Residents' attitudes to tourism development: the case of Cyprus

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lkmrism Management, Vol. 17, No. 7, pp. 481-494, 1996 Copyright © 1996 Publishcd by Elscvicr Scicncc Lid Printed in Grcat Britain. All rights rcscrvcd 0261-5177/96 $15.(~0 + 0.1~)

Pergamon

s0261-517706)00066--0

Residents' attitudes to tourism development: the case of Cyprus Sevgin Akis Department of Economics, Eastern Mediterranean University, * Famagusta, Cyprus (North)

Nicos Peristianis Research and Development Center, lntercollege, 46 Makedonitissas A re, PO Box 4005, 1700 Nicosia. (~prus

Jonathan Warner Visiting Lecturer, Department of Economics, Nicholas Copernicus Unit'ersity, Torun, Poland

This paper examines the perceptions of Greek and Turkish Cypriot residents of coastal tourism development. Although Butler's hypothesis - that there will be an inverse relationship between the level of tourism development and perceived impacts for the worse on the social, economic and environmental status of the host community - is largely confirmed, a significant proportion of uncertain responses in the less developed area surveyed lead us to suggest a modification of the Butler hypothesis. Copyright © 1996 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd Kcvwords: tourism development, Cyprus, Greek, Turkish, residents" attitudes

Much of the recent literature on the development of world tourism has been concerned with the impact of tourists on the host community. As countries (and regions within countries) have turned to tourism as the means to raising national income, employment and living standards, and as a means of ending dependency on a limited range of primary products for export, so the diverse pressures from tourism and its associated development have begun to affect the local population. The land use of the areas designed to be used by visitors changes; traditional culture may be altered; and the whole character of a town or village may be destroyed. In 1980, R W Butler, in an influential article, postulated a link between tourism development and the attitudes of residents to tourists.l As the number of visitors to a region increases, residents who at first were overwhelmingly positive in their attitudes to their guests develop increasing reservations concerning the long-term benefits of the visitors. This may

be because the original expectations of the benefits of tourism were unrealistic (and so are incapable of being fulfilled) or because the benefits are perceived to accrue only to a small number of people. Alternatively, although expectations of the benefits are realized, the environmental or social costs were initially overlooked, or excessively discounted, so that the local residents come to doubt whether their visitors are an unqualified blessing. Models such as Doxey's Irridex Model 2 claim that residents' attitudes will go through a number of stages: from "euphoria' to 'antagonism' (see also Murphy's article3). While models of this kind can be criticized as being based on too simplistic an understanding of residents' reactions, 4 they do at least give some indication of residents' feelings. Of the areas of Cyprus surveyed in this article, neither has reached as far as any significant level of resentment. The dangers of a top-down approach to development projects are now well known]; Central or regional governments, perhaps persuaded by foreign entrepreneurs" assurance of streets paved with gold, took little trouble to consult with local residents. For the development of tourism, this meant that, in some cases, the visitors were kept largely isolated

Correspondence to Dr Jonathan Warner, 1 la Nottingham Drivc, Wingerworth, Chesterfield, Derbyshire $42 6ND, UK. *See footnote on p 483*.

481

Residents' attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus: S Akis et al.

from the local people, either in holiday camps (such as the type pioneered by Club Mediterranean and Club 18-30), or in planned resorts from which escape was difficult (eg Benidorm, in Spain). Such forms of development have been described as providing 'ghetto tourism .6 Today, as the growth in tourism is more within the 45-60 age-group, rather than the young singles/young families segment of the market, growth is more likely to be in specialist or alternative tourism, rather than the sun, sand and sea paradigm of 20 years ago. Although it would seem that old attitudes die hard with at least some tour operators, more emphasis is now placed on niche marketing of destinations offering more than just a sandy beach, warm seas and cloudless skies.* Such alternative tourism necessitates more interaction between visitors and local residents, as those who are not directly involved in the tourism industry come into contact with the tourists. Therefore tourism of this type has the potential to have a greater impact on the lives of the people of the tourist region. As visitors stray from their hotels and beaches, and especially if they hire cars or penetrate the mysteries of the local public transport network, they will tend to meet and interact with local shopkeepers and restaurateurs, and increasingly with farmers and shepherds, and are inclined to try to talk to anyone involved in an interesting-looking or photogenic activity. Perhaps, then, it is to be welcomed that the growth of alternative tourism has been accompanied by a growth in the recognition of the need for tourism planners to take more account of the desires and aspirations of the local residents. Top-down control may be necessary to prevent too dense a concentration of development, or the grosser forms of environmental degradation, but consultations with the community are essential if the welcome and development stages are to be extended, and early frictions avoided, or viewed positively as a learning experience. Both of the areas of Cyprus surveyed in this article developed primarily as mass tourism destinations. While development in Ayia Napa and Paralimni has been rapid, Kyrenia has been slower to develop, and may have more opportunities in the future to establish a market niche in alternative tourism. As the level of development has been more extensive, and the rate more rapid, in the former area, Butler's hypothesis would predict that, there, residents' attitudes to the tourists would be less positive. As a resort destination develops, a point will

*For example, at a conference in Kyrenia in March 1995, the Cypriot participants argued for the development of mass tourism, while the foreign participants argued against it and for the development of eco-tourism. 'Don't Kill the Goose . . . ' Tourism Destination Development; the conference was held at Chateau Lambousa Hotel, Lapta (Lapithos).

482

eventually be reached where carrying capacity constraints become important. As Martin and Uysal say: While the initial stages of tourism are usually met with a great deal of enthusiasm on the part of local residents because of the perceived economic benefits, it is only natural that, as unpleasant changes take place in the physical environment and in the type of tourist being attracted, this feeling gradually becomes more and more negative] Over the past 15 years, the literature on the impact of tourism on particular local communities has grown significantly. Jafari's article gives a good overview of the literature up to the late 1980s. ~ Studies have examined locations in the Americas, Europe, Africa and the Far East. In a pioneering study, Belisle and Hoy 9 found that, in Colombia, attitudes varied with the distance between the tourist resort and the respondent's home. Rothman I~j found that the impact of tourism in Delaware was not disruptive. Var et al 1~ examined attitudes in Marmaris (Turkey), and found them to be generally favourable, but with marked differences between attitudes to different ethnic groups. Pizam et al ~2 compared the perceptions of workers in the tourism industry in Florida and Fiji. Four recent papers on American experience have explicitly addressed the problem of the relationship between the quantity of tourism and residents' perceptions of tourism's impacts, each looking at a different type of community. The first, by Allen et al, 13 was concerned with tourism's impact on the community life of 20 rural communities. Their findings, based on correlations between community satisfaction ratings and the level of tourism, supported the view that there is a 'carrying capacity' threshold for tourism. Once development passed a certain point, residents' perceptions of tourism became less positive. A further study by Long et al t4 attempted to quantify the level of tourism at which negative effects outweighed the initial positive effects recorded in the earlier survey. The threshold they found was that, when more than 30% of retail sales were derived from tourism, perceptions of the benefits of tourism tended to become negative. Third, Allen et a115 examined attitudes of the residents of selected Colorado towns to tourism development. This project compared perceptions in areas of low and high tourism development, coupled with low or high economic activity rates, giving four different cases. The authors concluded that low economic activity and low tourism development tended to cause positive perceptions of tourism: the residents of such areas had high hopes and expectations of the benefits of tourism. Those areas with high levels of economic activity tended to be less keen on tourism: given the strength of the local

