Karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) biodiesel production in Bangladesh, characterization of karanja biodiesel and its effect on diesel emissions

Karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) biodiesel production in Bangladesh, characterization of karanja biodiesel and its effect on diesel emissions

Fuel Processing Technology 90 (2009) 1080–1086 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Fuel Processing Technology j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : ...

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Fuel Processing Technology 90 (2009) 1080–1086

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel Processing Technology j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / f u p r o c

Karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) biodiesel production in Bangladesh, characterization of karanja biodiesel and its effect on diesel emissions Md. Nurun Nabi ⁎,1, S.M. Najmul Hoque, Md. Shamim Akhter Department of Mechanical Engineering, RUET, Bangladesh

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 11 April 2009 Received in revised form 18 April 2009 Accepted 20 April 2009 Keywords: Karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) oil Transesterification process BD Fuel properties Engine emission

a b s t r a c t This paper presents production of biodiesel (BD) from non-edible renewable karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) oil, determination of BD properties and influence of BD on engine performance and emissions. Bangladesh imports 2.4 million metric ton (MT) DF each year [M.N. Nabi, M.S. Akhter, K.M.F. Islam, Prospect of biodiesel production from jatropha curcas, a promising non edible oil seed in Bangladesh, International Conference on Mechanical Engineering (ICME, Dhaka, Bangladesh) Proceedings 2007, paper no. ICME07-TH-06. [1]]. It has 0.32 million hectare of unused land [M.N. Nabi, S.M.N. Hoque, M.S. Uddin, Prospect of Jatropha curcas and pithraj cultivation in Bangladesh, Journal of Engineering and Technology, IUT, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 7 (1) (2009) 41–54. [2]]. It has been found that cultivating of karanja plant in such unused land; Bangladesh can reduce DF import by 28%. Karanja methyl ester (KME), which is termed as BD, has been produced by well-known transesterification process. The properties of B100 (B100) and its blends were determined mainly according to ASTM standard and some of them were as per EN14214 standard. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis showed that the DF fuel contained mainly alkanes and alkens, while the B100 contained mainly esters. The gas chromatography (GC) of B100 revealed that a maximum of 97% methyl ester was produced from karanja oil. Engine experiment result showed that all BD blends reduced engine emissions including carbon monoxide (CO), smoke and engine noise, but increased oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Compared to DF, B100 reduced CO, and smoke emissions by 50 and 43%, while a 15% increase in NOx emission was observed with the B100. Compared to DF, engine noise with B100 was reduced by 2.5 dB. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Due to non renewable nature of fossil fuels, different nations are looking into different vegetable oils as potential DF replacement. USA and some European countries use soybean and rapeseed oils for production of BD and the effect of these BDs on engine performance and emissions have been conducted previously [3,4]. But soybean and rapeseed oils are edible in nature. Densely populated countries like Bangladesh, India and some Asian countries cannot afford edible oils as a fuel substitute. Use of such edible oil to produce BD in these countries is not feasible in view of a big gap in the demand and supply of such oils for dietary consumption. Specially in Bangladesh and India, a variety of nonedible oils like karanja jatropha, neem, linseed, mahua, karanja, rice bran, and castor are available in surplus quantities. Rudolf Diesel, the inventor of the diesel engine, made engine experiments on groundnut oil at the Paris exposition of 1900. Since then, vegetable oils have been used as fuels when petroleum supplies are expensive or difficult to obtain. The use of raw vegetable oils in engines without any modification results in poor performance and leads to wear of engine components [5]. The ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +47 46359849. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (M.N. Nabi). 1 Currently Postdoc Researcher at Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway. 0378-3820/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.fuproc.2009.04.014

