated silica, whose

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concentrations range between 1-9.5 mg L-1, and 50-132 mg L-1, respectively (Guzmán et

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al., 2016; Rosales et al., 2018; Sandoval et al., 2014). Other ions such as phosphates and

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sulfates are also found in groundwater. The contamination of groundwater by fluorides and

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hydrated silica occurs mainly from the dissolution of minerals in contact with water

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(Battula et al., 2014; Behbahani et al., 2011; Emamjomeh et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2007).

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Both Mexican standard and international regulations, such as the World Health

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Organization (WHO), indicate that the maximum allowable fluoride concentration in water

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for human consumption must be <1.5 mg L-1. While at low concentrations fluoride is

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beneficial in helping to combat tooth decay (Emamjomeh et al., 2009a; Essadki et al.,

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2009), at concentrations > 4 mg L-1 it can cause severe harm to human health, such as

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thyroid disorder, neurological damage, mottled teeth, skeletal and dental fluorosis,

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osteoporosis and diseases in the kidneys, lungs, liver, muscles, and nerves, among others

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(Camargo, 2003; Emamjomeh et al., 2011; Gosh et al., 2008; Hu et al., 2003; Maleki et al.,

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2015).

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Regarding hydrated silica, there is currently no official standard that establishes the

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maximum permissible concentrations in water for human consumption. However, it is 3

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 73

known that prolonged exposure to these crystals can cause damage to human health, mainly

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in the lungs, generating diseases such as tuberculosis, silicosis, bronchitis, and cancer

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(Merget et al., 2002; Rosales et al., 2018; Sakar and Paul, 2016; Sariñana-Ruiz et al., 2017).

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In addition to the above, hydrated silica can also seriously affect pipelines and certain unit

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operations of industries that use this kind of water in their processes, permeating the walls

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of equipment and causing failures (Gelover et al., 2012; Rosales et al., 2018).

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One of the most used processes for fluoride removal from water is the precipitation-

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flocculation by aluminum and calcium salts (Singh et al., 2016). This process produces too

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much sludge because the counter-ion of the above-mentioned salts consumes coagulant

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(Singh et al., 2013). Other processes such as adsorption (Gosh et al., 2008; Zhao et al.,

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2011), chemical precipitation (He and Cao, 1996), and membrane process (Hu and

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Dickson, 2006; Tor, 2007) have been used to remove fluorides from water as well.

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In terms of electrochemical processes, electrocoagulation (EC) is a very efficient process

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that destabilizes anions and dispersed fine particles from contaminated water by electrolysis

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(Emamjomeh et al., 2009b). The EC technology allows the possibility of automating the

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process, while the installation of the treatment is compact, does not need the addition of

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chemicals, and the generation of sludge is minimal (Hu et al. 2007; Essadki et al., 2009;

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Emamjomeh et al., 2009b), It can even be used together with other electrochemical

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processes (Medel et al., 2019; Tirado et al., 2018).

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Some reported works indicate the use of aluminum electrodes as sacrificial anodes in the

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EC process to remove fluoride from contaminated water (Sandoval et al. 2014), using 4

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 98

parallel plate electrodes fitted in continuous flow reactors. These flow cell reactors, at lab-

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scale, can be easily scalable at pilot plants (Castañeda and Nava, 2019).

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The EC process involves the generation of coagulants in situ by electrodissolution of

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aluminum sacrificial anodes, Eq. 1, while in the bulk of the solution, at neutral pH, the

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formation of aluminum salts takes place, Eqs. 2, 3. At the cathode, the evolution of

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hydrogen gas bubbles occurs, Eq. 4.

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Al() → Al + 3e

(1)

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  + 3  →  ( )() + 3 

(2)

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2   + 3  →   + 6 

(3)

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3H O + 3e → 1.5H + 3OH

(4)

110 111

According to the literature, the removal of fluoride occurs via co-precipitation of fluoro-

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aluminum complexes and a chemical substitution reaction between a fluoride ion and a

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hydroxide from aluminum flocs (Hu et al., 2003; Mohamad et al., 2011). Meanwhile, the

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removal of hydrated silica occurs by the formation of aluminosilicates (Guzman et al.,

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2016; Rosales et al., 2018). Other coexisting ions such as phosphates and sulfates have

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been partially removed by adsorption processes on aluminum aggregates (Rosales et al.,

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2018; Sandoval et al., 2019).