Residents' attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus: S Akis et al.

e c o n o m y , the n e e d for t o u r i s m was q u e s t i o n e d . C o n v e r s e l y , high t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t c o m b i n e d with low e c o n o m i c activity t e n d e d to l e a d to discouragement as a n t i c i p a t e d b e n e f i t s a r e n o t achieved. F i n a l l y , b u i l d i n g on t h e s e p a p e r s , J o h n s o n et al t6 e x a m i n e d r e s i d e n t s ' a t t i t u d e s in an a r e a of I d a h o undergoing extensive tourism development. Using a l o n g i t u d i n a l r e s e a r c h d e s i g n , r e s i d e n t s initially h a d high e x p e c t a t i o n s o f the b e n e f i t s o f t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t , but s u p p o r t for d e v e l o p m e n t d e c r e a s e d o v e r t i m e , as the c h a n g e s in t h e local e c o n o m y a n d c o m m u n i t y resulting f r o m the d e v e l o p m e n t b e c a m e manifest. T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y relies l a r g e l y on t h e m e t h o d o l o gy of the J o h n s o n et al article m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , but a p p l i e s itself to the e x a m i n a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s o f G r e e k a n d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s to t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t . It c o n t a i n s the first use of c o m p a r a t i v e d a t a for the G r e e k a n d T u r k i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in C y p r u s since the division o f the island in 1974. E a r l i e r w o r k on the i m p a c t o f t o u r i s m , such as that by M i c h a e l K a m m a s , t" has t e n d e d to c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e s o u t h ern p a r t of the island, w h e r e a s c o m p a r a t i v e studies o f the t w o s e c t o r s , a n d t h o s e c o n c e n t r a t i n g on the n o r t h , h a v e t e n d e d to stress political issues a n d t h e i r i m p a c t on t o u r i s m . D o u g l a s L o c k h a r t ' s w o r k is significant in this r e g a r d , t~'~9 O t h e r articles on t h e n o r t h h a v e t e n d e d to be d e s c r i p t i v e . 2° T h e r e c e n t history o f the island of C y p r u s has b e e n t r o u b l e d . F o l l o w i n g i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m Britain in 1960, a c o n s t i t u t i o n s h a r i n g p o w e r b e t w e e n the G r e e k ( 8 0 % ) a n d T u r k i s h ( 2 0 % ) c o m m u n i t i e s led to an u n e a s y b a l a n c e , which c o l l a p s e d into i n t e r c o m m u n a t v i o l e n c e in 1963. B e t w e e n 1963 a n d 1964, t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s r e t r e a t e d into small e n c l a v e s a n d did not, in g e n e r a l , p a r t i c i p a t e in the r u n n i n g o f the state.* B o t h politically a n d e c o n o m i cally t h e y b e c a m e m a r g i n a l i z e d . M o s t initial t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g this d e c a d e , a n d was a i m e d at the g r o w i n g m a s s t o u r i s m m a r k e t , which was the result of c h e a p e r a n d m o r e r e l i a b l e air travel. 2~'2~ A l m o s t all the new h o t e l s w e r e o w n e d a n d m a n a g e d by G r e e k C y p r i o t s . T h e n u m b e r o f b e d s in K y r e n i a grew from 292 in 1960 to 1369 in 1973: while n u m b e r s in F a m a g u s t a g r e w f r o m 457 to 4859 in the s a m e p e r i o d . 2~ In 1974, a G r e e k - j u n t a - l e d c o u p a g a i n s t the gove r n m e n t of A r c h b i s h o p M a k a r i o s was swiftly foll o w e d by a T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n , which, in a t w o - s t a g e o f f e n s i v e , e f f e c t i v e l y d i v i d e d the island, leaving the n o r t h e r n third ( i n c l u d i n g F a m a g u s t a ) Ahhough the Turkish Cypriot ministers and Members of Parliament did not mcct with the Greek Cypriot ministers and Members after Dcccmbcr 1963, Turkish Cypriot judges, and, in some arcas, civil servants, continued to work together with the Greek Cypriot judges and civil scrwmts for at least the following two years. In addition, Turkish Cypriot vineyard-owners continued to sell their grapes to (}reek Cypriots merchants right up until 1974.

u n d e r T u r k i s h / T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l , a n d the rem a i n d e r u n d e r the c o n t r o l o f the G r e e k C y p r i o t s . +~ F o l l o w i n g p o p u l a t i o n e x c h a n g e s , the n o r t h e r n a r e a has b e e n a l m o s t exclusively i n h a b i t e d by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s ( s u p p l e m e n t e d by settlers f r o m T u r k e y ) , a n d the rest of t h e island by G r e e k C y p r i o t s . V a r i o u s a t t e m p t s by the U n i t e d N a t i o n s a n d o t h e r b o d i e s to settle t h e d i s p u t e have so far b r o u g h t no result.

Methodology of the study Areas surveyed

T h e r e s e a r c h , by m e a n s of a q u e s t i o n n a i r e , was c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r of 1994 at two locat i o n s : a m o n g G r e e k C y p r i o t s in A y i a N a p a / P a r a l i m n i in the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f C y p r u s ( s u r v e y e d in July 1994), a n d a m o n g T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s in K y r e nia (late J u n e a n d e a r l y July 1994) in the n o r t h e r n p a r t of the island. T w o h u n d r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were d i s t r i b u t e d to local r e s i d e n t s in P a r a l i m n i a n d K y r e nia, a n d a f u r t h e r 121 in A y i a N a p a , a village with a s m a l l e r n u m b e r of local p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t s . Because o f the political s i t u a t i o n in C y p r u s , w h e r e m o v e m e n t of p e o p l e b e t w e e n n o r t h a n d south is v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e , it was not p o s s i b l e for the s a m e i n t e r v i e w t e a m to c o n d u c t the r e s e a r c h in b o t h P a r a l i m n i / A y i a N a p a a n d K y r e n i a . * * T h e first aut h o r c o n d u c t e d the w o r k in K y r e n i a , the s e c o n d o r g a n i z e d the c o l l e c t i o n of the P a r a l i m n i / A y i a N a p a data. Both Ayia Napa and Paralimni were studied b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e i n d i c a t i o n s f r o m e a r l i e r res e a r c h 24 that the d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n o f d e v e l o p m e n t in the two a r e a s might have led to d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s -