problems faced with raw vegetable oils as fuels are poor atomization due to their high viscosity and incomplete combustion leading to higher smoke density. Kumar et al. [6] and Huzayyin et al. [7] reported that the emissions of CO, HC and SOx are found to be higher, whereas NOx and particulate emission are lower compared to petro DF. Since straight vegetable oils are not suitable as fuels for diesel engines, they have to be modified to bring their combustion related properties closer to diesel. This fuel modification is mainly aimed at reducing the viscosity to eliminate flow or atomization related problems. Several techniques can be used to reduce the viscosity of vegetable oils, such as, pyrolysis, microemulsion and transesterification [8]. Due to price hike and nonrenewable nature of fossil fuel BD is one of the best options for nowadays automotive fuel. All vegetable oils or fats are triglycerides. These triglycerides are converted to mono alkyl esters, through a transesterification process. Transesterification is a well-known and well established chemical reaction in which alcohol reacts with the triglycerides of fatty acids (vegetable oils or animal fats) in presence of a catalyst. The alcohol may be methyl alcohol or ethyl alcohol and the catalyst may be NaOH or KOH. It is a reversible reaction of fats or oils (triglycerides) with a primary alcohol to form esters and glycerol. The alcohol combines with the triglycerides to form glycerol and esters. The stoichiometry for the reaction is 3:1 molar ratio of alcohol to oil, however, since the reaction is reversible, in practice, excess alcohol is required to shift the equilibrium to the products side to raise the product yield [9,10]. Methanol and

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ethanol are used most frequently, specially methanol because of its low cost and its physical and chemical advantages (polar and shortest chain alcohol). It can quickly react with triglycerides, and NaOH gets easily dissolved in it. [10]. For a base catalyst transesterification, triglycerides should have low free fatty acid (FFA) and the catalyst must be anhydrous because water makes the reaction partially change to saponification, which produces soap. Soap formation lowers the yield of esters and renders the separation of esters and glycerol as well as water washing of esters is difficult [10]. For oils or fats having high FFA acid esterification are advantageous, as acid catalyze the FFA esterification to produce fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), increasing the BD yield, but reaction time and alcohol requirement are substantially higher than those of base catalyzed transesterification [11]. Besides acid and base catalyzed transesterification, several researchers [12–14] did transesterification without using any catalyst in supercritical methanol, which eliminates the need for the water washing. Saka et al. [13] and Kusadina et al. [14] found that in supercritical methanol, the reaction requires only 4 min, and also, the presence of water did not affect the yield of ester, but substantially high pressure, temperature and very high molar ratio of alcohol to oil is required. Boocock et al. [15] reported that the addition of a co-solvent (tetrahydrofuran and methyl tertiary butyl ether) creates a single phase, and this accelerates the reaction so that it reaches substantial completion in a few minutes. It has been reported that the tailpipe emissions with BD are significantly lower as BD is a partially oxygenated fuel [16]. The objectives of the proposed project are to reduce import of DF, security of BD supply and creating employment opportunities in Bangladesh. The purposes of the proposed project were to focus mainly on gradual development of plots and cultivation of karanja plant on the areas, where crop cultivation was not done. It was specially emphasized to cultivate karanja plant in the huge unused area (wasteland) in the southern part of Bangladesh. Also this work was a motivation to cultivate the karanja plant along the huge unused sideways of railway tracks. 2. Materials and methods for BD production Biodiesel was produced by acid esterification followed by transesterification process due to high FFA concentration in the karanja oil. For acid esterification H2SO4 was used as catalyst. For base catalyzed transesterification process methanol was used as alcohol and NaOH was used as lye catalyst. Instead of methanol and NaOH, ethanol or KOH can also be used for making biodiesel. Methanol and NaOH were used for lower cost and higher conversion efficiency. Karanja seed were collected from local farmers in Bangladesh. The crude karanja oil was extracted mechanically with a crushing machine from which a maximum of 31% oil was extracted. Eijck et al. [17] reported that a maximum of 33% oil was extracted from jatropha seed using a screw press. For maximum production of BD, extensive investigations were conducted to optimize the best condition. Karanja oil contains approximately 20% FFA [18]; therefore acid esterification was carried out to reduce the FFA concentration to less than 1%. Base catalyzed transesterification was then carried out. 2.1. Purification (acid pretreatment) Karanja oil were filtered and preprocessed to remove water and contaminants, and then fed to the acid esterification process. High FFA to karanja oil leads to soap formation during Alkaline (base catalyzed) transesterification. Different ratios of methanol to oil were investigated for low acid value of less than 2 mg KOH/g-oil and low FFA concentration of less than 1%. For acid pretreatment a round flask was used. A hot plate with a magnetic stirrer was used for heating the mixture in the flask. The karanja oil was taken into the flask and heated. Then methanol and 1% H2SO4 were added to the flask and heated continuously for an hour. Berchmans et al. [19] reported that for complete FFA esterification in some vegetable oils, the reaction temperature has been set to 50 °C, the reaction time 1 h and the acid to oil ratio 1% w/w. During heating and