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A common problem with aluminum electrodes is the anodic passivation. The use of flow

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cells with plate electrodes favors the transport of Al3+ ions from the electrode surface to the

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Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 121

bulk of the solution, diminishing the passivation of the anode (Rosales et al., 2018;

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Sandoval et al., 2019).

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On the other hand, hydrated silica (72 mg L-1) has been efficiently removed from

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groundwater by EC using several aluminum plate electrodes fitted in a stack of a flow EC

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reactor opened to the atmosphere (Rosales et al., 2018). It is worth mentioning that this

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paper shows for the first time the efficient abatement of hydrated silica by EC, highlighting

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that aluminum reacts with silica species to yield aluminosilicates. The removal of pollutants

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from groundwater containing silica by EC using Fe as sacrificial anodes has already been

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tested, but unfortunately, the silica removal has been very deficient (Wan et al., 2011).

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The novelty of this paper consists in the simultaneous removal of fluoride and hydrated

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silica from real groundwater, using a filter-press reactor with a novel design, in which the

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horizontally located aluminum plate electrodes make up a six-cell stack, while at the top,

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the cell is opened to the atmosphere allowing the fast release of hydrogen bubbles produced

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at the cathodes. It examines the influence of the coagulant dosage (in terms of current

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density employed) and the retention time (dictated by the mean linear flow velocity) on the

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efficiency of the simultaneous removal of fluoride and hydrated silica. Spectroscopic

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analyses such as XRD, SEM-EDS, XRF-EDS, and FTIR are performed to elucidate the

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mechanism of elimination of the pollutants contained in groundwater.

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2. Materials and methods

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2.1. Deep well water

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The real groundwater sample was obtained from the plateau region of Guanajuato in

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Mexico (4.08 mg L-1 fluoride, 90 mg L-1 hydrated silica, 50 mg L-1 sulfate, 0.23 mg L-1 6

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 145

phosphate, 263 mg L−1 alkalinity, 50 mg L−1 hardness, pH 7.38 and 450 µS cm-1

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conductivity), which exceeds the WHO guideline for fluoride; a high concentration of

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hydrated silica was also found.

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2.2 Electrocoagulation reactor

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The sketch of the EC reactor and its components is shown in Fig. 1. The EC flow reactor is

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composed of a stack of aluminum plate electrodes horizontally fitted so that the electrolyte

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flows in the form of a serpentine; the cell is opened at the top to facilitate the fast release of

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hydrogen bubbles formed on the cathode during the EC process.

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Fig. 1. (a) Sketch of the reactor, (b) bottom plate, (c) channel separator, (d) aluminum

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electrode, and (e) electrolyte collector at the exit.

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Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 159

The reactor in a serpentine array consist of a six-cell stack containing 8 empty channels

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with 3 cm width, 8 cm length and 0.46 cm thickness, and 7 parallel aluminum plates as

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electrodes (3 cm × 8 cm × 0.46 cm, width, length and thickness, in contact with electrolyte,

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respectively), out of which four are used as cathodes and three as anodes. The electrolyte

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inlet is located at the bottom of the cell, having a diameter of 1.27 cm. The top of the

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reactor was designed, after several CFD simulation trials (not shown herein), to allow the

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fast release of the gas generated in the cell, and therefore the cell was opened to the

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atmosphere. Moreover, at the top of the reactor, there is a window of 3.4 cm length and 1.5

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cm height, followed by a liquid collector of 10 cm in length to transport the electrolyte

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towards the exit. More details on the cell can be consulted elsewhere (Castañeda and Nava,

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2019). The dimensions of the EC reactor are shown in Table SM-1.

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Fig. SM-1 shows a schematic diagram of the hydraulic and electric system coupled with the

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EC reactor, which contains a 15 L-capacity reservoir for the groundwater sample, a

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centrifugal pump (1/125 HP, Iwaki, MD-10L), a valve and a flowmeter (0.1-1 L min-1,

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White Industries), all this joined to each other by a 0.5-inch diameter PVC pipe. A B&K

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Precision 1090 power source was used to supply the current during the EC trials, which

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directly records the cell potential.