~:As with much of the information in this and in the preceding paragraph, there is disagreement between Greek Cypriots (generally supported by the rest of the world) and Turkish Cypriots (supported by Turkey) on the legality and interpretation ol events. For example, Turkey sees her military action in 1974 as legitimate intervention under the 196(I agreemcnts establishing Cypriot independence, whereas the Greek Cypriots see it as an invasion, a view largely backed by the United Nations. Turkish Cypriots have refused to accept the (exclusively Greek Cypriot) government from 1964 onwards as the legitimate government ol the Republic of Cyprus. Until 1974 they were concentrated in armed enclaves: afterwards they first referred to thc north as the Turkish Fcdcratcd State of Cyprus, and then, following a Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1983, as the Turkish Republic of Norlhern Cyprus. United Nations Security ('ouncil Resolution number 541 (1983) called upon all states not tc~ recognize "any Cypriot state other than the Republic of Cyprus'. To demonstrate the fact that the legitimacy of a Turkish Cypriot state and other official institutions is under question, some writers refer to them within invcrted commas. Eastern Mcditerrancan University, for cxamplc, is not recognized by the Republic ol Cyprus. Even the use of geographical terms such as "north' and 'south" take on unwonted political connotations. **The writers of this paper had great difficulty in carrying out the survey and completing the project. In fact, the first two authors could not physically meet, or even talk on the telephone, even though they live only a few miles apart. This paper was made possible only thanks to the lnternet.

483

Residents' attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus." S Akis et al.

CYPRUS Demarkation Line

Kyrenla

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,,,-- -

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.s

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Nicosia \

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, Famagusta

/,t UNDER C O N T R O L O F T H E REPUBLIC OF CYPRUS

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Larnaea

Troodos Mtns.

Panhos Limassol 0

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Figure 1

which would have made overall comparisons more interesting. Following the loss of Famagusta to the Greek community, mass tourism in Cyprus migrated south to the south-eastern corner of the island. Before 1974, Ayia Napa was an obscure seaside village, whose inhabitants survived on fishing and agriculture. After 1974, the area developed rapidly, from 126 beds in 1972, thi-ough 3305 (13% of the south's total) in 1982, to 15 982 (21%) in 1994. The once small village now appears to be a large town, and is Cyprus's most important tourist destination. While many local people benefited from the increase in property prices as a result of the development, much investment came from outside. The Lordos family, for example, who lost their hotels in Famagusta, were prominent among the Greek Cypriots who built new hotels in the area. Most village houses, especially those in the old village centre, have been converted into tourist restaurants, pubs and shops. Numerous new hotels, hotel apartments and other tourist amenities have encircled the old village, 'engulfing' it to a radius of several miles. The resident population is just under 1500 - still the population of a village; and during the winter the 'town' seems empty and almost dead. In the late spring, Greek Cypriots from other parts of the island join the local population in opening up the town for 484

the tourist flood. Tourists are mostly young Scandinavians on package tours, attracted by the weather, the beaches and the night-life. Ayia Napa was once known as 'Little Moscow', because of its support for the Cyprus Communist Party (AKEL); now it is known as 'Little Sweden' in honour of its visitors. Less flatteringly, a local newspaper has described it as 'a bustling, round-the-clock neon-lit cosmopolitan mini-metropolis and topless sexcapital of Cyprus'. 25 Paralimni, by contrast, has been less dominated by tourism. Located a few miles north of Ayia Napa, and a few miles from the coast, it was traditionally known for its fertile soil and early vegetables, its Hellenistic nationalism, ~and beccaficos (pickled songbirds, captured by means of limed twigs). Prior to 1974, it was a relatively prosperous place, in a rich agricultural area. Tourism development started in the latter half of the 1970s, and was aimed more at 'quality' tourism. More than 75% of beds are in the top category (by contrast, Ayia Napa has less than 50% A-grade beds). Its present resident population is about 6000. Unlike Ayia Napa, Paralimni village is not dominated by tourism. Intense tourism development hotels, apartments, pubs and restaurants - has appeared outside the village, in an area known as Protaras, stretching eastwards from Paralimni to the

Residents' attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus: S Akis et al.

south. Thus, the village itself is not infiltrated by visitors to the extent that Ayia N a p a is: indeed, in open interviews carried out by the second author, it was frequently stated that the latter's example was something to be avoided at all costs. As the analysis below shows, there are often significant differences between the attitudes of residents of the two places. Kyrenia is the most developed centre of the nascent Turkish Cypriot tourist industry. The town is of ancient foundation, and boasts a castle of Byzantine origin which was old at the time of the O t t o m a n conquest of Cyprus in 1570-71. Traditionally, it depended on its port for trade, but the agricultural potential of its hinterland was considerable. Kyrenia was first developed during the 1960s as a relatively u p m a r k e t holiday destination, but lagged behind the Famagusta area in growth. Following the division of the island, tourist numbers in what became the Turkish-controlled area p l u m m e t e d , from around 200 000 in 1973 to less than 20 000 in 1975. It is only in the last 10 years that significant numbers of non-Turkish holidaymakers have found their way back again. ++ The resident population of the town is 7600; hotels in Kyrenia district (which includes the ribbon d e v e l o p m e n t along the coast both east and west of the town proper) provide 4643 beds, and, during the 1994 season, had an average occupancy rate of 38%. Tourism tends to be highly seasonal, which partially explains this low figure. However, even in the best month (August), the occupancy rate was only 66%; hotels are full only at the Turkish religious holidays (bayrams), when special charter flights from Istanbul bring m a n y visitors. Most holidaymakers at other seasons are British or G e r m a n . Although one rapidly gets the impression that the town is in danger of choking from traffic, most of the congestion is locally generated, and is not due to tourist traffic.