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stirring the mixture, acid value and FFA concentration were tested. When the FFA concentration was less than 1% the alkalized transesterification was then conducted with pretreatment karanja oil. 2.2. Alkaline (base catalyzed) transesterification Based on the discussion in Section 2.1 it was expected to get maximum biodiesel when the acid value was less than 2 mg KOH/g-oil and the FFA concentration in karanja oil was less than 1% using base catalyzed transesterification. For base catalyzed transesterification, different parameters including catalyst to oil ratio (w/w), methanol to oil ratio (w/w), and the reaction temperature were investigated. The acid value was found to be less than 2% and the FFA concentration was less than 1% at a methanol to oil ratio of 55 wt.%. It was also observed that the BD yield was maximum (97%) for methanol to oil ratio of 20% (w/w) and NaOH to oil ratio of 1%. The current results are almost identical to those of Berchmans et al. [19]. 3. Experimental setup and procedure of experimentation The engine used in this experiment was a single cylinder, watercooled, NA, 4-stroke, DI diesel engine. The engine was a commercial diesel engine and it was coupled with a dynamometer. The specifications of the engine are shown in Table 1. The engine speed was measured directly from the tachometer attached with the dynamometer. A water brake dynamomer was used for engine torque measurement. The outlet temperatures of cooling water and exhaust gas were measured directly from the thermocouples (Ni–Cr) attached to the corresponding passages. The dynamic fuel injection timing was set at 24° BTDC (before top dead center). The emissions of NOx and CO were measured with a portable digital gas analyzer (IMR 1400) (specification shown in Table 2). The engine noise was measured with a sound level meter of model CEL-228 (Impulse Sound Level Meter). The exhaust emissions were measured at 30 cm from the exhaust valve. The engine speed was kept fixed at 1200 rpm and an inclined water tube manometer connected to the air box (drum) was used to measure the air pressure. Fuel consumption was measured by a burette attached to the engine and a stop watch was used to measure fuel consumption time for every 10 cm3 fuel. A mechanical fuel pump and a one hole injector nozzle with a hole diameter of 0.25 mm was used in the injection system. Each experimental data reading was taken three times and the mean of the three was taken. 4. Results and discussion 4.1. Quantity of BD production in Bangladesh In Bangladesh BD from Karanja oil can be produced and the quantity of BD can be calculated as follows: Unused land in Bangladesh: 0.32 million hectare Expected seed per hectare per annum: 9 MT [20]

Table 1 Specification of the tested engine. Engine type

4-stroke DI diesel engine

Number of cylinders Bore × stroke Swept volume Compression ratio Rated power Types of fuel pump Fuel injection pressure

One 80 × 110 mm 553 cc 16.5:1 4.476 kW at 1800 rpm High pressure mechanical type 14 MPa (at low speed, 900 to 1099 rpm) 20 MPa (at high speed, 1100 to 1800 rpm) 24 °BTDC Pintle One 0.25 mm

Fuel injection timing Type of injection nozzle Number of nozzle hole Nozzle hole diameter

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Table 2 Gas analyzer specification (IMR-1400). Parameter/principle

Range/resolution

Accuracy

O2 oxygen Electrochem sensor CO carbon monoxide electrochem sensor H2 compensated CO2 carbon dioxide calculated

0–20.9% 0.1 vol.% 0–2000/4000 ppm

± 0.2%

CO nitric oxide electrochem. Sensor Draft draft/pressure pressure sensor T-GA gas temperature thermocouple NiCrNi T-R room temperature thermo sensor Air probe Condensate trap

0–CO2 max 0.1 vol.% 0–2000 ppm⁎⁎⁎ − 60............+60 hPa 0.01 hPa/0.1 hPa − 20 °C.........+ 1200 °C 1 °C − 20 °C.........+ 1200 °C 1 °C Integrated current sensor Bulb type manually emptied

Z ± 0.2% Z 2% 1% v. M./ ± 1 °C ± 1 °C Air probe Condensate trap

Z: 0–20% of measuring range: 1% of full scale. ⁎⁎⁎21–100% of measuring range: 5% of reading.