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2.3 Methodology

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The EC tests were carried out in the system shown in Fig. SM-1. Current densities (j) of 4,

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5, 6 and 7 mA cm-2 and mean linear flow velocities (u) of 1.2, 2.4, 3.6 and 4.8 cm s-1 were

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implemented for EC tests, which matched volumetric flow rates of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 L

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min-1, and retention times () of 55.9, 27.8, 18.5 and 13.9 s, respectively. The Faraday´s 8

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 183

law was used to calculate the theoretical value of the aluminum used as coagulant,

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CAl(III)(N):

185

186

() =

" ∙ % ∙ &' ( ∙ ) ∙ * ∙ +

(1 × 10. )

(5)

187

188

where () and j are given in mg L 2 and A cm  , respectively, the molecular weight

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of aluminum is Mw = 26.98 g mol 2 , 5 is the channel length (8 cm), the Faraday constant is

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6= 96,485 C mol 2 , 8 = 3 is the number of electrons, 9 is the interelectrode gap (0.46

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cm), and the factor 1×106 permits to obtain ()

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electrocoagulation tests, 1 mg L-1 of hypochlorite (typical concentration used for

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disinfection purposes) was added to groundwater to avoid passivation (Guzmán et al., 2016;

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Rosales et al., 2018; Sandoval et al., 2014). It is worth to mention that the EC tests in the

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reactor were stabilized for a period of 10 minutes to achieve the steady state. The EC tests

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were performed in triplicate, obtaining similar results.

in mg L 2 . Before the

197 198

Once the electrolyte left the electrocoagulation reactor, it went to the jar test device, where

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the coagulant produced inside the EC cell was slowly mixed (30 rpm) during 15 minutes,

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so that the aggregate could grow; then, the flocs were left to rest for 60 minutes until the

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aggregates settled. Afterward, the clarified solution, free of flocs, was analyzed to quantify

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the residual concentration of fluoride, hydrated silica, and coexisting ions. The

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experimental aluminum dose, () , formed in the EC trials was determined after the

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redissolution of the flocs, using sulfuric acid to attain a pH = 2. Spectroscopy analyses were 9

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 205

carried out on the dry flocs. Before electrolysis, the electrodes were polished with 600

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grade carbon emery paper, and then rinsed with plenty of water. The results were the

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average of three EC tests.

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2.4 Analytical procedure

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2.4.1. Groundwater analysis

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A HI 83200 multiparameter bench photometer, from Hanna instruments, was the equipment

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used to measure hydrated silica, phosphate and sulfate. The silica analysis was carried out

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by heteropoly blue method using the kit HI 93705. Phosphate was determined by amino

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acid method using the HI 93706 kit and sulfate was determined by precipitation with

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barium chloride crystals (light absorbance method) using the kit HI. The detection limit of

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hydrated silica, phosphate, and sulfate was 0.2 mg L-1. The concentration of fluoride was

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measured by a fluoride ion selective electrode (27502-19, Cole Palmer) with a detection

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limit of 0.02 mg L−1. A Perkin Elmer AAnalyst™ 200 atomic absorption spectrometer, with

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a detection limit of 0.1 mg L-1 (309.27 nm wavelength), was used to determine the

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concentration of aluminum. Conductivity and pH measurements were carried using a

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waterproof instrument from Hanna, model HI 991300. Analytical grade reagents were used.

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The results were the average of three analyses.

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2.4.2. Flocs characterization

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The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was carried out using a JEOL JSM-6010

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PLUS/LA device. The energy dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDS) was performed using a

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JEOL detector incorporated in the SEM microscope. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyzes

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were made on a diffractometer Rigaku Ultima IV, with nickel filter and Cu K:2 radiation.

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The elemental compositions of the flocs were determined by energy dispersive X-ray

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fluorescence (XRF), using a Rigaku Nex CG X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, equipped

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with an X-ray tube with Pd anode. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

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examination in the flocs was carried out in a Perkin Elmer Spectrum GX FTIR

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Spectrometer, using an EasiDiff diffuse reflectance accessory.

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2.5. Energy consumption and costs of EC

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The energy consumption (ABCD), cost of aluminum dose ($F() ), and overall cost of EC

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($OC) were calculated by Eqs. (6), (7) and (8), respectively:

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238

ABCD =

GHIJJ ∙ K (..) ∙* ∙L ∙ +

(6)

239

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where the units of ABCD , cell potential (ABM ), and I are kWh m-3, V, and C s 2 ,

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respectively. N is the channel width (3 cm), S is the electrode spacing (0.46 cm), and the

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factor 3.6 is used to obtain Econs in kWh m-3.