Sample size A conservative response format of 50/50% was chosen to determine the sample size. In order to achieve a 95% confidence level, and a 5% sampling error, the required sample size is approximately 400 respondents. ~+$26 " By increasing the sample size to ~The lack of recognition of the self-declared Turkish Cypriot state has led to many economic problems for the Turkish Cypriots, among which is the limited number of foreign tourists, largely as a result of an international embargo on direct flights. *:~When the proportions within a population are unknown, the usual procedure is to assume the worst case; that is, where population variance is at its maximum. Here, "a conservative response format of 50/50%' means that we assume that 511% of the population will have a negative attitude, and the other 51)% a positive attitude to any particular question. Since a 95% confidence level with a 5'/0 sampling error was selected, our required sample size is n = (1.96)2 (0.50) (0.50)/(0.05) 2 - 384.16; rounded to 400. Sample-sizecalculation is independent of the size of the total population. It is the sampling size that determines the error. See D A Aaker and G S Day, MarketingResearch4th edn, Wiley, Ncw York (1990) 392-393.

521 the overall predicted sampling error is decreased to 4.3%. Within the sub-samples of 200 for Paralimni and Kyrenia, the predicted error is 6.9%, and for the 121 of Ayia Napa, 8.9%.

Design of the questionnaire The questionnaire comprised four sections. The first consisted of 15 attitudinal statements concerning the economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism, five in each of the three categories. A final statement sought to provide information on the overall assessment of tourism by the respondent. These questions were the same used in the Johnson et al article. 1~' All statements were measured by a five-point Likert scale. As, however, the analysis of the data showed relatively few responses in the 'strongly agree' and 'strongly disagree" categories, these were aggregated with the 'agree' and 'disagree' categories respectively for purposes of analysis. The second section of the questionnaire asked for details of respondents' frequency of interaction with tourists and their involvement with the tourism industry. The third section looked at social change indicators and their relationship to tourism development, and allowed for some open-ended responses. A final section elicited basic background data on age, sex, education level and income, and (for the Turkish Cypriot respondents) where they originated. This article is mainly concerned with an analysis of the attitudinal questions.

Composition of the sample Most of the respondents (77% in the south, 72% in the north) were between the ages of 21 and 50. On average, respondents in the south had lived longest in the area: 29 years, c o m p a r e d with an average of 17 years in the north. The reason for the relatively low figure for north Cyprus is that the majority of the present inhabitants came from Paphos and Limassol after 1974. Owing to the differences in currency and standards of living in the study areas, income bands were designed somewhat arbitrarily, taking the minimum wage as the first band, and then increasing by equal increments. The fact that the Turkish Lira, rather than the Cyprus Pound, is the official currency of the north adds to the problems of comparability. The highest band, corresponding to more than 24 million Turkish Lira a month in the north, and 1600 Cyprus Pounds a month in the south (approximately US$770 and $800 respectively), was reported by just under a quarter of respondents in the north, but by only 7% in the south of the island. This suggests that the scales were not equivalent. This was, to some extent, inevitable. The Turkish Lira was heavily devalued (by some 28%) in April 1994, and the initial effects of adjustment (and the associated economic stabilization measures) were beginning to be felt at the time of the survey. Indeed, the minimum wage in the 485

Residents' attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus: S Akis et al. Table 1 Median values calculated from the responses given to the economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism

Areas

Economic

Impact Social

Paralimni Ayia Napa Kyrenia

11 11 11

10 9 13

Environmental

9 9 13

north was increased by 60% in August. With such macroeconomic disequilibrium, the difficulties of reporting figures in US dollars are compounded. For the south, where the Cyprus Pound is legal tender, there were no such adjustment problems at the time of the survey. However, the Cyprus Pound is not a convertible currency, and the official exchange rate (used here) probably overstates its value. In northern Cyprus it trades at a 2-4% discount on its official rate. The largest group of people, around a third of respondents in each area, reported incomes between 6 and 12 million Turkish Lira per month, or between 400 and 800 Cyprus pounds.

Attitudinal statements and their assessment A copy of this section of the questionnaire is included as an appendix to this article. The five economic impact statements sought to measure the perceived changes in investment and spending, standard of living changes, inflation, income distribution and employment opportunities and their distribution between the local people and foreigners in the region. The social impact statements sought to monitor the attitudes of local people to various social issues; for example, whether tourism would provide valuable experiences and more recreational facilities for residents, or whether the effect would be cultural deterioration and a deterioration in the quality of life. T h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact questions sought perceptions of the effect of tourism on preservation of antiquities, public facilities and roads, and the overall quality of the local environment. A final set of two questions asked for an overall assessment of the impact of tourism: whether, in the opinion of the interviewee, the costs of tourism outweighed its benefits. The responses were scored from 1 (for unfavourable, anti-tourism responses) to 3 (favourable, protourism). Thus the latter would be either an agree (or strongly agree) response to a positive statement (eg item 1), or a disagree (or strongly disagree) to a negative statement (eg item 5). Thus for each set of five statements, the maximum possible score is 15, the minimum 5. Median values were calculated to determine central tendencies. 27 Table 1 demonstrates no significant differences

486

Table 2

Economic impacts of tourism development in Kyrenia

Statement

Agree

Neutral

Tourism attracts more investment and spending Our standard of living is increasing considerably Prices are increasing because of tourism Tourism givesbenefits to a small group of people in the region Tourism creates more jobs for foreigners than for local people

172 (86%) 122 (61%) 147 (73.5%) 112 (56%)

1 1 (1%) (1%) 71 7 (35.5%) (3.5%) 50 3 (25%) (1.5%) 85 3 (42.5%) (1.5%)

Table 3

47 147 6 (23.5%) (73.5%) (3%)

20{I 200 200 2(10 2(1(I

Economic impacts of tourism development in Paralimni

Statement

Agree

Tourism attracts more investment and spending Our standard of living is increasing considerably Prices are increasing because of tourism Tourism gives benefits to a small group of people in the region Tourism creates more jobs for foreigners than for local people

195 2 (97.5%) ( 1 % ) 181 12 (90.5%) ( 6 % ) 181 9 (90.5%) (4.5%) 89 97 (44.5%) (48.5%)

Table 4

Disagree Total

102 (51%)

Neutral

Disagree Total

3 (1.5%) 7 (3.5%) 10 (5%) 14 (7%)

200

79 19 (39.5%) (9.5%)

200

2(1(I 200 200

Economic impacts of tourism development in Ayia Napa

Statement

Agree

Neutral

Disagree Total

Tourism attracts more investment and spending Our standard of living is increasing considerably Prices are increasing because of tourism Tourism gives benefits to a small group of people in the region Tourism creates more jobs for foreigners than for local people

119 (98%) 103 (85%) 111 (92%) 63 (52%)

1 (1%) 11 (9%) 6 (5%) 52 (43%)

1 (1%) 7 (6%) 4 (3%) 6 (5%)

52 49 20 ( 4 3 % ) ( 4 0 % ) (17%)

