Historical perspectives of ethnobotany

Historical perspectives of ethnobotany

Accepted Manuscript Historical perspectives of Ethnobotany Inayat Ur Rahman, Aftab Afzal, Zafar Iqbal, Farhana Ijaz, Niaz Ali, Muzammil Shah, Sana Ul...

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Accepted Manuscript Historical perspectives of Ethnobotany

Inayat Ur Rahman, Aftab Afzal, Zafar Iqbal, Farhana Ijaz, Niaz Ali, Muzammil Shah, Sana Ullah, Rainer W. Bussmann PII: DOI: Reference:

S0738-081X(18)30059-2 doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018 CID 7239

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Historical perspectives of Ethnobotany Inayat Ur Rahman1*, Aftab Afzal1*, Zafar Iqbal1, Farhana Ijaz1, Niaz Ali1, Muzammil Shah2, Sana Ullah3, Rainer W. Bussmann4,5 1

Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra-21300, Pakistan Department of Biological Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah-21589, Saudi Arabia 3 Department of Botany, University of Malakand, Pakistan 4 Saving Knowledge, Casilla 13092 correo central, La Paz, Bolivia 5 Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Calle Ovidio Suarez 26, Cota Cota, La Paz, Bolivia *Corresponding author: [email protected],Fax: +92-997-530046

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Abstract

Ethnobotany

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From time immemorial, man has been depending on Mother Nature for all his basic needs. The plant diversity existed around him always attracted his curiosity. Man's preliminary interest in plants started from his need for food, shelter and protection. Then he sought among them the remedies for injuries and diseases. In fact, medicine and botany always had strong and close connections as most of the modern medicines come from plant sources. Literature survey clearly reveals that the plant resources were cited around the globe for curing almost all the disease categories i.e. skin disorders, respiratory disorders, digestive disorders, urinary disorders, cardiac disorders, ophthalmic disorders, ear nose throat (ENT) disorders, excretory disorders, nervous disorders, immunity disorders, and so on. The orally exchanged customary information/knowledge is in hands of the elders, and most of it can vanish conveniently after their death because of which such imperative information leads towards depletion. The ethnic society resources like the folk asset in association with a nature of investigated and surveyed areas can be greatly conserved through documentation. The natural chemical compounds may be screened and isolated. Further, plants with therapeutic uses must be tested in studies by using those isolated natural compounds in the labs to screen and evaluate the plants' metabolites, that they are so applicable to the therapeutic use.

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The term ethnobotany was first used by the American botanist Dr. John William Hershberger, in 1895 during a lecture in Philadelphia to describe his research, which described him as the study of "plants produced by primitive and indigenous peoples"1. In 1896, Hershberger published the term and suggested "ethnobotany" as a field that clarifies the cultural status of the trunks, which uses the plants for food, protection, medicine, clothing, hunting, ornamental, fence, firewood, timber, food, agricultural tools, building materials and religious ceremonies. Later, Pei2 Ethnobotany is the study of the direct interaction between man and plant population about their culture. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationship between plants and humans: the "ethno" study of people and "botany" study of plants3. Ethno botany is the study of interactions and relationships between plants and humans in time and space4. The definition of ethnobotany can be summed up in four words that humans, plants, interactions and use5. The modern concept of ethnobotany is given by Aumeerudy6. Ethnobotany has its roots in botany. In fact, medicine and botany always had strong and close connections as most of the modern medicines come from

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT plant sources. Ethnobotanists with additional knowledge and / or training in areas such as archeology, chemistry, ecology, anthropology, linguistics, history, pharmacology, sociology, religion and mythology raised many interesting questions than those scientists, which are trained only in Botany7. For example, consider botanists with anthropological and ecological education plants as an integral part of human culture. They not only study the plants in the tropical forests, but also respectfully work within particular indigenous culture, and study the disease concepts of culture.

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Importance of ethnobotany

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About 4.22 million flowering plants reported worldwide and more than 50,000 are used worldwide for medicinal purposes8. The World Health Organization reported that 80% of the world's population is primarily dependent on indigenous medicine, and that the majority of traditional therapies involve the use of plant extracts9. According to World Health Organization (WHO) report, three-quarters of the world's population cannot afford modern medicines and rely on the use of traditional herbal medicines10. According to another WHO report, 252 primary care medicines are essential, 11% of which are of plant origin10. It should also be noted that this scientific field offers scope for the reconstruction of cultural identities, from small human groups to large civilizations, through the retrospective evaluation of various historical uses such as food, wood, magical / religious purposes, and medical and fiber applications11. Even today, medicinal plants provide a cheap source of medicines for the world's population. Plants always provided and will continue to provide directly applicable drugs as well as a wide variety of chemical compounds that can serve as a starting point for the synthesis of new drugs with improved pharmacological properties12. Dafni et al.13 conducted a study on the ethnobotany of Ziziphus spina-christi in the Middle East on various aspects. Historically, religiously, philosophically, linguistically and pharmacologically, among Muslims, Jews and Christians, hinting that this is the only tree considered “Holly”, in addition to the status of a "sacred tree" in the Muslims , It also has a special status as a "blessed tree" under Druze. The plants are the life blood of our life, providing not only our basic amenities like fuel, fodder, food, frame works to our houses and other stuffs but also acts as elixir in curing many a malady encountered14.