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$() = O() P(2.008 USD Kg 2 )(0.001)

(7)

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The aluminum price, in Mexico, is 2.008 USD kg 2 and 0.001 is a conversion factor to

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obtain $() in USD m  .

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$ = $() + :ABCD + :EXYZX + βMY\]M

(8) 11

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 248

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$OC is expressed in units of USD m-3, α is the cost of the electricity in central Mexico

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(0.0976 USD (kWh)-1), Epump is in units of kWh m-3, and β is the sludge confinement cost

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in Mexico (0.035 USD Kg 2 ).

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253

3. Results and discussion

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3.1 Removal of fluoride and hydrated silica by EC

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Both the theoretical, () , and experimental, () , aluminum dosages and the residual

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fluoride concentration, ^_ , are shown in Fig. 2. Results were obtained at different mean

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linear flow velocities (1.2 < u < 4.8 cm s-1) and current densities of 4, 5, 6 and 7 mA cm-2.

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The residual fluoride concentration after all the EC trials meets the WHO guideline (^_ <

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1.5 mg L-1), evidencing a decrease with current density owing to the increase in the

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experimental aluminum dosage (coagulant). A modest decrease in ^_ was obtained as a

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function of mean linear flow velocity. The experimental aluminum dosage is greater than

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that theoretically obtained by Faraday's law, Eq. 5, which is attributed to the chemical

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oxidation of aluminum plates with the hypochlorite (1 mg L-1) present in the groundwater

264

sample.

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Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1

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Fig. 2. Effect of the mean linear flow velocity on the remaining fluoride concentration after

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EC trials at different current densities: (a) 4 mA cm-2, (b) 5 mA cm-2, (c) 6 mA cm-2 and (d)

269

7 mA cm-2.

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The residual concentrations of hydrated silica, sulfate, and phosphate are shown in Figs.

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3(a), (b) and (c), respectively. This Fig. shows that the residual concentration of hydrated

273

silica (Chs) increases with flow rate due to the decrease in the coagulant dosage, and Chs

274

decreases with current density owing to the massive reaction between aluminum and silica

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to yield aluminosilicates (Rosales et al., 2018). The best removal of hydrated silica was

276

obtained at 7 mA cm-2 and at 1.2 cm s-1 giving Chs = 6.2 mg L-1, equivalent to the removal

277

of 96%.

278 279 280

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Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1

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Fig. 3. Effect of the mean linear flow rate on the removal of: (a) hydrated silica, (b) sulfate

283

and (c) phosphate concentrations, after the same EC trials shown in Fig. 2.

284 285

Figure 3 (b) shows the residual concentration of sulfate, *`ab_ , that remains almost

286

constant as a function of flow rate but decreases with current density, which is attributable

287

to the coagulant dosage. The best removal of sulfate, *`ab_ = 25 mg L-1 (50% removal), was

288

obtained at 7 mA cm-2 and 1.2 cm s-1. The residual phosphate concentration, c`ad_ , Figure 14

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 289

3 (c), increases with u, owing to the decrease in the aluminum dosage, but decreases with j

290

(coagulant dosage). Once again, the best removal was obtained at 7 mA cm-2 and 1.2 cm s-1,

291

where the phosphate concentration was completely removed. These results agree with what

292

is reported in the literature, a well-known fact is that sulfate and phosphate ions are

293

adsorbed in the active sites of aluminum flocs (Guzmán et al., 2016). It is worth to mention

294

that the pH remains almost constant during the EC trials at a value of around 8.7. This

295

small variation is attributed to the substitution reaction between fluoride and hydroxide

296

from flocs during fluoride removal (Guzmán et al., 2016).

297 298

3.2 Flocs characterization

299 300

Figs. SM-2 (a)-(b) show SEM micrographs of the flocs obtained from EC test at 7 mA cm-2

301

and 1.2 cm s-1 at different scales. SM-2 (a) shows aggregates with sizes from less than 10

302

µm up to around 500 µm; whereas the aggregates from SM-2 (b) consist of particles with

303

sizes below 100 nm. SEM-EDS and XRF-EDS analyses were used to define the chemical

304

composition of aluminum flocs, and the results are shown in Table 1. According to the high

305

percentage of silicon obtained by SEM-EDS and XRF-EDS analyses, these revealed the

306

generation of aluminosilicate complexes (Guzmán et al., 2016; Rosales and Nava, 2018).