121 121 121 121 121

between the three places in their residents' perceptions of the economic effects of tourism. The differences in the social and environmental impact measures between Kyrenia and the south are statistically significant at a 5% confidence level. The Turkish Cypriot residents of Kyrenia see the social and environmental impacts of tourism as more positive than do the Greek Cypriots. E c o n o m i c impacts (see Tables 2, 3 and 4) For Kyrenia, even though the proportions of respondents who agree with the first two positive statements are quite high (86% and 61% respectively), the proportions of disagreements with the negative

Residents' attitudes to tour&m developrnent in ('yprus." S Ak& et al. s t a t e m e n t s ( q u e s t i o n s 3, 4 a n d 5) a r e t o o low to i n d i c a t e a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e . I n f l a t i o n , a s c r i b e d to t o u r i s m , is a m a j o r c o m p l a i n t (73.5% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a g r e e d t h a t t o u r i s m was a c a u s e o f i n c r e a s e d prices). A l s o , t h e t a b l e i n d i c a t e s a r e l a t i v e l y large n u m b e r o f n e u t r a l r e s p o n s e s . This is e s p e c i a l l y evid e n t in q u e s t i o n 5, r e g a r d i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f j o b s to f o r e i g n e r s : 7 3 . 5 % w e r e u n s u r e w h e t h e r o r not t o u r i s m c r e a t e d m o r e j o b s for f o r e i g n e r s t h a n for local p e o p l e , a n d 4 2 . 5 % w e r e u n c e r t a i n as to w h e t h e r the b e n e f i t s a c c r u e d o n l y to a small g r o u p o f people. T h e G r e e k C y p r i o t r e s p o n d e n t s s h o w q u i t e similar a t t i t u d e s to t h o s e o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . A n o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of t h e m ( 9 7 . 5 % in P a r a l i m n i a n d 9 8 % in A y i a N a p a ) b e l i e v e t h a t t o u r i s m has a t t r a c t e d i n v e s t m e n t to the a r e a . B o t h g r o u p s are again in a g r e e m e n t with the s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e i r s t a n d a r d o f living is significantly h i g h e r as a result o f t o u r i s m ( 9 0 . 5 % a n d 85% r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . E v e n t h o u g h lhe p r o p o r t i o n s for t h e s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e h i g h e r than for K y r e n i a , the d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t statistically significant at an a l p h a level of 0.05, a n d can be e x p l a i n e d by m o r e i n v e s t m e n t a n d a h i g h e r s t a n d a r d of living in the s o u t h . A s with the n o r t h , the level o f d i s a g r e e m e n t with the n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s is low. O n l y 7 % o f the r e s i d e n t s of P a r a l i m n i a n d 5 % o f the r e s p o n d e n t s in A y i a N a p a felt that t o u r i s m b e n e f i t e d o n l y a small g r o u p o f p e o p l e . S i m i l a r l y , o n l y r e l a t i v e l y small p r o p o r t i o n s a g r e e that f o r e i g n e r s h a v e g a i n e d m o r e j o b s t h a n local p e o p l e f r o m t o u r i s m , a l t h o u g h the n u m b e r o f p e o p l e t h i n k i n g that f o r e i g n e r s h a v e g a i n e d is significantly h i g h e r in the s o u t h t h a n in the north. T h e r e is s o m e p r o b l e m h e r e as to w h a t , in the m i n d s o f the r e s p o n d e n t s , c o n s t i t u t e s ' f o r e i g n ' . S o m e local p e o p l e no d o u b t view i n t e r l o p e r s f r o m o t h e r p a r t s o f the island as such. In s o u t h C y p r u s , t h e r e is s o m e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h o s e p e o p l e n a t i v e to the a r e a , a n d t h o s e G r e e k C y p r i o t s w h o a r r i v e d f r o m the n o r t h in 1974-75. L o a n s to t h e s e ' x e n o i ' ( o u t s i d e r s ) a l l o w e d t h e m to b u y up l a n d c h e a p l y in the e a r l y stages of d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d t h e n to r e a p the profits o f the t o u r i s t b o o m . In the n o r t h , a s i m i l a r a n i m o s i t y exists b e t w e e n the n a t i v e C y p r i o t s a n d the s e t t l e r s f r o m T u r k e y , with the c o m p l a i n t that the l a t t e r w e r e given p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t a g a i n s t the i n t e r e s t s of b o t h the i n d i g e n o u s T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a n d t h o s e w h o c a m e f r o m the south.

Table 5

Social impacts of tourism development in Kyrenia

Social impacts (Tables 5, 6 and 7) T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s h a v e the m o s t p o s i t i v e view o f the social i m p a c t s of t o u r i s m , with a m e a n v a l u e o f 13, c o m p a r e d with 10 for P a r a l i m n i a n d 9 for A y i a N a p a . (This d i f f e r e n c e of o n e p o i n t in the l a t t e r cases is not statistically significant at a 5 % confid e n c e level.) T h e s e results a r e c o n s i s t e n t with the p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t , as t o u r i s m d e v e l o p s , the n u m b e r of

n e g a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n r e s i d e n t s a n d tourists will grow. R e s i d e n t s o f K y r e n i a - w h e r e t o u r i s m is r e l a t i v e l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d - h a v e a m o r e positive a t t i t u d e to visitors t h a n t h o s e in A y i a N a p a a n d P a r a l i m n i . H o w e v e r , for all t h r e e places, the locals are very p o s i t i v e a b o u t t h e i r visitors. This is p e r h a p s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e in the case o f K y r e n i a a n d P a r a l i m ni, but s o m e w h a t s u r p r i s i n g in the case o f A y i a

Statement

Agree

Neutral

Disagree Total

Meeting tourists from all over the world is a valuable experience Tourism has led to an increase in the availability of recreational facilities High-spending tourists have an undesirable effect on our way of lile Tourism causes changes in our traditional culture Local residents have a lower quality of life as a result of living in a tourist area

191 (95.5%)

8 (4%)

l (O.5%)

2011

133 66.5%)

63 (31.5%)

4 (2%)

2011

54 (27%)

137 (68.5%)

9 (4.5%)

2OO

26 (13%) 21 110.5%1

1711 (85%) 177 (88.5%)

4 (2%) 2 11%)

200

Table 6

21111

Social impacts of tourism development in Paralimni

Statement

Agree

Neutral

Disagree Total

Meeting tourists from all over the world is a valuable experience Tourism has led to an increase in the availability of recreational facilities High-spending tourists have an undesirable effect on our way of lile Tourism causes changes in our traditional culture Local residents have a lower quality of life as a result of living in a tourist area

172 (86%)

16 (8%)

12 ((¢~4,)

200

145 (72.5%)

43 (21.5%)

12 (6%)

200

121 (60.5%)

6t) (30%)

19 (9.5%)

200

160 (80%) 111 (55.5% I

29 11 114.5%t (5.5%) 76 13 (38%) (6.5%)

211tl

Table 7

200

Social impacts of tourism development in Ayia Napa

Statement

Agree

Neutral

Disagree Total

Meeting tourists from all over the world is a valuable experience Tourism has led to an increase in the availability of recreational facilities High-spending tourists have an undesirable effect on our way of lile Tourism causes changes in our traditional culture Local residents have a lower quality of life as a result of living in a tourist ~lrea

114 (94%)

5 (4%)

2 (2%)

12I

75 (62%)

31 (26%)

15 112%)

121

81 (67%)

34 (28%)

6 (5%)

121

10S (89%) 77 (64%)

10 (8%) 34 (28%)

3 (3%) 111 (8%)

121 121

487

Residents' attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus: S Akis et al.