Expected karanja oil per hectare per annum: 2.17 MT (considering 31% conversion from seed to oil. taking 7 MT seed for calculation) Expected BD production per hectare per annum: 2.10 MT (97% conversion) So, in 0.32 million hectare land, the amount of BD production will be 0.67 million MT per year. As Bangladesh imports 2.4 million MT diesel fuel each year, the country can reduce importing automotive DF by 28% (0.67 × 100)/2.4 ≈ 28%). 4.2. Properties of tested fuels Table 3 shows the properties of DF, B100 and its blends. Most of the properties were determined according to the ASTM standard; some of them were determined as per EN 14214 standard. The empirical formula for DF and B100 are C7.08H14.88 and C6.33H11.51O0.775 respectively. The carbon to hydrogen ratio and hydrogen to carbon molar

ratio of B100 were close to DF. Density, and viscosity were higher for B100 but within the ASTM standard. Free glycerin, total glycerin, ester content, and methanol were also within the ASTM and EN 14214 standards. The heating value of B100 was lower as B100 contains about 12% oxygen in its molecular structure. The flash point of B100 was high which are helpful for safe transportation. The cetane number of B100 was higher than that of DF. Table 3 also reports the results for biodiesel made from karanja oil in percentage mass/mass of total FAME. The FAME of karanja oil was found to be 97%. It was reported [21] that the WME (Waste Fryer Grease Methyl Ester) with high performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC) was found to be 96%. Distillation is the process of heating a liquid until it boils, capturing and cooling the resultant hot vapors, and collecting the condensed vapors. Fig. 1 shows the distillation temperature of DF, B100 and its blends. It can be seen from the figure that the B100 and its blends have a wider distillation temperature range. Compared to DF, the distillation temperatures of B100 and its blends were higher than those of DF. The FTIR spectrums of DF and B100 were recorded after scanning on the FTIR is shown in Fig. 2(a) and (b) respectively. Table 4 represents the functional group compositional analysis for the DF and B100. The strong absorbance peaks between 3000 and 2850 cm− 1 represented the C–H vibrations, between 1470 and 1450 cm− 1 represented C–H bending, between 1370 and 1350 cm− 1 and between 725 and 700 cm− 1 represented C–H rock indicating the presence of alkanes. The C–H bending vibrations between 1000 and 650 cm− 1 indicated the alkenes. For B100 the peak from 1800–1000 cm− 1 shows many overlapping peaks. The next dominant peaks were found in between 3000 and 1800 cm− 1. The absorbance peaks between 3000 and 2850 cm− 1 represented the C–H vibrations and between 725 and 700 cm− 1 represented the C–H rock indicating the presence of alkanes. The strong absorbance peaks between 1750 and 1700 represented carbonyl group (CfO) absorption, known as esters. The sharp carbonyl peak was found to be at 1742.3 cm− 1. The esters peak can also be found at 1300–1000 cm− 1. The B100 shows almost no moisture content in the band of 3300–2500 cm− 1. Based on the above discussions, the data of transmittance spectrums shown in Table 4 indicated that the DF was mainly aliphatic compounds,

Table 3 Properties of tested fuel. Properties

Limits for FAME (B100)

Determined by authors Method

B10

B25

B50

B100

DF

Density at 15 °C g/cc K. viscosity at 40 °C cSt Distillation 90% °C Flash point °C Sulfur % mass Water % vol Oxidation stability hrs Cetane number Copper strip corrosion 3 h at 50 °C Heating value MJ/kg Cold filter plugging point °C Acid value mg/KOH Methanol % m/m Total FAME % m/m Free glycerol % m/m Monoglyceride % m/m Diglyceride % m/m Triglyceride % m/m Iodine value Phosphorus % m/m Carbon residue % m/m Empirical formula Carbon (wt.%) Hydrogen (wt.%) Oxygen (wt.%) C/H ratio H/C molar ratio

