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Japan's sustainable transport policy towards the 21st century
TransportPolicy 1993 1 (1) 32-42
Japan's sustainable transport policy towards the 21st century Yuji Ono * Former Deputy Director, Eneroy Policy Division, Transport Policy Bureau, Ministry of Transport, Tokyo, Japan
This paper attempts to provide a better understanding of Japan's sustainable transport policy following growing concern over environmental problems and energy issues. Global warming, air pollution caused by NOx, and the energy situation in relation to the transport sector, are analysed. Possible Japanese strategies for the organization of environmentally friendly transportation are suggested. In particular, stress is laid on the formation of efficient transport systems such as the utilization of railway and bus services. The fact that improvement of fuel efficiency and stringent emission controls have not been enough to solve the problems and issues created by steadily increasing transport demands is discussed. Keywords:fuelefficiency,transportsystems, energyconsumption,vehicleemissions
Transport is essential for daily, economic and social activities as well as tourism. With economic growth and the desire to improve the quality of life, both passenger and freight transport demands are expected to increase in Japan. On the other hand, global warming has been in focus worldwide. Air pollution caused by toxins such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx) is domestically a serious problem in big cities in spite of many efforts. Also, stable and reasonably-priced energy supplies for Japan's transport sector are not secured in the long run. Under these environmental and energy constraints, transport services should be provided to satisfy the increasing transport demands. Therefore, Japan is now implementing a sustainable transport policy aimed towards the 21st century.
Global warming and transportation According to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) report, which is a result of discussions by specialists from around the world, if no measures are taken, the average temperature of the earth is predicted to increase by three degrees centigrade by the end of the 21st century, and the sea level is predicted to rise by 65 cm. When the temperature increases, the flow of air will change, and the resultant changes in climate will greatly influence various as*Theviewsexpressedin this paperdo not necessarilyreflectthose of the Ministryof Transport. 32
pects of society such as agriculture, forestry, fishery industries as well as water resources and energy. Thus, the Japanese government developed the Action Program to Arrest Global Warming in October 1990. The emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) should be established on a per capita basis for the year 2000 and beyond at about the same level as in 1990, by implementing a wide range of measures. Moreover, the adoption of the Framework Convention of Climate Change was adapted in May 1992 and then UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) was held in Brazil in June 1992 to arrest global warming as well as to conserve the environment worldwide.
The C02 emissions in the transport sector The fuel used in the transport sector is mostly petroleum. The CO2 emissions from this sector comprise about 22.5 per cent of the total CO2 emissions in Japan. With the increase of transport demands, the CO 2 emissions discharged due to the use of gasoline and light oil is expected to increase. Therefore, the transport policy is putting priority on reducing the COz emissions in the transport sector.
Air pollution and transportation Deteriorating air quality caused by nitrogen dioxide Nitrogen oxide (NOx) is a substance that is produced when something is burnt, and it is believed to have
0967q370X/93/010032-11 © 1993 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd
Japan's sustainable transport policy: Y. Ono 250 1970 = I00
J
200
GNP ~
Passenger km
150
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J .~/////
United States 23.7%
100 Ton km 500
1965
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I
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
Others 42.9%
(
World52.25 billion tons
Former Soviet Union 18.6%
Fiscal year
Figure 1 Changes in Japanese passenger and freight transport demands Source: Ministry of Transport data
China 10.1%
Figure 3 CO 2 emissions by country in 1987 (carbonate conversion) Source: Environment White Paper (1990 FY version) CFCs 24%
Carbon dioxide 55%
Nitrous oxide (N20) 6%
7.696
Methane 15% •
(Excluding ozone)
Figure 2 Percentages of man-made greenhouse gases worldwide in the 1980s Source: IPCC (1990), Climate change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment harmful effects on the respiratory system. In addition, it also causes photochemical smog and acid rain. The N O x are mainly produced from factories, incinerators, air conditioners and heaters in buildings, and transportation such as cars. In particular, m o t o r vehicle emissions have increased in recent years because of the increased usage of m o t o r vehicles over the recent economic boom. The Environmental Agency set an environmental standard for the daily average nitrogen dioxide (NO2) density, which is within or below the range of 0.04 to 0.06 p p m along main roads in big cities. This Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
(Only fossil fuels)
Figure 4
CO 2 emissions by sector in Japan (1989)
Source: Environment White Paper (1990 FY version)
standard has not yet been achieved and pollution conditions are continuing.
Increasin9 numbers of diesel motor vehicles Although diesel vehicles have become more widespread over recent years due to their durability and 33
Japan's sustainable transport polio1". Y. Ono 9 .(31.8)
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Figure 5 The numbers of motor vehicles in use in Japan by fuel Key: [] Light oil; [] Gasoline (Incl LPG); ( ) The ratio of diesel vehicles Source: Ministry of Transport (1991 ) Land Transport Statistics good mileage, they cause a serious problem in that the NOx ratio in emissions is relatively high compared to gasoline vehicles. Apart from large-scale trucks and buses that run mostly on diesel, more than half of the small-scale trucks are also of this type. Moreover, in recent years, the number of diesel cars has been on the increase. Rein/orcement oJautomobile emission regulations To improve air pollution, especially in big cities, the Ministry of Transport set a simple emission standard in 1966. Since then, emission standards of NOx, carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) have been strengthened incrementally. As a result, one of the world's most stringent emission standards for gasoline-fuelled cars was introduced in 1978. At the same time, lead gasoline was prohibited. Further reinforcement of these standards is expected.
compared to the dollar price. On the other hand, however, it can be one of the reasons that energy consumption has been increasing in Japan. The ener#), situation in Japan In Japan, nearly 84 per cent of energy depends on imports and nearly 60 per cent of energy comes from
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Energy and transportation Worm oil supply and demand outlooks Although the world demand for oil decreased after the second oil crisis (1978), it has started increasing once again. This trend is expected to continue, especially with the industrialization in developing countries. From the supply side, the oil production capabilities in O E C D countries are weakening and dependence on the Middle East is expected to increase. As a result, an impending fluctuation of oil supply is feared, eventually involving a situation whereby oil is used as a political tool.