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From time immemorial, man has been depending on Mother Nature for all his basic needs. The plant diversity existed around him always attracted his curiosity. Man's preliminary interest in plants started from his need for food, shelter and protection. Then he sought among them the remedies for injuries and diseases. From this arose the science of medicine. Rig Veda says that man learned to distinguish edible plants from poisonous plants by observing animals, which feed on different plants. Gradually he domesticated many of the wild plants for his basic needs. This domestication and large scale cultivation were the result of the identification of the immense potential uses of each plant. It was also the result of the constant man-plant interaction in the past 15 . The use of plants and plant products as remedies comes from the beginning of human civilization. In other words, the use of medicinal plants as a source of relief and cure for various diseases is as old as humanity itself. Since ancient times, plants have been indispensable sources of preventative and curative medical preparations for humans and animals. Historical reports of

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT medicinal plants that have traditionally been used since 5000 BC in China16 and 1600 BC by Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews and Egyptians17. In fact, the ancient Egyptians believed that medicinal plants were also useful in the afterlife of their pharaohs. The plants remains found in the Giza pyramids and are in a dark corner of the Access Resource Center in the Cairo Museum. Schultes18 mentions in his article the ancient ethnobotanical works as those of the Sumerian ideograms dating back to 4000 BC. Go back and refer to the use of plants.

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The history of the oldest civilization of the ancient cultures of Africa, China, Egypt and the Indus Valley suggests evidence supporting the use of herbal medicine in living in these areas 19. The first record of medicinal plants of Indo-Pak is found in Rig-Veda between 4500-1600 BC and Ayurveda 2500-600 BC20. This work was done between 4500 BC and 1600 BC. These became the oldest repository of human knowledge and description of the 67 plants (Malla, Shakya). According to the Rigveda, Ayurveda (the foundation of the Science of Life and the Art of Hindu Culture Cure) reveals the importance of medicinal plants in 1200. Ayurveda began in 2500 BC, the Greco-Arab Society contains many Ayurvedic theories and remedies that led to the founding of Unani21. The Charak Samhita and Charaka (900 BC) and Susruta Samhita (500 BC) Counts are surgery, therapy and medication in detail based on Atharvaveda22. This system monitors its origins in Greek medicine, adopted by the Arabs, and then spreads to India and Europe20.

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In India, a brief reference to documented knowledge regarding the remedial assets of 99 plants can be traced back to the Vedic period dating back from 3500 to 1800 BC. A more detailed account is available in the Atherveda which deals with 288 medicinal plants. The oldest one is “Vruksha ayurveda” complied by Parasar. The sacred Vedas i.e. “Rigveda” (1400-1800 BC), “Atherveda” (4500-2500 BC). According to Vedas, about 1000 years ago there is no information on the development of this science in India. Then, the two most important works of the Indian treatment system appeared: Charak and Susurk's work, Charak Samhita and Susrut Samhita. It was in 377AD, a Greek physician Hippocrates stated "Let your cure be your food and eat your medicines"23. 77th Greek Dioscorides "De materia medica", a catalog of about 600 plant species was found in the Mediterranean. It also contains information on how the Greeks used plants, especially for medical purposes24. Most of the pre-existing knowledge system was predetermined with the use of traditional medicine in different countries25. Cultural healers in many parts of the world define life as a body, mind, soul, soul, and bring positive health to a mix of physical, mental, social, moral and intellectual well-being. This sets new standards for the healthcare system. Our Holy Prophet (PBUH) used some medications to treat various diseases26. Until the mid-19th century, plants were the major therapeutic agents used by humans, and their role in medicine remains relevant today27. In the mid-19th century, the residents of Hawaiian Islands were devastated by the infection of Mycobacterium leprae, which is the known causal organism for the disease also called Hansen’s disease or leprosy. During those days, the plant Hydnocarpus kurzi (Chalmogra) was brought to the islands, where 14 months trial of intravenous injection of chalmogra oil was conducted on the infected patients. The treatment showed the

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT astonishingly positive results, wherein half of the patients recovered from the grip of the disease 28 .