0.87–0.90 1.9–6.0 360 max N 130 0.05 max 0.05 3 min 47 min 1 max – – 0.5 max 0.2 max 96.5 min 0.02 max 0.8 max 0.2 max 0.2 max 120 max 0.001 max 0.05 max – – – – – –

ASTM D4052 ASTM D445 ASTM D1160 ASTM D93 ASTM D5453 ASTM D2709 EN 14112 ASTM D613 ASTM D130 ASTM D240 EN116 ASTM D974 EN14110 EN14103 EN14105 EN14105 EN14105 EN14105 EN14111 ASTM D4951 ASTM D4530 – ASTM D3176 ASTM D3176 ASTM D3176 – –

0.832 3.02 319 80.5 – – – 50.5 – 43.5 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

0.839 3.31 324 97.6 – – – 51.5 – 43.1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

0.856 3.81 329 123.5 – – – 53 – 42.1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

0.89 4.85 348 180 0.002 0.005 6 58 1a 40.75 −7 0.42 0.005 97.0 0.022 0.65 0.16 0.12 89 nil 0.002 C6.33H11.51O0.775 76 11.6 12.4 6.55 1.82

0.83 2.88 318 71 – – 29 50 – 44.1 −29 – – – – – – – 10 – – C7.08H14.88 85 15 0 5.66 2.1

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Table 4 FTIR analysis of DF and B100. DF

B100

Frequency range (cm− 1)

Bond type

Family

Frequency range (cm− 1)

Bond type

Family

3000–2850

Alkanes

3000–2850

Alkanes

Alkanes

725–700

C–H stretching C–H rock

1370–1350

C–H stretching C–H bending C–H rock

Alkanes

1750–1700

Esters

725–720

C–H rock

Alkanes

1300–1000

1000–650

fC–H bend

Alkenes

3300–2500

CfO stretching C–O stretching O–H stretching

1470–1450

Alkanes

Esters Carboxylic acid

4.3. Engine performance and emissions Fig. 1. Distillation temperature of DF and different BD blends.

while B100 was mainly an ester compound. Zagonel et al.’s [22] FTIR analysis for ethyl ester showed that the ester peak was found at around 1730 cm− 1 and at 900–1500 cm− 1. Seng et al. [23] conducted FTIR analysis of pyrolytic oil. The result showed that the oil contains different functional group compositions at different frequency ranges. Aliske et al. [24] carried out FTIR analysis with soybean oil methyl ester (biodiesel). Authors compared the FTIR result with diesel fuel. They found that the ester peak for biodiesel was found at an absorbance peak of 1700– 1800 cm− 1. The absorbance peak of biodiesel was clearly different from that of the diesel fuel.

Fig. 3 reveals higher CO emission with DF relative to B100 and its blends. CO is the cause of incomplete combustion. It can be seen from the figure that CO emission increases at high load due to incomplete combustion as more fuel was injected at higher loads. CO emission decreased with an increase in B100 and its blends due to presence of oxygen in BD and possibly higher combustion temperature. With high combustion temperature CO was oxidized to CO2. In the present investigation, CO emissions of B100 and its blends were lower than those of DF, possibly due to their lower carbon content. It is to be noted that a maximum of 50% reduction in smoke emission was realized with B100 fuel and at high load condition. Rakopoulos et al. [25] reported lower CO emissions with various biodiesels. Fig. 4 demonstrates the variations of smoke emissions with DF, B100 and its blends. It can be seen from the figure that the smoke

Fig. 2. FTIR of (a) DF and (b) B100.

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Fig. 3. CO emission with DF, B100 and its blends. Fig. 5. NOx emission with DF, B100 and its blends.