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Changes in oil prices Oil prices rose sharply due to the crises in 1973 and 1978. Afterwards, prices were lowered due to increased production in O P E C countries, but there is a good possibility that they will rise once again. Fortunately, as the yen became strong, the price of imported crude oil to Japan did not change greatly 34
8m 8 m8 iZ~bZ
m
U m m
Figure 6 Reinforcement of automobile emission regulations in Japan Source: Regulations by the Ministry of Transport and Environment Agency I'ransport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number l
Japan's sustainable transport policy." Y. Ono Million b a r r e l / d a y ) 75.0
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OECD countries
17
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55
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1985
31
OECD countries Former USSR and Eastern E__urope~
54
49
24
14
15
Middle East
33
--Developing countries other than those in the
28
~Middle East
1990
1995 (prospects)
14
38
34
2005 (prospects)
Figure 7 Long-term energy demand and supply outlook Source: Derived from The Oil and Gas Journal, lEA data
imported oil. Moreover, oil dependence on the Middle East is 72 per cent. On the other hand, in OECD countries, oil comprises about 43 per cent of energy consumption, and the oil dependence on the Middle East is 35 per cent. From these data it can be said that, although Japan ranks second in GNP, it is more easily influenced by 40 ~ O i l 6
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1990 (I dollar = 142 yen)
Transition of import oil price
Source: D e r i v e d f r o m Monthly Japan Tradin9 Transport Policy 1993 Volume l Number 1
the oil situation than other countries. Therefore, its economic structure is rather fragile from the energy security point of view, Japan's long-term energy supply outlook As mentioned thus far, the most important goal is to control oil consumption in order to effectively deal with the future impending oil demands, increasing oil prices and global warming problems. Thus, the Japanese government established the Long-term Energy Supply Outlook, which corresponds to the Action Program to Arrest Global Warming in October 1990. According to this, energy conservation and the introduction of oil-alternative energy are being promoted. Japan's energy consumption in the transport sector Energy consumed by the transport sector (automobiles, railways, ships, aircraft) comprises 23 per cent of the overall energy consumption in Japan at present. After the first oil crisis, energy sources in the industrial sector were diversified and the share fell sharply. On the other hand, oil dependence for the transport sector is at a high of 98 per cent, and the consumption share is also rising. As a result, the percentage of oil products consumed in the transport sector has increased from 23 to 38 per cent, and thus the transport
35
Japan's ,suslainable Ira~ssport policy. Y. Ono
sector has a considerable influence over the total amount of oil consumption in Japan.
Table ! Japan's long-term energy supply outlook Share of energy source (%)
1991 (results)
Oil Coal Natural gases Nuclear power Hydraulic. geothermal power, etc
Fiscal year 2000
2010
51.3 17.5 1(/.9 13.3 7.0
45.3 15.7 12.2 16.9 9.9
56.7 16.9 10.6 9.8 5.9
Total energy supply (10mill K1. crude oil conversion)
5.31
5,94
6.57
Sources: MITI (1993) Comprehensive Energy Statistics; Japanese government (1990) Japan's Long-term Energy Supply and Demand Outlooks
Ener,qy consumption by transport mode Of the transport modes, motor vehicles, which are mostly cars and trucks, consume about 86 per cent of the total energy consumed by domestic transport. According to oil types, gasoline and light oil comprise 84 per cent of this total. To reduce the consumption of oil in the transport sector, gasoline and light oil consumed by motor vehicles should be curbed and the conversion to oilalternative energy should be promoted. Ener,qy consumption in passen,qer transportation Although railways comprise 30 per cent of the whole passenger transport volume in Japan, the share of
Table 2 Energy consumption by sector in Japan Sector Fiscal year
Transport
Commercial/ Residential
Industrial
Total
Energy consumption Oil conversion mill KI)
1973
47
52
1S7
285
t 991
84
89
185
358
Share of energy consumption (%)
1973
16
18
66
I(XI
199t
23
25
52
It~)
Industrial
Total
Source: MITI (1993) Comprehensive Energy Statistics
Table 3 Oil consumption by sector in Japan Sector Fiscal year
Transport
Commercial/ Residential
Oil Consumption (Mill KI)
1973
45
32
118
195
1991
82
40
S6
217
Oil dependence degree (o;)
1973
98
32
63
68
1991
98
37
49
61
Source: M ITI (1993) Comprehensive Energy Statistics
Table 4 Energy consumption share by transport mode in Japan (Fiscal year 1991)
Energy consumption share (0~i)
Motor vehicles
(Trucks
Cars
Transport mode Buses) Ships
Railways
Aircraft
86
(42
42
21
5
3
6
Source: Ministry of Transport (1993) Transport Related Energy Statistics
36
Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
Japan's sustainable transport policy: Y. Ono Table 5 C o n s u m p t i o n share of fuel type by mode in Japan (Fiscal year 1991) Transport mode (%)
Gasoline
Light oil
M o t o r vehicles Trucks Cars Buses Ships Railways
55 27 84 21 0 0
42 73 11 79 1 7
Fuel type Heavy oil
Electricity
LPG
0 0 0 0 99 0
2 0 5 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 93
Source: Same as Table 4
energy consumption in this sector is only eight per cent. In the same way, the share of energy consumption is three per cent for buses, which comprise six per cent of the whole passenger transport volume. On the other hand, private cars comprise 43 per cent of the passenger transport volume, but they consume up to 65 per cent of energy consumed by the whole passenger transport. Regarding the energy required to transport one person one kilometre, private cars require five times the energy of railways and three times the energy of buses. Energy consumption is further calculated for the following models: Model 1 ." Inter-city passenger transport. When driving from T o k y o to Osaka, even with smooth highway conditions, the energy consumption of private cars is 4.6 times more than that of Shinkansen and highway buses, and even worse, 1.5 times more than that of aircraft. Model 2: Urban passenger transport. During rush hours in the metropolitan area, even with a higher estimation, the energy consumption of private cars is 23 times more than that of the underground and private railways, and 16 times more than that of buses.
Railways
1.----,
~
Com~nerclal busesI Private cars
(102 kcal/person km)
100 I
168 ] 534
(173 kcal/peraon km) (547 kcal/person km)
Figure 10 Energy required to transport one person one kilometre. (Given that railways are 100) Source: Calculated by the Ministry of Transport
Bullet train ~
100
buses I----i p Aircraft Highway
300
Private cars
] 461
Figure l l
Comparison of energy required to transport one person from Tokyo to Osaka by mode (Fiscal year 1990). (Given that railways are 100.) Note that: *Aircraft: jumbo jet B747 between airports; *Private cars: calculated with average mileage of 10 km/l and average passengers of 1.6; *The distance between Tokyo and Osaka is approximately 550 km. Source: Calculated by the Ministry of Transport Underground and railways
00
Buaes
Private cars Energy consumption I share (%)
65
Railways Commercial buses
E3B8
Cars Others
2/4
Transport volume share (%)
43
30
21
Figure 9 The share of energy consumption and transport volume by mode in passenger transportation in Japan (Fiscal year 1990) Source: Ministry of Transport (1993) Transport Related Energy Statistics Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
2343
Figure 12 Comparison of energy consumption per person using Tokyo metropolitan area as a model (Fiscal year 1990). (Given that undergound and railways are 100.) Note that: *All modes: calculated with an average mileage of 8 km/l and average passengers of 1.6 Sources: Calculated by the Ministry of Transport Energy consumption in freight transportation Although ships and railways comprise 45 per cent and five per cent of the whole freight transport volume in Japan, their share of energy consumption is only nine per cent and one per cent respectively. In the same way, the share of energy consumption is 38 per cent 37
Japan's sustainable transport policy: Y. Ono
Railways Multi-business Private trucks trucks Ships Energy- ] consumption share (%)
Airplanes 1
be organized to ensure the best use of public transportation in both passenger and freight transport. At the same time, in every mode of transportation, energy conservation and the introduction of oil-alternative energy should be strongly promoted. Passenger ll'd/ls])o/'l
Tr...port
q5
sh;r°leU(r%~[_~
Figure 13 The share of energy consumption and transport volume by mode in freight transportation in Japan (Fiscal year 1990) Source: Ministry of Transport (1993) Transport Related Energy Statistics Railways
h
~JlO0
Shlps
~I02
Multi-business trucks
~
]
(118 kcal/ton km)
(121 kcal/ton km) 529
(620 kcal/ton km)
(Long-dlstance trucks) ~ 2 0 3
(246 kcal/ton km)
Private trucks
I 1709
I
(2013 kcal/ton km)
Figure 14 Energy required to transport one ton of shipments one kilometre. (Given that railways are t00.) Note that: *Multi-business trucks: trucks used by transport companies; *Private trucks: trucks used for their own business (excluding transport companies) Source: Calculated by the Ministry of Transport
• • • •
promotion of railway utilization; promotion of bus utilization: improvement of accessibility: cooperative usage of private cars.