Napa, which has experienced the greatest amount of tourist development. For Turkish Cypriots 95.5% felt that meeting tourists was a valuable experience, compared with 86% and 94% for the residents of Paralimni and Ayia Napa. When these results are compared with those obtained from two other questions from the second section of the questionnaire (on the frequency, and on the quality of interaction), the relationship between a positive attitude towards visitors and how often the respondents meet tourists becomes clearer. Of those who met tourists at least almost every day, 87% described their contacts as either positive or very positive. These proportions are 83% and 76% for the residents of Paralimni and Ayia Napa (see also Tables 13 and 15). Although the respondents in Ayia Napa still saw their contacts with visitors as a positive thing, interviewees there complained repeatedly to the second author that they felt 'invaded': the experience of living in an area which is 'taken over' by tourism means that more negative experiences are likely to occur (and be remembered). In addition, as Ayia Napa specializes more than either Kyrenia or Paralimni in down-market tourism, visitor behaviour is more likely to be of a kind not appreciated by the residents. Interviewees mentioned that tourists to Ayia Napa had a tendency to get drunk and frequently made a lot of noise late at night. They also claimed that visitors urinated outside their houses, and, in the words of one respondent, 'made love outside my children's bedroom'. Many young Greek Cypriot men come to the Ayia Napa area during the summer from as far afield as Paphos in the west, attracted by the fabled riches of the area, and the beauty of the young female Scandanavian sunworshippers. British troops from the nearby Dhekelia base also visited Ayia Napa in large numbers until the area was declared out of bounds following the killing of a Danish tour-guide last year, a crime committed by three drunken servicemen. The proportion of respondents who believe that tourism has led to an increase in recreational facilities available for locals (such as swimming pools and tennis courts) is the highest for Paralimni (72.5%). The reason why it is quite low in Ayia Napa (62%) can be explained by the fact that locals seldom take time off work to enjoy the available leisure facilities. The relative backwardness of tourism in north Cyprus can also explain why a slightly lower proportion of Turkish Cypriots (66.5%) believed that tourism has led to an increase in recreational facilities available to locals. Similarly, the relatively undeveloped nature of Kyrenia can explain why the proportion of Turkish Cypriots who believe that local residents suffer from living in a tourist area (10.5%) is significantly lower than in Paralimni (55.5%) or Ayia Napa (64%). When it comes to the statements which indicate 488

negative social impacts of tourism, Paralimni and Ayia Napa residents gave much higher levels of assents that those in Kyrenia. In the south, there was very strong agreement that tourism changes traditional culture. Perhaps surprisingly, there was no correlation between agreement and the age of respondents. However, comments made by the older respondents in Ayia Napa tended to suggest that those whose children had continued to live locally and work in tourism felt that culture was not seriously damaged, whereas those whose children had emigrated felt that it had suffered. Given the strength of family ties and the general willingness of parents to do or to suffer anything for the sake of their children, it would be understandable than those whose children have made money out of the development of tourism are prepared to turn a blind eye to any negative effects. The large level of 'neutral' Turkish Cypriot responses to these questions might be indicative of the lower level of tourism development in Kyrenia, with respondents more prone to adopt a 'wait and see' attitude. Further research is planned to test this hypothesis.

Environmental effects (Tables 8, 9 and 10) The biggest difference between the two areas is apparent in the median scores for environmental effects. The relative underdevelopment of the north is the most simple explanation of this. Turkish Cypriot ecologists argue that the considerable market which exists for alternative tourism could profitably be tapped in north Cyprus.*** For the Ayia Napa/Paralimni area it is probably too late. Residents of both areas are to some extent aware that mass tourism has negative environmental impacts, as is evidenced by the responses to the last three of the five statements in this section, although their overall assessment of the sort of tourism that they have as positive (see below) suggests that they are prepared to pay the environmental price. The higher proportions of neutral responses to the last three questions in Kyrenia reflect the relatively low level of development there. People are less aware of the possible drawbacks of hotel construction and large numbers of visitors. A large majority (92%) of the Turkish Cypriots believe that tourism provides an incentive for the restoration of historical buildings and the conservation of natural resources. Many, however, qualified their agreement by pointing out that, in practice, very little restoration work had taken place. The proportions for Paralimni and Ayia Napa are around ***How quickly development will take place will depend on the political aspects of the Cyprus problem. If holidaymakers were able to travel directly to resorts in the north through the reopening of Nicosia International airport, as was envisaged in the stalled Confidence-Building Measures suggested by the United Nations, then the rate of development would most likely increase dramatically.

Residents' attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus." S Akis et al. Table 8 Kyrenia

Environmental impacts of tourism development in

Table 10 Environmental impacts of tourism development in Ayia Napa

Statement

Agree

Neutral

Disagree Total

Statement

Agree

Neutral

Disagree Total

Tourism provides an incentive tk)r the restoration of historical buildings and for the conservation of natural resources Roads and other public facilities arc kept at a higher standard Tourism results in unpleasantly crowded beaches, parks, picnic places, etc Tourists greatly add to the traffic congestion, noise and pollution ('onstruction of hotels and other tourist facilities has destroyed the natural cnvironmcnl

184 (92°/,,)

16 (8%)

-

11/3 (85%,)

12 (10"/.)