307

However, it was not possible to detect fluorine. The element compositions from both

308

analyses were similar, with small differences attributed to different sizes of sampled areas,

309

since the area sampled for XRF-EDS was 8.02 cm2 , compared with five areas of around

310

0.16 mm2 for SEM-EDS.

311 312

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Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 313

Table 1. Flocs composition obtained by XRF-EDS and SEM-EDS from EC at 7 mA cm-2

314

and 1.2 cm s-1. wt. %

Al

Si

S

Cl

K

Ca

O

Na

SEM-EDS

29.02

8.79

0.15

0.68

ND

4.49

54.92

2.01

XRF-EDS

16.45

4.90

0.27

0.45

0.22

1.87

73.24

2.60

315 316

Fig. 4 (a) shows a typical XRD pattern of flocs obtained by EC at 7 mA cm-2 and 1.2 cm s-

317

1

318

calcite

319

(Al1.52Ca0.52Na0.48O8Si2.48), oligoclase (Na0.723Ca0.277)(Al1.277Si2.723)O8, lisetite (Ca0.98Na

320

(Al3.96Si4.04)O16),

321

((Na0.98Ca0.02)(Al0.02Si2.97)O8). These aluminosilicate phases adsorb arsenates, sulfates, and

322

phosphates (Guzmán et al., 2016; Rosales and Nava, 2018). The carbonates (alkalinity)

323

contained in the groundwater precipitate as calcite after the EC tests.

. The broad peaks are produced by the superposition of peaks that could correspond to (CaCO3),

bytownite

labradorite

(Ca0.43Na0.07(Al0.92Si1.0O)4),

(Ca0.325Na0.16

(Al0.81Si1.19)O4,

anorthite

and

1.97

albite

324 325

FTIR spectrum obtained for wave numbers between 4000 and 400 cm-1 is shown in Fig. 4

326

(b), after EC tests at 7 mA cm-2 and u = 1.2 cm s-1. The peaks were identified using the

327

reference (Socrates, 2004). The peaks match with the chemical bonds O-H, Na-F, Al-O, Al-

328

O-Si, Si-O and Al-F, which agree with those reported in the literature for EC tests with

329

aluminum as a sacrificial anode (Drouiche et al., 2009; Ghosch et al., 2008; Guzmán et al.,

330

2016). The peaks placed on 599 cm-1 related to the Al-F bounding prove the chemical

331

substitution reaction between fluoride and hydroxide from aluminum aggregates (Sandoval

332

eta al., 2014). The Al-O-Si bond confirms the reaction between aluminum coagulant and

333

silica to yield aluminosilicates. It is worth mentioning that sulfate and phosphate bounds 16

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 334

were not detected in the FTIR spectra, possibly because those were encapsulated inside the

335

flocs; however, it is well known that both anions are removed by adsorption onto aluminum

336

aggregates (Guzmán et al., 2016; Thakur and Modal, 2017).

337

338 339

Fig. 4. Characteristic (a) XRD and (b) FTIR spectra of the flocs from EC at 7 mA cm-2 and

340

1.2 cm s-1.

341 342

3.3 Energy consumption and operational EC costs

343

According to the results condensed in Table 2, Ecell decreases with u for all the j tested,

344

which is related to the fast removal of the coagulant from the electrode to the bulk solution, 17

Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 345

decreasing the resistance on the electrode (preventing passivation), as well as the ohmic

346

drop in the interelectrode space, to provide the fast release of H2 bubbles from the solution

347

to the atmosphere. It is noteworthy that the Msludge decreases with u but increases with j, as

348

expected; however, the sludge generated by EC is minor and varies between 0.037 < Msludge

349

< 0.425 kg m-3. The residual concentration of fluoride adheres to the WHO guideline (1.5

350

mg L-1 < CF) for all the EC trials.

351 352

The best removal of hydrated silica was obtained at 7 mA cm-2 and of 1.2 cm s-1, giving a

353

Chs = 6.2 mg L-1, with the operational cost of EC of $OC = 0.441 USD m-3. Finally, it is

354

important to mention that the operational cost of EC reported here may vary in other

355

countries, due to the fluctuation of prices of the electricity and sludge confinement.