It is important to shift the means of passenger transport from private cars to public transportation such as railways and buses for passenger transport. Therefore, to make railways and buses more attractive to passengers, efforts have been made to increase the transport capacity and to extend service hours until late at night. The introduction of air-conditioned cars and comfortable compartments is also in progress. Furthermore, to upgrade the convenience and accessibility of airports by railways, the adjustments of railway and bus time-tables, and the connections between different railway lines, should be improved. The park and ride system, in which carparks are set up in the vicinity of railway stations, is also effective in promoting the use of public transportation means in cities. (a) Promotion of railway utilization -Provisionof rai]~.~a'v • networks I i-Railway ~_ I 7than -
for multi-business trucks, which comprise 35 per cent of the whole freight transport volume. However, private trucks consume 51 per cent of the total energy, although their share of freight transport volume is only 15 per cent. The energy required to transport one ton of shipments one kilometre by private trucks is 17 times greater than railways and ships, and three times greater than multi-business trucks (eight times when compared to long-distance trucks).
~.
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1-Increase speeds Pro~ision of high-speed- - - ~ ] ~-('onstructing nov, Imcs net'Wol ks " "' H-Constructing double [[)ClC~INO ~)i [laltxp~ll[
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lines
:~ P~ "
]-
Increase the numher o[ coaches
L
Increasing passenger capacity
/
I
LSer ~,i~e mpr ,,c ncnts
1
['l:pgradmg . . . . . . . |convenience land comforl
[- Air-conditiom.d c~aches ~-Improvemcn! of station |facilities I '-Joining dil]'erent rail'wavs .
[
__[-u]vcrs]lDng st vie ,,I L'Mecttr, g nov. ncc,.ls
._~ coaches
L . Late-night se[ ~ice
To organize environmentally-•endly transportation As we mentioned before, not only does transportation have an integral relationship with the environment and energy, it also plays a fairly major role in resolving the problems of the environment and energy use. To arrest global warming and tackle energy issues, oil consumption should be minimized in the transport sector. At the same time, to solve local air pollution with such toxins as NOx, emissions should be reduced. To achieve these objectives, environmentallyfriendly and energy-efficient transport systems should 38
The formation of high-speed railway networks is important to attract intercity railway passengers. Thus, the future construction of Shinkansen, whose maximum speed is 220--270 km/h, is to be subsidized by the Railway Investment Fund. Also, travel time on ordinary railway lines will be reduced by introducing new technologies and through the operation of the Shinkansen on ordinary railway lines. For example, with the innovation of the Shinkansen using the regular Ou line between Fukushima and Yamagata, trave! time, which is approximately three hours and 10 minutes, was shortened by approximately 30 minutes in 1992. Tr.mport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number I
Japan's sustainable transport policy." Y. Ono 1987.11 (~l
81
1990.11 {~}
83
1991.3 Railway access to Narita a i r p o r t 1991.4 (%)
14
12
62
18
Narita Express (JR railway line)
buses, etc.
5
12
/ Private cars,
5
i
Other railway service JR and Keisei railway line}
S k y l i n e r Express (Keisei railway line)
Figure 15 Positive effects of railway access to Narita Airport
Source: New Tokyo International Airport (1992) Survey on transportation Access
Since city railways are still severely overcrowded during rush hours, it will be difficult for railways to take over the role of private cars. Speeding up and increasing the frequency and coach capacity of trains should be promoted. As a drastic measure, reconstruction to incorporate double lines and construction of new lines should be considered. In addition to the subsidies of the Railway Investment Fund, a separate railway investment fund system for designated cities, in which a proportion of transport fares is set aside by private railway companies for construction expenses, is being used for these purposes. With the general improvement of the standard of living, railway services are expected to become more comfortable and convenient. To this end, railways are being reorganized to provide a higher quality of service and convenience. (b) Promotion of bus utilization
system are as follows: • • • •
introduction of coaches with low floor and wide doors; improvements of bus-stop facilities; introduction of computers for punctuality; display of bus waiting time, etc.
Late-night bus services are already being provided so that public transport can be used late at night. Freight transport Intercity-----[- Promotion of modal shift freight L -Urban freight
Efficient intercity truck transportation Conversion from private trucks to multi-business L trucks Efficient loads of multi-business trucks
-Highway bus networks -Operation improvement
-Facility improvement Service improvement
Bus priority lanes
t Guideway bus (Unique bus system utilizing specially designed road map as well as regular roads) New bus system Improvement of coaches i-Late-night bus ~-Omni-taxi (group shared taxi by central destination)
~
Since buses are, like railways, energy-efficient transport facilities, it is important to use buses rather than private cars. Highly punctual and convenient highway bus networks are to be established for long-distance transportation. In urban areas, bus priority lanes to ensure punctuality and new computerized bus systems to attract passengers are being promoted. For example, attractive points of the new bus Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
-Construction of freight terminals
Intensification and appropriate relocation
In the interests of conservation, it is important to bring about a shift from intercity truck transport to railways and ships as these provide more efficient mass transport facilities. Also, in urban areas, where it is necessary to rely on truck transport, it is important to bring about a shift from private trucks to multibusiness trucks, as these have better energy efficiency. In intercity transport, the policy is to flexibly combine the usage of railways and ships with truck transportation. The number of container cars is to be increased with the subsidies from Railway Investment Funds. Domestic ferries, RoRo vessels and container vessels are to be provided with a loan from the Maritime Credit Cooperation. In addition, consistent palletization and piggyback transportation systems are going 39
Japan's SUslainabh, transport policy: Y. Ono
(a) lntercity freight transport -Prornotion ol modal shift
Modal shift - ~ l n c r c a s m g to rail,aa ~, | t r a n s p o r t capaclty
i
~
Increasing Ihe number of freight cars
-Increasing speeds lmpro'~.ing - - - - P i g g y b a c k transportation convemencc -Container transportation
Consistent pallctization Modal shih---~lncrcasc o f - - ~ - F e r r y , RoRo and container ~csscl to s" h i p p i n g / v e sI s, e"'l ~ L~ , " super-speed vessel t~eveloplng % ' o n s t r u c t i n g internal unit load terminal ~lmprovcmcn| oil ei'ficiencv~f -----Information networks intercity freight transport
to be established. Moreover, increasing railway speed and the development of super-high-speed ships such as the techno-super liner are being promoted. In the intercity routes where railways and ships cannot be used, transportation is inevitably dependent on trucks. Therefore. it is important to improve the efficiency of truck transport. At present, cooperative associations nationwide are mutually exchanging information on trucks and freight, and introducing information network systems for backloads. (b) Urban freight transport Shift from private trucks to multi-business
model so the consumer could make intelligent and environmental choices in their automobile selection. As a result, the average fuel efficiency has been greatly improved. However, fuel efficiency has been aggravated in recent years, as consumers are demanding more luxurious items such as automatic transmissions, air conditioners and high-powered engines, and safety devices such as sidedoor beams and air bags. With these trends, fuel efficiency should be improved by decreasing weight, improving engine efficiency and reducing mileage resistance. The selection of cars with good fuel economy. economical driving, and periodic inspections are also very important factors for fuel efficiency. Clean motor vehieh,s
Recently, clean motor vehicles have been receiving widespread attention from the viewpoint of environment and energy.