6 (5%1

121

133 (66.5%)

66 (33%)

1 2110 (0.5°/,,)

113 (93%,)

5 (4%)

3 (3%)

121

66 (33%)

128 (64%)

6 (3%)

2110

911 (74%)

19 (16%)

12 (111%)

12 I

44 (22%)

154 2 (77'70) (1%)

200

85 (70°/,)

17 19 114'I/.) (16%)

121

95 (47.5%)

98 (49%)

2t111

Tourism provides an incentive for the restoration of historical buildings and for the conservation of natural resources Roads and other public facilities arc kept at a higher standard Tourism results in unpleasantly crowded beaches, parks, picnic places, etc Tourists greatly add to the traffic congestion, noise and pollution Construction of hotels and other tourist facilities has destroyed the natural environment

112 (93%)

4 (3%)

121

7 (3.5%)

200

]'able 9 Environmental impacts of tourism development in Paralimni Statement

Agree

Neutral

Disagree Total

Tourism provides an incentive for the restoration of historical buildings and for the conservation of natural resources Roads and other public facilities arc kept at a higher standard Tourism results in unpleasantly crowded beaches, parks, picnic places, etc Tourists greatly add to the mfffic congestion, noise and pollution Construction of hotels and other tourist facilities has destroyed the natural environment

162 (81%)

27 (13.5%)

11 (5.5%)

167 (83.5%)

27 6 (13.5'7o) (3%)

200

2(10

165 22 (82.5%) (11%)

13 (6.5%)

200

155 (77.5%)

38 (19%)

7 (3.5%)

200

170 (85%)

20 (10%)

10 (5%)

200

5 (4%)

W h e n it c o m e s to the s t a t e m e n t s which i n d i c a t e n e g a t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s o f t o u r i s m (such as o v e r c r o w d i n g o f b e a c h e s , traffic c o n g e s t i o n a n d pollution), Ayia Napa/Paralimni residents were twice as likely to a g r e e as w e r e those in K y r e n i a . S u r p r i s i n g l y , A y i a N a p a r e s i d e n t s a g r e e to a lesser e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e in P a r a l i m n i , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e y have b e c o m e i m m u n e to the p r o b l e m o r b e c a u s e t h e y r e a s o n t h a t , as t h e i r life is so i n e x t r i c a b l y b o u n d up with t o u r i s m , they must a c c e p t any difficulties as but a n e c e s s a r y price to pay. T h e large g r o u p of ' n e u t r a l ' T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s p o n s e s to t h e s e questions are p e r h a p s d u e to the s m a l l e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l stresses in K y r e n i a , w h e r e t h e r e is a l o w e r level o f tourism development. G e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n ( T a b l e s 11 a n d 12)

8 3 % . G r e e k C y p r i o t r e s p o n d e n t s o f t e n r e f e r r e d to old c h u r c h e s , t o w n s q u a r e s a n d h o u s e s t h a t h a d b e e n r e s t o r e d to b e c o m e s h o w p i e c e s for the visitors. T h e Greek Cypriots (87%) have higher proportions saying that r o a d s a n d o t h e r p u b l i c facilities a r e m a i n t a i n e d to a h i g h e r s t a n d a r d t h a n t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s ( 6 6 . 5 % ) . A y i a N a p a a n d , to a lesser e x t e n t , Paralimni were underdeveloped or neglected areas p r i o r to the a d v e n t o f m a s s t o u r i s m . P o s s i b l y the h i g h e r d e g r e e o f s c e p t i c i s m f r o m the T u r k i s h C y p riots can be e x p l a i n e d by the g e n e r a l l y p o o r e r quality o f p u b l i c facilities in t h e n o r t h of C y p r u s . C e r t a i n ly, the h i g h e r level o f i n c o m e in the s o u t h allows facilities to be d e v e l o p e d , a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e (such as r o a d s ) to be b e t t e r m a i n t a i n e d .

O v e r a l l , o u r r e s p o n d e n t s a g r e e d , the b e n e f i t s o f t o u r i s m o u t w e i g h the costs. A g a i n , it is s u r p r i s i n g that A y i a N a p a r e s i d e n t s a r e m o r e positive t h a n P a r a l i m n i p e o p l e , a n d m o r e positive t h a n t h o s e in K y r e n i a a b o u t t o u r i s m ' s net b e n e f i t for the c o u n t r y . T h e best e x p l a n a t i o n is, p r e s u m a b l y , that t h e y see t h e i r lives as c o m p l e t e l y d e p e n d e n t on t o u r i s m , with no v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e a v a i l a b l e . U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , a Table 11 Overall evaluation of tourism: the benefits of tourism are greater than the costs to the people of the area Areas

Agree

Attitudes Neutral Disagree

Kyrenia

186 (93%) 152 (76%) 98 181%)

9 (4.5%) 26 {13%) 11 (9%)

Paralimni Ayia Napa

5 (2.5%,) 22 (I1%) 12

Total

21111 21111 121

11o%)

489

Residents' attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus: S A k i s et al.

and saw benefits to their region as greater than the benefits to themselves. Figure 2 demonstrates that there is a statistically significant relationship between levels of income and positive attitude to tourism only in Ayia Napa. It would appear that there is some resentment on the part of those people who have done less well out of the tourism boom, and have seen a relative decline in income when compared with the more successful members of the village community. In both Paralimni and Kyrenia, non-tourism-related activities are still important, and the gains from tourism perhaps more evenly spread, so that gains of others from tourism are not seen as a reason for resentment towards the successful. In Kyrenia, only 43.5% of respondents had jobs (or family members who had jobs) in the tourism sector, compared with over 77% in the south, so reliance on tourism was less.

T a b l e 12 Overall evaluation o f tourism: the benefits of tourism are greater than the costs to the people of C y p r u s

Areas

Agree

Attitudes Neutral Disagree

Kyrenia

190 (95%) 166 (83%) 117 (97%)

7 (3.5%) 13 (6.5%) 2 (1.5%)

Paralimni Ayia Napa

3 (1.5%) 21 (10.5%) 2 (1.5%)

Total 200 20(1 121

return to the poverty and hardship of the past is not an attractive proposition. In Paralimni and Kyrenia, other activities (notably agriculture in the case of the former) are still an important source of income and employment, and dependency on tourism is less. The residents of all three places are even more positive in their evaluation of the impact of tourism for Cyprus. In their own case, they may be witnesses to some minor problems, but for the island as a whole they assume that such problems are a price well worth paying. Put differently, they feel that, even though they are the primary gainers from tourism, they are also the ones who suffer most from its effects. In this sense, their gain cannot be seen as entirely a selfish one. Brougham and Butler 2s also discovered that respondents were more likely to attribute to others rather than themselves directly,

Discussion The data described above tend to confirm Butler's hypothesis, which would predict that Kyrenia residents, who have had comparatively little exposure to tourism, are more pro-tourism than people in Ayia Napa and Paralimni, where experience of tourism (and tourists) is more extensive. Interestingly, though, a related hypothesis, that of 'friendliness', is

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Ayia Napa

Areas

Figure 2

[]

3 million TL or less (up to 2 0 0 C P )

[]

3-6 million TL (200-400 CP)

•

6-12 million TL (400-800 CP)

[]

12-18 million TL (800-1200 CP)

[]

18-24 million TL (1200-1600 CP)

[]

More than 24 million TL (above 1600 C P )

Relationship between income group and positive evaluation of tourism by respondents (in percentages)*

Note: *The p e r c e n t a g e o f r e s p o n d e n t s w h o agreed with the statement that, overall, the benefits o f tourism are greater than the costs to the p e o p l e of the area

490

Residents' attitudes to tourism development in (:vprus: S Akis et al. Table 13 Relationship between frequency and quality of tourist contacts in Kyrenia

Quality

Frequency Almost A couple every of times Once a Seldom Daily day per week week or never Total

Very positive 8 Positive 59 Neutral 3 Negative 1 Very negative . Total 71

2 26 8 2 . 38

1 13 7 2 .