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In the late 19th century, ethnobotany began to develop as a science that offers a new tool for pharmaceutical research. Public institutions, such as the World Health Organization, and private pharmaceutical companies have begun to invest in ethnobotanical expeditions29. The use of historical documents is of utmost importance to obtain information that suggests the relationship between people and the environment in the past. The discovery or retrieval of information from manuscripts, books or other sources promotes a sequence of plant utilization evolution, for example in the issue of disease concepts and culture forms30. Indo-Pak Subcontinent

British rule (1755-1947)

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The documentation of ethnobotanical use of plants is found on the Indian subcontinent, a variety of uses for plants in worship, medicine, food, fuel and as agricultural tools is mentioned in Indian literature and in Hindu religious books (4000 and 400 BC) i.e. Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Upanishads, Mahabharata and Puranas40. Although the concept and definition of the science of ’Ethnobotany’ was cleared respectively31, the elements of this science appeared in India even before. From the 16th century onwards, foreign workers took a firm rein in active herbal study. Thomas Rives, Odardo Verbosa, Cristobal daCosta and Garcia daOrta are the names which are most prominent at these early stages. Garcia da Orta32 published a book ‘Coloquios dos simples e drogas e cusas medicinas da India’. It informed about 50 common taxa of medicinal significance and other utilities as gathered around Goa and in Malabar. Interestingly, it is in the form of a dialogue between the author and Spanish fictitious Doctor Rauno. This is truly the first book in print form on Indian plant species especially with line drawings. It is not only a milestone in the history of ‘Ethnobotany’ or ‘Botany’, but also a landmark for the science of Pharmacognosy in Indian context14. Early Indian works like a catalogue of Indian medicinal plants and drugs33, Materia Medica of Hindoastan20 dealt mainly with plants and drugs of established indigenous systems of Indian medicine.

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The 18th century indicated some of the most outstanding contributions based on researches on modern lines which practically forged a strong foundation for later year’s investigations. Out of the many, some of the major works may be accredited to Ainslie, 1813 and O’Shaughnessy and Wallich, 1844. After the end of 18th century the Indian investigators saw two major works in Hindu Materia Medica (Dutt, 1870) and Indigenous Drugs of India14. The record of the very first Indian medicinal plant is Soma being used by Indo- Aryans, however, its correct equivalent nomenclature in the present day is a matter of confusion and conjecture because the plant is referred in literature by their common names and some twenty different plant species have been attributed to this name, varying from plants like Sarco stemma (a flowering plant) to Amanita muscaria (a fungus), even then many a specialist today presumes it to be Ephedra pachyclade34. The science of Ethnobotany began taking shape during British regime. They surveyed wild and cultivated plants as a part of their floristic /botanical studies. Roxburgh35 during his floristic investigations particularly in South India, noted medicinal uses of herbs, apart from their botanical identification and vernacular names. Since 1873, Sir George Watt studied economically important plant species especially in Manipur. He published ‘Dictionary of the Economic Products of India’ (1889-1896) and “The Commercial Products of India” (1908). In

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the former Dictionary, he provided nearly 3000 local names of plant products and their uses as obtained from various regions of India20. He also equated these names with important Indian languages and even tribal dialects. He also paid attention for the sacred plants. His works is not only a monumental one, but also reflects true “Ethnobotany” and indigenous knowledge of Indian Societies. Later, Bodding36-38 published medicines used by Santal tribe and other useful plants. These were published in Memoirs of Asiatic Society of Bengal. This work was revived39 after Indian Independence41. The information of catalogues, dispensatories, pharmacopoeias and illustrations of plants with notes on medicinal uses published in the 19th century which concluded in Watt's (1889-1896) six-volume Dictionary of Economic Products were summarized42-43. Undoubtedly, the subcontinent has a very long socio-cultural history and heritage. The instinctive knowledge about the medicinal uses of native plants was preserved by the local communities throughout India44. Era after independence of India

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The presence of much multiethnic groups of ancient linkage and diverse vegetation angiosperms alone over 20,000 makes India one of the richest countries in Ethnobotanical knowledge. Studies conducted as part of All India Co-ordinate Research Project on Ethnobiology revealed that the tribes of India use over 9,500 wild plant species for meeting various necessities. They use 7,500 wild plant species for medicinal purpose, 3,900 species for food, 525 species for cordage and fiber, 400 species for fodder, about 300 species as pesticides, 300 species as gums, resins and dyes, 100 species for incense and perfumes and 700 species for cultural and other requirements 45 .