Improvement of other transport facilities Railway
trucks
improvement of the efficiency--Promotion of efficient of multi-business trucks loads Further
in urban freight transport, which mostly relies on truck transportation, the efficiency of multi-business trucks is 19 times that of private trucks, since multibusiness trucks are able to carry the freight for several shippers. Therefore, multi-business trucks should be used preferentially. Moreover, since mixed loads using urban multibusiness trucks have become unrestricted through the enforcement of the Trucking Business Law in December 1990, mixed-load transportation using business trucks is further promoted. bnprovement on automobiles i lmpro~cmcnt on fuel j-Improvement of engine efficiency effficienc~ ~-Reducing weight
(Example) lntroductioll of energy- ~ - Introduction of high level control saving coaches / m e t h o d s for energy efficiency (Chopper control, VVVF control,
I
l
Re-generative control) t - W e i g h t reduction
LPromotion of electritication
15
£y E
Average o f 10 mode fuel efficiency
10 Power s t e e r i n g
LMileage resistance reduction Introduction and use of automobiles with good fuel economy Appropriate usagc of automobiles Ilntroduction of energy saving and clean vehicles Relieving traffic congestion --FTraffic control system t . Rebuilding infrastructurc to remove bottlenecks
Through the Energy Conservation Law, the Ministry of Transport established a fuel-efficiency goal and encouraged the automobile industry to strive for this goal through technology. At the same time, the Ministry published the fuel efficiency of each automobile 40
100
-- ....
/
""
90
"'"
80 70
transmission
40 30
. S - - ~ l E x c e p t light vehicles )
120 10
[
I
l
1975
1980
1985
.__
0
1990
Fiscal year
Figure 16 Ten-mode fuel efficiency o f new domestic gasoline cars and the ratio of power steering and automatic transmission equipment of new cars Sources: Fuel efficiency calculated by the Ministry of Transport; Nissan Motor Company Ltd (1991) Automobile Industry Handbook l)'an,V~m't Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
Japan's sustainable transport policy: Y. Ono Table 6 Wastefulness of uneconomical driving Example of uneconomical driving
Wasted fuel (2000cc clam)
Sudden start 10 times, Sudden acceleration 10 times, Racing engine 10 times, Idling I0 minutes. Carrying unnecessary loads 50 k m on 10 kg,
120 cc: 120 cc: 60 cc: 140 cc: 20 cc:
can can can can can
run run run run run
1240 m 1240 m 620 m 1440 m 210 m
Source: Calculated by the Automobile Manufacturers Association
Table 7 Electric vehicles in Japan Current situation
- - A p p r o x 1500 vehicles - - M o s t of them are small cars
Evaluation of emissions
- - N o gas emissions --Effective for reducing C O 2 including energy loss at power stations
Anticipated points
- - C o m p a r e d with gasoline vehicles, they are 8~o more energy conservative - - B y diversifying sources at power stations, effective as an oil-alternative --Little noise produced
Outlooks
- - B y improving storage batteries in the future, load weight and operating distance will be expanded. With future improvements, the vehicle can be put into practical use.
Table 8 Methanol vehicles in Japan Current situation
- - A p p r o x 300 vehicles - - A sale of methanol trucks which can load 2 tons begun in Dec. 1992 as a result of 6 year fleet test
Evaluations of emissions
- - C o m p a r e d with diesel cars, N O x is reduced by half --Black smoke is not emitted
Anticipated points
- - A n oil-alternative measure
Outlooks
--Introduction of methanol trucks is expected in reducing N O x in large cities - - M e t h a n o l stands are expected to be constructed for the large-scale introduction of methanol vehicles.
Table 9 C N G (compressed natural gas) vehicles in Japan Current situation
Evaluations of emissions
- - A p p r o x 120 vehicles --Fleet tests of C N G vehicles are strongly promoted backed by the gas industries. - - C o m p a r e d with diesel cars, N O x is reduced by half --Black smoke is not emitted
Anticipated points
- - A n oil-alternative measure --Effective for reducing CO2
Outlooks
- - C N G vehicles also have the potential for large-scale introduction though C N G vehicles have not been evaluated through fleet tests.
Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
41
Japan's sustainable transport poli¢T: Y. Ono
Table 10 Diesel electricity hybrid buses and trucks in Japan Definition
Vehicles which store the energy generated during brake application as electricity in batteries, and then use the energy for spare power during acceleration
Current situation
Approx 40 buses and a few trucks Introduced for regular bus in 1991
Evaluation of emissions
Compared by diesel vehicles, NOx is reduced by 30% and black exhaust by 70°i, C O 2 emissions are reduced
Anticipated points
Compared by diesel vehicles, fuel etticiency is improved by 15°;i
Outlooks
Introduction is simple as there is no need for special facilities such as for methanol vehicles.
Shippin~ - Introduction of vessels with high propeller efficiency' -Efficiency of internal - -
(Example) ,Large direct propeller. Contra-rotating propeller Ultra-slim vessels Use of heat emitted in vessels
energy of vessels -Weight reduction
Introduction of new materials
-Use of wind e n e r g y - - - - - V e s s e l with sail of modern design -Development of methanol diesel engines for vessels
Aviation
pressure and using this to rotate turbines. An experimental wave power plant was established at Sakata Harbour (Yamagata Prefecture) in 1989.
Utilization o~ heat ener,qy exhaust./iorn underground railwat's The heat energy exhaust from underground railways is generally released into the air via ventilators. However, this energy could be recovered and utilized as a heating source for underground facilities. This system is utilized for the underground railways in Sapporo city.
lntroduction of highly en}~rgy efficient new aircraft
f
Selection of best routes Introduction of non-painted cargo aircraft
Utilization o f renewable energy The transport sector is actively trying to use renewable energy for energy savings and environmental reasons. Renewable energy use means making effective use of energy which had not previously been utilized and/or had been wasted.
Wat,e power generation Power is generated by changing wave energy to air
42
Utilization o/solar ener~lt' Solar batteries set up on the roof of stations can be used as power sources for station buildings. An experimental project is on-going at Tokyo Station.
The co-,qeneration s y s t e m
With electricity and heat emissions taken from one energy source and supplied to another area, high energy efficiency can be attained. This system will be utilized at the Kansai International Airport, presently under construction, for district air conditioning and heating.
transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Numher l
Japan's sustainable transport policy towards the 21st century Yuji Ono * Former Deputy Director, Eneroy Policy Division, Transport Policy Bureau, Ministry of Transport, Tokyo, Japan
This paper attempts to provide a better understanding of Japan's sustainable transport policy following growing concern over environmental problems and energy issues. Global warming, air pollution caused by NOx, and the energy situation in relation to the transport sector, are analysed. Possible Japanese strategies for the organization of environmentally friendly transportation are suggested. In particular, stress is laid on the formation of efficient transport systems such as the utilization of railway and bus services. The fact that improvement of fuel efficiency and stringent emission controls have not been enough to solve the problems and issues created by steadily increasing transport demands is discussed. Keywords:fuelefficiency,transportsystems, energyconsumption,vehicleemissions
Transport is essential for daily, economic and social activities as well as tourism. With economic growth and the desire to improve the quality of life, both passenger and freight transport demands are expected to increase in Japan. On the other hand, global warming has been in focus worldwide. Air pollution caused by toxins such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx) is domestically a serious problem in big cities in spite of many efforts. Also, stable and reasonably-priced energy supplies for Japan's transport sector are not secured in the long run. Under these environmental and energy constraints, transport services should be provided to satisfy the increasing transport demands. Therefore, Japan is now implementing a sustainable transport policy aimed towards the 21st century.