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Table 2. Remaining fluoride and hydrated silica concentrations after EC tests, as well as experimental aluminum dose, cost of aluminum dose, Ecell, Econs, Msludge, and overall cost of EC. Initial composition of groundwater: 4.08 mg L−1 fluoride, 90 mg L−1 hydrated silica, 0.23 mg L−1 phosphate, 50 mg L−1 sulfate, 263 mg L−1 alkalinity, 50 mg L−1 hardness, conductivity 450 µS cm−1 and pH 7.4. CAl(III) Chs Econs Epump Msludge j u $ OC Ecell ^_ τ -2 -1 -3 -1 -1 -1 -3 -3 -3 (s) (mg L ) (mg L ) (V) (kWh m ) (kWh m ) (kg m ) (USD m ) (mA cm ) (cm s ) (mg L ) 55.9 1.2 0.995 27.4 7.8 0.754 0.5 0.164 0.208 43.2 27.8 2.4 1.213 64 7.3 0.353 0.25 0.093 0.116 29.3 4 18.5 3.6 16.8 1.345 67.5 7.05 0.227 0.16 0.037 0.070 13.9 4.8 14.6 1.370 72.5 6.99 0.169 0.125 0.075 0.058 55.9 1.2 54.3 0.942 17 8.8 1.063 0.5 0.316 0.264 27.8 2.4 36.1 0.966 57 8.6 0.519 0.25 0.080 0.144 5 18.5 21.4 3.6 1.080 64 8.1 0.326 0.16 0.124 0.091 13.9 4.8 1.360 71 8.5 0.257 0.125 0.695 0.095 18.2 55.9 1.2 58 0.847 13.6 11 1.594 0.5 0.313 0.322 27.8 2.4 0.871 51 10.9 0.790 0.25 0.089 0.180 41.1 6 18.5 3.6 26.1 0.970 60.5 9.5 0.459 0.16 0.095 0.112 13.9 4.8 1.052 69 9.4 0.341 0.125 0.061 0.087 21.4 55.9 1.2* 0.764 6.2 14.7 2.486 0.5 0.425 0.441 73.2 27.8 2.4 43.3 0.804 21 14.2 1.200 0.25 0.247 0.230 7 18.5 3.6 26.5 0.823 57 12.6 0.710 0.16 0.069 0.136 13.9 4.8 20.4 0.858 65 10.3 0.435 0.125 0.050 0.094 -1 -1 -1 -1 *Other residual concentrations are: 0 mg L phosphate, 25 mg L sulfate, 178.8 mg L alkalinity, 24 mg L hardness, 416 µS cm-1 conductivity and pH 8.7.

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Ms. Ref. No.: CHEM64794R1 337

4. Conclusions

338

The residual concentration of fluoride after the EC treatment adhered to the WHO guideline

339

(< 1.5 mg L-1), while the hydrated silica was completely removed at 7 mA cm-2 and 1.2 cm

340

s-1, with energy consumption and overall operational cost of 2.48 kWh m-3 and 0.441 USD

341

m-3, respectively. XRD, XRF-EDS, SEM-EDS and FTIR analyses on the flocs confirmed

342

that during the EC process, the aluminum reacted with silica forming aluminosilicates.

343

Meanwhile, fluoride substituted a hydroxide from aluminum flocs, and the sulfates and

344

phosphates were removed by adsorption process onto aluminum aggregates.

345 346

The well-engineered EC reactor permitted to apply high current densities to generate high

347

aluminum dosages (14-73 mg L-1) that reacted with hydrated silica allowing its complete

348

removal. Therefore, the EC process has great potential to be applied in the industry,

349

particularly for the preconditioning of water containing silica and affordable treatment

350

costs.

351 352

Acknowledgments

353

The authors thank to SICES (project No. IJ-19-78), CONACYT (project No. 759) and the

354

University of Guanajuato (projects No. 102/2019, 150/2019) for financial support. Authors

355

acknowledge Dr. Raul Miranda and Daniela Moncada from LICAMM-UG Laboratory for

356

spectroscopy analysis.

357 358

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Highlights • Abatement of fluoride and silica from underground water by electrocoagulation. • Flow channel cell with aluminum electrodes open to the atmosphere to favor H2 exit. • Significant aluminum dosages were produced at current densities > 6 mA cm-2. • Hydrated silica reacted with the coagulant forming aluminosilicates as flocs. •

The removal of fluoride followed the WHO recommendation, while silica was abated.

Authors contribution section All authors participated in the preparation of the paper contributing ideas to carry out experiments, discussions, and assisted in the final writing of the manuscript.

Declaration of Interest Statement

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.