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Organized ethnobotanical studies in India were initiated by Jain and his associates who carried out ethnobotanical studies among the tribes of Central India, Madhya Pradesh39-40,46-52. An ethnobotanical knowledge and voucher plant species were collected and interviews were taken from different tribals men and gathered the information about ethno botany52. Grosi and Shahzad53 studied the plants used as medicine by people of Dhirkot. They observed 43 medicinal plants species belonging to 16 families which were used singly or with the mixture by local people. Ravindran et al.54 conducted an ethnobotanical survey and reported eleven plant species curing various disorders in Pichavaram mangroves, Tamil Nadu, India. Chhetri et al.55 reported 281 species belonging to 108 different families are used in the folk medicine of Darjeeling Himalaya. However 14% of the medicinal plants of this area are under threatened condition. Sajem and Gosai56 worked on the traditional uses of medicinal plants by Jantia tribe in India. They reported 39 medicinal plants species belonging to 27 families. 39 genera are used to cure the different disorders. Bhosle et al.57 carried out survey for uses of medicinal plants by the tribal people of Purandharin Maharashra, India. They reported 77 plant species and these plants were belonging to 30 families of medicinal plants, which were cited for curing cough, asthma, diabetes, diphtheria, snake bite and scorpion bite etc. Jain et al.58 reported the plant uses among indigenous of Sariska and Siliserh regions of Alwar, District Rajasthan, India. They documented 110 species of plants which were used for different diseases. Era after independence of Pakistan About 6000 species of flowering plants have so for been identified and documented in Pakistan and among these there are more than 600 plant species identified as having medicinal values59-60. The flora of Pakistan is very rich with unique biodiversity due to its diverse climate, soil

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT conditions and multiple ecological regions61, though scattered over a large area62. Pakistan has rich history on the folk use of plants. In early 1950, more than 80% of Pakistan’s population was totally dependent on ethnomedicines for traditional medicinal health practices63-64.

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Traditional Unani medicines depend on medicinal plants, other than animals and minerals65. This healthcare system is a part of Pakistani culture. Pakistan belongs to countries where traditional Unani medicine is popularly formed in large segments of the population, the Unani medical system originating in Greece is found by the ancient Greek philosopher. It is documented and confirmed by the Muslims the glorious period of Islamic civilization. Unani's medical system was brought to the Muslim Indo-Pak subcontinent by Muslim scholars and took it for centuries20.

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This traditional knowledge was only practiced in rural areas66, but due to its economic values, it has been expanding67. Kazmi and Siddiqui68 reported 87 plants along with traditional uses from upper Guraiz and Astore valley. Zaman and Khan69 have explained nearly about hundreds of medicinal plants of West Pakistan with their description, constituents and uses. Khan70 conducted survey on ethnobotany in Pakistan and reported 95 species used for curing various diseases. Afridi71 enlisted 67 medicinal plants from Khyber Agency, Pakistan. Farooq72 reported fifty-two medicinal plant species traditionally used as medicine. Goodman and Ghafoor73 carried out survey in Balouchistan, Pakistan and collected 14 plant species with local ethnobotanical usage. Haq and Hussain74 carried out survey in Mansehra District and reported 53 wild and 17 cultivated medicinal plants with their local uses. Fifty nine medicinal plant species were cited by the local informants used as insecticidal agents75. Khaliq76 reported 140 plants from Dabargai hills, Swat. Out of these, 125 plants species were cited for various purposes. Marwat and Shinwari77 gave ethno botanical information about Upper Siran Valley. They reported 79 species of plants are of 48 families. They reported plants were very important ethno botanically. These plants were used for various purposes by local people e.g., medicinal, fodder, food, shelter, ornamental. Eighty five medicinal plant species were cited by the local informants used for various ailments in Tharparkar78.

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Shinwari and Khan79 discussed 50 species of herbs used as medicine by inhabitants of Margalla Hills National Islamabad. Pitman80 conducted survey in Margalla Hills and observed the community used dried roots of Berberis lycium to cure mouth disease known as “Chall” and also to heal bone fracture. He also observed that roots of Olea ferruginea used for asthma disease in particular village. Qureshi and Khan81 surveyed Kahuta, Rawalpindi and reported the 25 medicinal plant species, which were being used as medicine. Pongomia pinnata oil was reported helpful against herpes and eczema and Euphorbia heliscopia against mad dog bites. Hamayun and Khan82 listed the people of Bunner District, Pakistan and reply on medicinal plants for curing different diseases. 30 common diseases cured by folk recipes which were used in this area were documented. Wazir et al.83 surveyed and documented 41 plant species used for different diseases by the local people in Chapursan Valley. Ahmad et al.84 reported the cultural medicinal uses of 15 weeds species are for diversification and their botanical description. Ishtiaq et al.85 recorded 95 medicinal plant species of belonging to 38 families along with its traditional uses from Samahni valley, Azad Kashmir. Hussain et al.86 recorded the indigenous knowledge of local informants regarding the uses of 45 plants in Hattar region, District Haripur. Noor et al.87 recorded 43 plants belonging to 33 families used for various purposes i.e., for food, shelter, fodder, timber, fuel and