Global warming and transportation According to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) report, which is a result of discussions by specialists from around the world, if no measures are taken, the average temperature of the earth is predicted to increase by three degrees centigrade by the end of the 21st century, and the sea level is predicted to rise by 65 cm. When the temperature increases, the flow of air will change, and the resultant changes in climate will greatly influence various as*Theviewsexpressedin this paperdo not necessarilyreflectthose of the Ministryof Transport. 32
pects of society such as agriculture, forestry, fishery industries as well as water resources and energy. Thus, the Japanese government developed the Action Program to Arrest Global Warming in October 1990. The emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) should be established on a per capita basis for the year 2000 and beyond at about the same level as in 1990, by implementing a wide range of measures. Moreover, the adoption of the Framework Convention of Climate Change was adapted in May 1992 and then UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) was held in Brazil in June 1992 to arrest global warming as well as to conserve the environment worldwide.
The C02 emissions in the transport sector The fuel used in the transport sector is mostly petroleum. The CO2 emissions from this sector comprise about 22.5 per cent of the total CO2 emissions in Japan. With the increase of transport demands, the CO 2 emissions discharged due to the use of gasoline and light oil is expected to increase. Therefore, the transport policy is putting priority on reducing the COz emissions in the transport sector.
Air pollution and transportation Deteriorating air quality caused by nitrogen dioxide Nitrogen oxide (NOx) is a substance that is produced when something is burnt, and it is believed to have
0967q370X/93/010032-11 © 1993 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd
Japan's sustainable transport policy: Y. Ono 250 1970 = I00
J
200
GNP ~
Passenger km
150
~--
J .~/////
United States 23.7%
100 Ton km 500
1965
I
I
I
I
I
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
Others 42.9%
(
World52.25 billion tons
Former Soviet Union 18.6%
Fiscal year
Figure 1 Changes in Japanese passenger and freight transport demands Source: Ministry of Transport data
China 10.1%
Figure 3 CO 2 emissions by country in 1987 (carbonate conversion) Source: Environment White Paper (1990 FY version) CFCs 24%
Carbon dioxide 55%
Nitrous oxide (N20) 6%
7.696
Methane 15% •
(Excluding ozone)
Figure 2 Percentages of man-made greenhouse gases worldwide in the 1980s Source: IPCC (1990), Climate change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment harmful effects on the respiratory system. In addition, it also causes photochemical smog and acid rain. The N O x are mainly produced from factories, incinerators, air conditioners and heaters in buildings, and transportation such as cars. In particular, m o t o r vehicle emissions have increased in recent years because of the increased usage of m o t o r vehicles over the recent economic boom. The Environmental Agency set an environmental standard for the daily average nitrogen dioxide (NO2) density, which is within or below the range of 0.04 to 0.06 p p m along main roads in big cities. This Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
(Only fossil fuels)
Figure 4
CO 2 emissions by sector in Japan (1989)
Source: Environment White Paper (1990 FY version)
standard has not yet been achieved and pollution conditions are continuing.
Increasin9 numbers of diesel motor vehicles Although diesel vehicles have become more widespread over recent years due to their durability and 33
Japan's sustainable transport polio1". Y. Ono 9 .(31.8)
35
(8,2)
30
8 c .2
25
(5.8)
{ql.6)
(64.0)
(52.8
8
Z
_~
(3.6)
7 6
[1.6)
20
5
15
z
I
3
I
10
I
5
1
_1
0 1980
1983 End o f fiscal
I
2 I
o
1986
1
198o
989
1983
b
year
1986
1989
End of fiscal y e a r
Figure 5 The numbers of motor vehicles in use in Japan by fuel Key: [] Light oil; [] Gasoline (Incl LPG); ( ) The ratio of diesel vehicles Source: Ministry of Transport (1991 ) Land Transport Statistics good mileage, they cause a serious problem in that the NOx ratio in emissions is relatively high compared to gasoline vehicles. Apart from large-scale trucks and buses that run mostly on diesel, more than half of the small-scale trucks are also of this type. Moreover, in recent years, the number of diesel cars has been on the increase. Rein/orcement oJautomobile emission regulations To improve air pollution, especially in big cities, the Ministry of Transport set a simple emission standard in 1966. Since then, emission standards of NOx, carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) have been strengthened incrementally. As a result, one of the world's most stringent emission standards for gasoline-fuelled cars was introduced in 1978. At the same time, lead gasoline was prohibited. Further reinforcement of these standards is expected.
compared to the dollar price. On the other hand, however, it can be one of the reasons that energy consumption has been increasing in Japan. The ener#), situation in Japan In Japan, nearly 84 per cent of energy depends on imports and nearly 60 per cent of energy comes from
,oo 9O 80
I Truck
• Bus (medium, diesel)
oo
70
......
'
J
% >
60
l-'i
dJ
50
Energy and transportation Worm oil supply and demand outlooks Although the world demand for oil decreased after the second oil crisis (1978), it has started increasing once again. This trend is expected to continue, especially with the industrialization in developing countries. From the supply side, the oil production capabilities in O E C D countries are weakening and dependence on the Middle East is expected to increase. As a result, an impending fluctuation of oil supply is feared, eventually involving a situation whereby oil is used as a political tool.
I
o3 o L.
40
.2
-nTruck" Bus I (heavy, diesel) 1. . . . . .
~-- -: Car ; (gasoline) i
30 I
I I I I
. . . . . . .C. .a. r 'i j ( l i g h t , d i e s e l ) .:._. _ _
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._
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o
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~
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%
K C O
Changes in oil prices Oil prices rose sharply due to the crises in 1973 and 1978. Afterwards, prices were lowered due to increased production in O P E C countries, but there is a good possibility that they will rise once again. Fortunately, as the yen became strong, the price of imported crude oil to Japan did not change greatly 34
8m 8 m8 iZ~bZ
m
U m m
Figure 6 Reinforcement of automobile emission regulations in Japan Source: Regulations by the Ministry of Transport and Environment Agency I'ransport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number l
Japan's sustainable transport policy." Y. Ono Million b a r r e l / d a y ) 75.0
3o,
65.9
62.8
60.1
21
27
]~
27
18
[ ~
15
Eastern Europe.