emission increases with the increase in load. It was observed that under partial to high load conditions, smoke emissions from the B100 and its blends were lower than those with the DF. Smoke emission was determined to decrease consistently for all of the tested engine conditions, along with increased in the amount of KME percentages. In particular, at high load condition, 43% smoke emission was reduced with B100 compared to that of the DF. The formation of smoke emission occurs primarily in the fuel-rich zone of the cylinder, at high temperatures and pressures. Because of the heterogeneous nature of diesel combustion, fuel-air ratios, which affect smoke formation, tend to vary within the cylinder of a diesel engine. If the applied fuel is partially oxygenated, locally over-rich regions can be reduced and primary smoke formation can be limited [26]. Authors' current smoke emission agrees with that reported by Bielaczyc et al. [27]. Variation of NOx emission for test fuels with load is illustrated in Fig. 5. It was observed that the NOx emissions increase with the increase in load for all fuels/blends. This was possibly due to an increase in gas temperature in combustion chamber, which may be resulted in higher exhaust gas temperature with B100 and its blends (exhaust gas temperature was shown in the figure). There are mainly three factors of NOx formation, such as, oxygen concentration, combustion temperature, and retention time. The observed NOx emission appeared to have been induced as the result of increase in the gas temperature of the combustion chamber, which were apparently the result of the 12% oxygen content of the B100. This result agrees with that of Bielaczyc et al. [27], Jeong et al. [28], and Schmidt et al. [29]. However, Banapurmatha et al. [30] reported that NOx emission was reduced with changing of injection timing, while Suresh Kumar et al. [31] reported reduction of NOx emission using

Fig. 4. Smoke emission with DF, B100 and its blends.

pongamia pinnata methyl ester. It was also observed from Fig. 5 that the NOx emissions increase with B100 and its blends at partial to high load conditions. With B100, a maximum of 15% increase in NOx emission was realized at high load condition. Fig. 6 illustrates the engine noise with DF, B100 and its blends. It was observed from the figure that all BD blends show lower engine noise compared to DF. A maximum of 2.5 dB engine noise was reduced with B100 at high load condition.

Fig. 6. Engine noise with DF, B100 and its blends.

Fig. 7. Brake thermal efficiency with DF, B100 and its blends.

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[5] Compared to DF the brake thermal efficiency with B100 and its blends was almost unchanged.

Acknowledgement Authors wish to thank Mr. Md. Mostafizur Rahman (Mukul), and Mr. Md. Sajibuddin, lecturers of RUET, Bangladesh for their cooperation in this investigation. Authors also extend their thanks to the authority of RUET to provide financial support and facilities to conduct the experiments. References

Fig. 8. Effect of fuel oxygen on emission reduction (BMEP = 6.5 bar).

Fig. 7 shows the brake thermal efficiency of DF, B100 and its blends. Regarding brake thermal efficiency was almost unchanged with BD blends relative to DF. Fig. 8 represents the influence of fuel oxygen content on four diesel emissions. Due to limitation of measurement of THC with IMR-1400, THC data was not shown in this figure. The data was plotted for a BMEP of 6.5 bar. It was interesting to note that CO, smoke and engine noise emissions were reduced with the increase in fuel oxygen content. The reductions were higher at higher percentage of oxygen content in the fuel. The reduction in CO, smoke and engine noise emissions with fuel oxygen may be improved combustion efficiency, thus reduced CO and smoke emissions significantly. From this result it can be concluded that B100 and its blends containing oxygen in their molecular structure reduce smoke and CO emissions effectively. On the other hand, NOx emission was increased with the increase in oxygen percentage in the fuel. It was observed that with 12% oxygen in fuel, CO and smoke emissions were reduced by 50 and 43% respectively, while NOx emission was increased by 15%. Previous research results [32] showed that the reductions of exhaust emissions were entirely depended on fuel oxygen content. 5. Conclusions This work discusses production of KME in Bangladesh, characterization of KME (B100) and its blends and the influence of B100 and its blends on diesel engine performance and emissions. All results were compared with those of DF. The results of this work were summarized as follows: [1] Bangladesh can reduce 28% diesel import from foreign countries if karanja is cultivated in the unused land of Bangladesh. [2] KME was produced by well known esterification followed by transesterification method. A maximum of 97% FAME was produced from karanja oil. [3] The FTIR analysis showed that DF was contained alkanes and alkenes, while the KME mainly contained esters. [4] CO, smoke and engine noise emissions were lower with B100 and its blends, while NOx emission was higher. Compared to the DF, B100 reduced CO and smoke emissions by 50% and 43% respectively, while 15% increased in the NOx emission was experienced with the same fuel. The reason for reducing CO, smoke and engine noise and increasing in NOx emission with KME was due to the presence of oxygen in its molecular structure. Also low aromatics in the B100 and its blends may be an additional reason for reducing these emissions.

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