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT for health care in Ratwal village, district Attock, Pakistan. Qureshi et al.88 recorded ethnobotanical data of Bhera, District Sargodha. They recorded total ninety seven plants used by native people for fulfilling their basic needs. Out of these (84 spp.) used as fodder, followed by medicine (78 spp.), food and fruits (46 spp.), fuel wood (20 spp.), ornamental (18 spp.) and (7 spp) used as timber wood. Qureshi89 conducted a survey of medicinal flora of Hingol National Park, Baluchistan, and reported collected thirty species used by locals against various diseases.

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Pervaiz90 carried out survey of ethnobotanical knowledge of plant resources in Mangowal, District Gujrat, Punjab Pakistan and reported forty plants used by the locals curing different ailments i.e. asthma, pile, skin diseases, stomach pain, and ulcers. Adnan et al.91 reported 107 ethnomedicinal plants from the war affected region of Northwest Pakistan including, (55%) wild and (29%) cultivated. Khan et al.92 conducted an ethnomedicinal survey of Tehsil Kabal, District Swat, KP, Pakistan and reported forty five plants used as medicine. Shah et al.93 carried out a survey and reported 250 plant species used by local communities Basikhel Tribe of District Tor Ghar for 23 different categories like timber, food, fodder, medicine and agricultural implements. Ijaz et al.4 conducted a survey on traditional medicinal flora of Sarban Hills, District Abbottabad. They collected and reported 74 plants curing 56 various diseases in which the most commonly treated were cough, digestive disorders, pain and skin diseases etc. Rahman et al.94 surveyed an unexplored valley (Manoor Valley) of Pakistan and documented 44 medicinal plant species used to cure 26 different stomach disorders. Rahman et al.95-96 re-surveyed the Manoor Valley, Pakistan and reported the first ever documentation of medicinal plants (25 species) usage against dental disorders from the country. Aziz et al.97 conducted a survey on uses of plants mentioned by the locals of Bajaur Agency, Federally Administrated Tribal Areas, Pakistan. They documented 79 species treating different ailments. Khan et al.98 reported 51 plants locally utilized for the cure of various diseases in Deusai plateau (Gilgit), Pakistan. Rewards and compensation to cultural drivers

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Anthropologist Darrell Posey states that natives who give data must be repaid as usual. He repeats that money-related remuneration is utilized to protect the land, the general population, and their societies. Without remuneration, the information/knowledge of local societies will be lost since societies themselves are under threat of elimination unless they can secure the money related intends to hold control of their fate. As the cultural knowledge is lost through cultural assimilation the general population will be drawn into damaging Western methods for utilizing the environment, for example, clear-cutting for logging and dairy cattle fields/meadows. Keeping in mind the end goal to survive, local people groups will be constrained into decimating the condition that has supported them. Ethnobotanists in the business must address indistinguishable moral issues from the field ethnobotanist. Conclusion and future impact As we have seen, ethnobotany as a field is rising step by step. In any case, it is as yet the research facility based sub-atomic scientists whose work focuses in the labs that topping more status and financing. Field ethnobotanists have not yet gotten a similar level of funds and regard, essentially in light of the fact that enthusiasm for this field has just barely reemerged. However, the field is developing. Highly esteemed scientific journals have started to spread the investigations of the ethnobotanists to peers, different researchers, and policymakers around the world. Because of

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expanded open intrigue and strategy making in preservation, organizations are seeking plants for new ways to deal with sustenance, food, drugs, and vitality sources. The orally exchanged customary information/knowledge is in hands of the elders, and most of it can vanish conveniently after their death because of which such imperative information leads towards depletion. The ethnic society resources like the folk asset in association with a nature of investigated and surveyed areas can be greatly conserved through documentation. The natural chemical compounds may be screened and isolated. Further, plants with therapeutic uses must be tested in studies by using those isolated natural compounds in the labs (which may incorporate High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography considers and in vivo transgenic animals experimentations) to decide and screen the plants' metabolites, that they are so applicable to the therapeutic use. References

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