OECD countries
17
30
16
~
17
Demand (%) 62
55
58
24
28
24
20
22
19
Supply
(3)
i5
30
1980
1985
31
OECD countries Former USSR and Eastern E__urope~
54
49
24
14
15
Middle East
33
--Developing countries other than those in the
28
~Middle East
1990
1995 (prospects)
14
38
34
2005 (prospects)
Figure 7 Long-term energy demand and supply outlook Source: Derived from The Oil and Gas Journal, lEA data
imported oil. Moreover, oil dependence on the Middle East is 72 per cent. On the other hand, in OECD countries, oil comprises about 43 per cent of energy consumption, and the oil dependence on the Middle East is 35 per cent. From these data it can be said that, although Japan ranks second in GNP, it is more easily influenced by 40 ~ O i l 6
>"
30
price
I/r,,k~llar
)
"C 2
10
l
".,
'"i'Ye~ 0
1970 (I dollar = 360 yen)
Figure 8
." .
',
conversion)
"",,,'"
I
I
1980 (I dollar = 218 yen)
1990 (I dollar = 142 yen)
Transition of import oil price
Source: D e r i v e d f r o m Monthly Japan Tradin9 Transport Policy 1993 Volume l Number 1
the oil situation than other countries. Therefore, its economic structure is rather fragile from the energy security point of view, Japan's long-term energy supply outlook As mentioned thus far, the most important goal is to control oil consumption in order to effectively deal with the future impending oil demands, increasing oil prices and global warming problems. Thus, the Japanese government established the Long-term Energy Supply Outlook, which corresponds to the Action Program to Arrest Global Warming in October 1990. According to this, energy conservation and the introduction of oil-alternative energy are being promoted. Japan's energy consumption in the transport sector Energy consumed by the transport sector (automobiles, railways, ships, aircraft) comprises 23 per cent of the overall energy consumption in Japan at present. After the first oil crisis, energy sources in the industrial sector were diversified and the share fell sharply. On the other hand, oil dependence for the transport sector is at a high of 98 per cent, and the consumption share is also rising. As a result, the percentage of oil products consumed in the transport sector has increased from 23 to 38 per cent, and thus the transport
35
Japan's ,suslainable Ira~ssport policy. Y. Ono
sector has a considerable influence over the total amount of oil consumption in Japan.
Table ! Japan's long-term energy supply outlook Share of energy source (%)
1991 (results)
Oil Coal Natural gases Nuclear power Hydraulic. geothermal power, etc
Fiscal year 2000
2010
51.3 17.5 1(/.9 13.3 7.0
45.3 15.7 12.2 16.9 9.9
56.7 16.9 10.6 9.8 5.9
Total energy supply (10mill K1. crude oil conversion)
5.31
5,94
6.57
Sources: MITI (1993) Comprehensive Energy Statistics; Japanese government (1990) Japan's Long-term Energy Supply and Demand Outlooks
Ener,qy consumption by transport mode Of the transport modes, motor vehicles, which are mostly cars and trucks, consume about 86 per cent of the total energy consumed by domestic transport. According to oil types, gasoline and light oil comprise 84 per cent of this total. To reduce the consumption of oil in the transport sector, gasoline and light oil consumed by motor vehicles should be curbed and the conversion to oilalternative energy should be promoted. Ener,qy consumption in passen,qer transportation Although railways comprise 30 per cent of the whole passenger transport volume in Japan, the share of
Table 2 Energy consumption by sector in Japan Sector Fiscal year
Transport
Commercial/ Residential
Industrial
Total
Energy consumption Oil conversion mill KI)
1973
47
52
1S7
285
t 991
84
89
185
358
Share of energy consumption (%)
1973
16
18
66
I(XI
199t
23
25
52
It~)
Industrial
Total
Source: MITI (1993) Comprehensive Energy Statistics
Table 3 Oil consumption by sector in Japan Sector Fiscal year
Transport
Commercial/ Residential
Oil Consumption (Mill KI)
1973
45
32
118
195
1991
82
40
S6
217
Oil dependence degree (o;)
1973
98
32
63
68
1991
98
37
49
61
Source: M ITI (1993) Comprehensive Energy Statistics
Table 4 Energy consumption share by transport mode in Japan (Fiscal year 1991)
Energy consumption share (0~i)
Motor vehicles
(Trucks
Cars
Transport mode Buses) Ships
Railways
Aircraft
86
(42
42
21
5
3
6
Source: Ministry of Transport (1993) Transport Related Energy Statistics
36
Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
Japan's sustainable transport policy: Y. Ono Table 5 C o n s u m p t i o n share of fuel type by mode in Japan (Fiscal year 1991) Transport mode (%)
Gasoline
Light oil
M o t o r vehicles Trucks Cars Buses Ships Railways
55 27 84 21 0 0
42 73 11 79 1 7
Fuel type Heavy oil
Electricity
LPG
0 0 0 0 99 0
2 0 5 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 93
Source: Same as Table 4
energy consumption in this sector is only eight per cent. In the same way, the share of energy consumption is three per cent for buses, which comprise six per cent of the whole passenger transport volume. On the other hand, private cars comprise 43 per cent of the passenger transport volume, but they consume up to 65 per cent of energy consumed by the whole passenger transport. Regarding the energy required to transport one person one kilometre, private cars require five times the energy of railways and three times the energy of buses. Energy consumption is further calculated for the following models: Model 1 ." Inter-city passenger transport. When driving from T o k y o to Osaka, even with smooth highway conditions, the energy consumption of private cars is 4.6 times more than that of Shinkansen and highway buses, and even worse, 1.5 times more than that of aircraft. Model 2: Urban passenger transport. During rush hours in the metropolitan area, even with a higher estimation, the energy consumption of private cars is 23 times more than that of the underground and private railways, and 16 times more than that of buses.
Railways
1.----,
~
Com~nerclal busesI Private cars
(102 kcal/person km)
100 I
168 ] 534
(173 kcal/peraon km) (547 kcal/person km)
Figure 10 Energy required to transport one person one kilometre. (Given that railways are 100) Source: Calculated by the Ministry of Transport
Bullet train ~
100
buses I----i p Aircraft Highway
300
Private cars
] 461
Figure l l
Comparison of energy required to transport one person from Tokyo to Osaka by mode (Fiscal year 1990). (Given that railways are 100.) Note that: *Aircraft: jumbo jet B747 between airports; *Private cars: calculated with average mileage of 10 km/l and average passengers of 1.6; *The distance between Tokyo and Osaka is approximately 550 km. Source: Calculated by the Ministry of Transport Underground and railways
00
Buaes
Private cars Energy consumption I share (%)
65
Railways Commercial buses
E3B8
Cars Others
2/4
Transport volume share (%)
43
30
21
Figure 9 The share of energy consumption and transport volume by mode in passenger transportation in Japan (Fiscal year 1990) Source: Ministry of Transport (1993) Transport Related Energy Statistics Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
2343
Figure 12 Comparison of energy consumption per person using Tokyo metropolitan area as a model (Fiscal year 1990). (Given that undergound and railways are 100.) Note that: *All modes: calculated with an average mileage of 8 km/l and average passengers of 1.6 Sources: Calculated by the Ministry of Transport Energy consumption in freight transportation Although ships and railways comprise 45 per cent and five per cent of the whole freight transport volume in Japan, their share of energy consumption is only nine per cent and one per cent respectively. In the same way, the share of energy consumption is 38 per cent 37
Japan's sustainable transport policy: Y. Ono
Railways Multi-business Private trucks trucks Ships Energy- ] consumption share (%)
Airplanes 1
be organized to ensure the best use of public transportation in both passenger and freight transport. At the same time, in every mode of transportation, energy conservation and the introduction of oil-alternative energy should be strongly promoted. Passenger ll'd/ls])o/'l
Tr...port
q5
sh;r°leU(r%~[_~
Figure 13 The share of energy consumption and transport volume by mode in freight transportation in Japan (Fiscal year 1990) Source: Ministry of Transport (1993) Transport Related Energy Statistics Railways
h
~JlO0
Shlps
~I02
Multi-business trucks
~
]
(118 kcal/ton km)
(121 kcal/ton km) 529
(620 kcal/ton km)
(Long-dlstance trucks) ~ 2 0 3
(246 kcal/ton km)
Private trucks
I 1709
I
(2013 kcal/ton km)
Figure 14 Energy required to transport one ton of shipments one kilometre. (Given that railways are t00.) Note that: *Multi-business trucks: trucks used by transport companies; *Private trucks: trucks used for their own business (excluding transport companies) Source: Calculated by the Ministry of Transport
• • • •
promotion of railway utilization; promotion of bus utilization: improvement of accessibility: cooperative usage of private cars.
It is important to shift the means of passenger transport from private cars to public transportation such as railways and buses for passenger transport. Therefore, to make railways and buses more attractive to passengers, efforts have been made to increase the transport capacity and to extend service hours until late at night. The introduction of air-conditioned cars and comfortable compartments is also in progress. Furthermore, to upgrade the convenience and accessibility of airports by railways, the adjustments of railway and bus time-tables, and the connections between different railway lines, should be improved. The park and ride system, in which carparks are set up in the vicinity of railway stations, is also effective in promoting the use of public transportation means in cities. (a) Promotion of railway utilization -Provisionof rai]~.~a'v • networks I i-Railway ~_ I 7than -
for multi-business trucks, which comprise 35 per cent of the whole freight transport volume. However, private trucks consume 51 per cent of the total energy, although their share of freight transport volume is only 15 per cent. The energy required to transport one ton of shipments one kilometre by private trucks is 17 times greater than railways and ships, and three times greater than multi-business trucks (eight times when compared to long-distance trucks).
~.
I
---
1-Increase speeds Pro~ision of high-speed- - - ~ ] ~-('onstructing nov, Imcs net'Wol ks " "' H-Constructing double [[)ClC~INO ~)i [laltxp~ll[
~l
lines
:~ P~ "
]-
Increase the numher o[ coaches
L
Increasing passenger capacity
/
I
LSer ~,i~e mpr ,,c ncnts
1
['l:pgradmg . . . . . . . |convenience land comforl
[- Air-conditiom.d c~aches ~-Improvemcn! of station |facilities I '-Joining dil]'erent rail'wavs .
[
__[-u]vcrs]lDng st vie ,,I L'Mecttr, g nov. ncc,.ls
._~ coaches
L . Late-night se[ ~ice
To organize environmentally-•endly transportation As we mentioned before, not only does transportation have an integral relationship with the environment and energy, it also plays a fairly major role in resolving the problems of the environment and energy use. To arrest global warming and tackle energy issues, oil consumption should be minimized in the transport sector. At the same time, to solve local air pollution with such toxins as NOx, emissions should be reduced. To achieve these objectives, environmentallyfriendly and energy-efficient transport systems should 38
The formation of high-speed railway networks is important to attract intercity railway passengers. Thus, the future construction of Shinkansen, whose maximum speed is 220--270 km/h, is to be subsidized by the Railway Investment Fund. Also, travel time on ordinary railway lines will be reduced by introducing new technologies and through the operation of the Shinkansen on ordinary railway lines. For example, with the innovation of the Shinkansen using the regular Ou line between Fukushima and Yamagata, trave! time, which is approximately three hours and 10 minutes, was shortened by approximately 30 minutes in 1992. Tr.mport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number I
Japan's sustainable transport policy." Y. Ono 1987.11 (~l
81
1990.11 {~}
83
1991.3 Railway access to Narita a i r p o r t 1991.4 (%)
14
12
62
18
Narita Express (JR railway line)
buses, etc.
5
12
/ Private cars,
5
i
Other railway service JR and Keisei railway line}
S k y l i n e r Express (Keisei railway line)
Figure 15 Positive effects of railway access to Narita Airport
Source: New Tokyo International Airport (1992) Survey on transportation Access
Since city railways are still severely overcrowded during rush hours, it will be difficult for railways to take over the role of private cars. Speeding up and increasing the frequency and coach capacity of trains should be promoted. As a drastic measure, reconstruction to incorporate double lines and construction of new lines should be considered. In addition to the subsidies of the Railway Investment Fund, a separate railway investment fund system for designated cities, in which a proportion of transport fares is set aside by private railway companies for construction expenses, is being used for these purposes. With the general improvement of the standard of living, railway services are expected to become more comfortable and convenient. To this end, railways are being reorganized to provide a higher quality of service and convenience. (b) Promotion of bus utilization
system are as follows: • • • •
introduction of coaches with low floor and wide doors; improvements of bus-stop facilities; introduction of computers for punctuality; display of bus waiting time, etc.
Late-night bus services are already being provided so that public transport can be used late at night. Freight transport Intercity-----[- Promotion of modal shift freight L -Urban freight
Efficient intercity truck transportation Conversion from private trucks to multi-business L trucks Efficient loads of multi-business trucks
-Highway bus networks -Operation improvement
-Facility improvement Service improvement
Bus priority lanes
t Guideway bus (Unique bus system utilizing specially designed road map as well as regular roads) New bus system Improvement of coaches i-Late-night bus ~-Omni-taxi (group shared taxi by central destination)
~
Since buses are, like railways, energy-efficient transport facilities, it is important to use buses rather than private cars. Highly punctual and convenient highway bus networks are to be established for long-distance transportation. In urban areas, bus priority lanes to ensure punctuality and new computerized bus systems to attract passengers are being promoted. For example, attractive points of the new bus Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
-Construction of freight terminals
Intensification and appropriate relocation
In the interests of conservation, it is important to bring about a shift from intercity truck transport to railways and ships as these provide more efficient mass transport facilities. Also, in urban areas, where it is necessary to rely on truck transport, it is important to bring about a shift from private trucks to multibusiness trucks, as these have better energy efficiency. In intercity transport, the policy is to flexibly combine the usage of railways and ships with truck transportation. The number of container cars is to be increased with the subsidies from Railway Investment Funds. Domestic ferries, RoRo vessels and container vessels are to be provided with a loan from the Maritime Credit Cooperation. In addition, consistent palletization and piggyback transportation systems are going 39
Japan's SUslainabh, transport policy: Y. Ono
(a) lntercity freight transport -Prornotion ol modal shift
Modal shift - ~ l n c r c a s m g to rail,aa ~, | t r a n s p o r t capaclty
i
~
Increasing Ihe number of freight cars
-Increasing speeds lmpro'~.ing - - - - P i g g y b a c k transportation convemencc -Container transportation
Consistent pallctization Modal shih---~lncrcasc o f - - ~ - F e r r y , RoRo and container ~csscl to s" h i p p i n g / v e sI s, e"'l ~ L~ , " super-speed vessel t~eveloplng % ' o n s t r u c t i n g internal unit load terminal ~lmprovcmcn| oil ei'ficiencv~f -----Information networks intercity freight transport
to be established. Moreover, increasing railway speed and the development of super-high-speed ships such as the techno-super liner are being promoted. In the intercity routes where railways and ships cannot be used, transportation is inevitably dependent on trucks. Therefore. it is important to improve the efficiency of truck transport. At present, cooperative associations nationwide are mutually exchanging information on trucks and freight, and introducing information network systems for backloads. (b) Urban freight transport Shift from private trucks to multi-business
model so the consumer could make intelligent and environmental choices in their automobile selection. As a result, the average fuel efficiency has been greatly improved. However, fuel efficiency has been aggravated in recent years, as consumers are demanding more luxurious items such as automatic transmissions, air conditioners and high-powered engines, and safety devices such as sidedoor beams and air bags. With these trends, fuel efficiency should be improved by decreasing weight, improving engine efficiency and reducing mileage resistance. The selection of cars with good fuel economy. economical driving, and periodic inspections are also very important factors for fuel efficiency. Clean motor vehieh,s
Recently, clean motor vehicles have been receiving widespread attention from the viewpoint of environment and energy.
Improvement of other transport facilities Railway
trucks
improvement of the efficiency--Promotion of efficient of multi-business trucks loads Further
in urban freight transport, which mostly relies on truck transportation, the efficiency of multi-business trucks is 19 times that of private trucks, since multibusiness trucks are able to carry the freight for several shippers. Therefore, multi-business trucks should be used preferentially. Moreover, since mixed loads using urban multibusiness trucks have become unrestricted through the enforcement of the Trucking Business Law in December 1990, mixed-load transportation using business trucks is further promoted. bnprovement on automobiles i lmpro~cmcnt on fuel j-Improvement of engine efficiency effficienc~ ~-Reducing weight
(Example) lntroductioll of energy- ~ - Introduction of high level control saving coaches / m e t h o d s for energy efficiency (Chopper control, VVVF control,
I
l
Re-generative control) t - W e i g h t reduction
LPromotion of electritication
15
£y E
Average o f 10 mode fuel efficiency
10 Power s t e e r i n g
LMileage resistance reduction Introduction and use of automobiles with good fuel economy Appropriate usagc of automobiles Ilntroduction of energy saving and clean vehicles Relieving traffic congestion --FTraffic control system t . Rebuilding infrastructurc to remove bottlenecks
Through the Energy Conservation Law, the Ministry of Transport established a fuel-efficiency goal and encouraged the automobile industry to strive for this goal through technology. At the same time, the Ministry published the fuel efficiency of each automobile 40
100
-- ....
/
""
90
"'"
80 70
transmission
40 30
. S - - ~ l E x c e p t light vehicles )
120 10
[
I
l
1975
1980
1985
.__
0
1990
Fiscal year
Figure 16 Ten-mode fuel efficiency o f new domestic gasoline cars and the ratio of power steering and automatic transmission equipment of new cars Sources: Fuel efficiency calculated by the Ministry of Transport; Nissan Motor Company Ltd (1991) Automobile Industry Handbook l)'an,V~m't Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
Japan's sustainable transport policy: Y. Ono Table 6 Wastefulness of uneconomical driving Example of uneconomical driving
Wasted fuel (2000cc clam)
Sudden start 10 times, Sudden acceleration 10 times, Racing engine 10 times, Idling I0 minutes. Carrying unnecessary loads 50 k m on 10 kg,
120 cc: 120 cc: 60 cc: 140 cc: 20 cc:
can can can can can
run run run run run
1240 m 1240 m 620 m 1440 m 210 m
Source: Calculated by the Automobile Manufacturers Association
Table 7 Electric vehicles in Japan Current situation
- - A p p r o x 1500 vehicles - - M o s t of them are small cars
Evaluation of emissions
- - N o gas emissions --Effective for reducing C O 2 including energy loss at power stations
Anticipated points
- - C o m p a r e d with gasoline vehicles, they are 8~o more energy conservative - - B y diversifying sources at power stations, effective as an oil-alternative --Little noise produced
Outlooks
- - B y improving storage batteries in the future, load weight and operating distance will be expanded. With future improvements, the vehicle can be put into practical use.
Table 8 Methanol vehicles in Japan Current situation
- - A p p r o x 300 vehicles - - A sale of methanol trucks which can load 2 tons begun in Dec. 1992 as a result of 6 year fleet test
Evaluations of emissions
- - C o m p a r e d with diesel cars, N O x is reduced by half --Black smoke is not emitted
Anticipated points
- - A n oil-alternative measure
Outlooks
--Introduction of methanol trucks is expected in reducing N O x in large cities - - M e t h a n o l stands are expected to be constructed for the large-scale introduction of methanol vehicles.
Table 9 C N G (compressed natural gas) vehicles in Japan Current situation
Evaluations of emissions
- - A p p r o x 120 vehicles --Fleet tests of C N G vehicles are strongly promoted backed by the gas industries. - - C o m p a r e d with diesel cars, N O x is reduced by half --Black smoke is not emitted
Anticipated points
- - A n oil-alternative measure --Effective for reducing CO2
Outlooks
- - C N G vehicles also have the potential for large-scale introduction though C N G vehicles have not been evaluated through fleet tests.
Transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Number 1
41
Japan's sustainable transport poli¢T: Y. Ono
Table 10 Diesel electricity hybrid buses and trucks in Japan Definition
Vehicles which store the energy generated during brake application as electricity in batteries, and then use the energy for spare power during acceleration
Current situation
Approx 40 buses and a few trucks Introduced for regular bus in 1991
Evaluation of emissions
Compared by diesel vehicles, NOx is reduced by 30% and black exhaust by 70°i, C O 2 emissions are reduced
Anticipated points
Compared by diesel vehicles, fuel etticiency is improved by 15°;i
Outlooks
Introduction is simple as there is no need for special facilities such as for methanol vehicles.
Shippin~ - Introduction of vessels with high propeller efficiency' -Efficiency of internal - -
(Example) ,Large direct propeller. Contra-rotating propeller Ultra-slim vessels Use of heat emitted in vessels
energy of vessels -Weight reduction
Introduction of new materials
-Use of wind e n e r g y - - - - - V e s s e l with sail of modern design -Development of methanol diesel engines for vessels
Aviation
pressure and using this to rotate turbines. An experimental wave power plant was established at Sakata Harbour (Yamagata Prefecture) in 1989.
Utilization o~ heat ener,qy exhaust./iorn underground railwat's The heat energy exhaust from underground railways is generally released into the air via ventilators. However, this energy could be recovered and utilized as a heating source for underground facilities. This system is utilized for the underground railways in Sapporo city.
lntroduction of highly en}~rgy efficient new aircraft
f
Selection of best routes Introduction of non-painted cargo aircraft
Utilization o f renewable energy The transport sector is actively trying to use renewable energy for energy savings and environmental reasons. Renewable energy use means making effective use of energy which had not previously been utilized and/or had been wasted.
Wat,e power generation Power is generated by changing wave energy to air
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Utilization o/solar ener~lt' Solar batteries set up on the roof of stations can be used as power sources for station buildings. An experimental project is on-going at Tokyo Station.
The co-,qeneration s y s t e m
With electricity and heat emissions taken from one energy source and supplied to another area, high energy efficiency can be attained. This system will be utilized at the Kansai International Airport, presently under construction, for district air conditioning and heating.
transport Policy 1993 Volume 1 Numher l