. 23

4 10 3 . 17

5 31 14

20 139 35

1

6

51

200

.

Table 14 Relationship between frequency and quality of tourist contacts in Paralimni

Quality

Very positi,~e Positive Neutral Negalive Very negativc Tolal

Frequency Almost A couple every of times Once a Seldom per week week or never Total Daily day

36 50 15 3

2 12 3

2 7 5

3 8 2

-

-

12 38 1 1

43 89 63 4 1

14

13

52

200

104

17

Table 15 Relationship between frequency and quality of tourist contacts in Ayia Napa

Quality

Frequency Almost A couple every of times Once a Seldom Daily day per week week or never Total

Very positive Positive Neutral Negative Very negative Tolal

15 32 10 3 60

1 15 7

5 -

23

5

4 1 5

5 23 28

16 57 44 3 1 121

not confirmed. A corollary of the type of analysis presented by Butler is that, as tourism grows, and therefore as interactions between tourists and residents increase, residents would be expected to show more r e s e n t m e n t and hostility to the visitors. However, in the surveys of all three locations, those who have more exposure to tourists tend to regard interactions with them as positive. As frequency of contact with tourists increases, the proportion of respondents seeing the contacts as positive also increases (see Tables 13 to 15). This would suggest that, in Murphy's terms, tourism in all three places is still at the development or welcome stage: resentment has not yet begun to appear. The reason for the difference residents exhibit between their perceptions of the benefits of tourism and their perceptions of the quality of their interactions with tourists may well be that the distinction between the level of tourism development and the

number of tourists is not well drawn in the literature. It is possible, and consistent with our findings, that as tourism development (in terms of the number of hotels, restaurants and shops geared to visitors) increases, the view that the development is positive declines, while, as the number of visitors increases, positive views of tourists qua people increase. Thus, if some way could be found of 'decoupling' increases in tourist numbers from their 'infrastructure' (that is, breaking the link between increasing numbers of people and increased numbers of hotels, restaurants, etc), a destination might be able to continue to enjoy growth in numbers without the perceived negative impacts of tourist-related development. Such a decoupling would be possible if the visitor season could be extended, or visitors were more dispersed within the area. A further feature of the data shows an interesting difference in the distribution of neutral/don't know responses between the areas, as Tables 2 t o 12 illustrate. The relative underdevelopment of the Kyrenia tourist industry may be the cause of this difference: a smaller proportion of respondents in that town are prepared to commit themselves to agreement or disagreement with the statements because they have little experience of the effects. What cannot be deduced from the data is whether those who are in the ' d o n ' t know' category will move straight to the negative (anti-tourism) viewpoint, or whether they will move first to the positive (protourist) side. The alternative hypothesis, that the don't knows are en route from positive Io negative, is refuted by the fact that the absolute proportion of negatives in Ayia Napa and Paralimni is less than the don't knows and negatives in Kyrenia. In any case, such a hypothesis would imply that, in the case of even the least developed resort, resentment was setting in, which would be incompatible with the evidence amassed over the years since Butler first proposed his theory.

Conclusions and predictions It is likely that tourism will continue to develop in Kyrenia (as, despite the problem of political nonrecognition, more tourists decide to choose north Cyprus as their holiday destination). Ayia Napa is probably already close to saturation point: although attempts are being made to rejuvenate the resort by improving the small fishing port, by planting trees and by making parks, development is now restricted to luxury hotels. There is concern that bookings from Britain for the 1995 season were down significantly, as operators find similar quality at lower cost elsewhere. New development in southern Cyprus is now concentrated on the west and south-west coasts, and, although Paphos has been developed as a more up-market resort, it seems that Ayia Napa's lost holidaymakers may well be going there. Govern-

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ment planning regulations introduced in 1990 were designed to prevent the building of low-grade hotels, with the result that most of the hotels in Paphos are of four-star quality or better. The Butler hypothesis would predict that if, as we hope, the survey is repeated in five years' time, attitudes to tourism would have moved towards a more critical evaluation of its benefits: a reduction in the median scores reported in Table 1, and also a decline in 'friendliness'. How should tourism develop in Cyprus? If one listens to the Cypriots, both Greek and Turk believe in the benefits of mass tourism. The people of the Laona area (north-west of Paphos) complain that they are not allowed to share in Ayia Napa's wealth, and the alternative village tourism scheme inaugurated in 1989 (the Laona Project)*** has been too slow to give them adequate benefits. Similarly, the people living in the last village of the Cyprus panhandle (Rizokarpaso or Dipkarpaz), were outraged when a planned nudist village development was moved elsewhere. However, most planners and tourism experts would tend to stress that, with the growth of competition in the mass tourism market and likely future over-capacity, coupled with a discernible trend away from mass tourism, it is wise to examine alternatives. It is possible that a more sure future lies in eco- and alternative tourism of the type pioneered in Laona. Extending the tourist season to achieve 'decoupiing' also has its costs. At present, villagers in Ayia Napa say that they can only meet with their fellowvillagers when the tourists have gone: winter tourism would destroy the social fabric of what remains. Similarly, as tourism in Paralimni and Kyrenia expands, and pressures mount, the temptation to extend the season may well result in a more critical evaluation of the benefits of tourism. What is clear, though, is that a critical evaluation of future plans for tourism in Cyprus would be desirable, before the negative attitudes of residents force a change in policy. References ~Butler, R W 'The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: implications for management of resources' Canadian Geographer 1980 XXIV (1) 5-12 2Doxey, G V 'A causation theory of visitor-resident irritants: methodology and research inferences' Proc 6th Annual Confer-

+HThe Laona Project receives funding from both the European Union and the Leventis Foundation, and aims to promote sustainable development in a group of villages close to the environmentally important Akamas peninsula.

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ence o f The Travel Research Association Travel and Tourism Research Association, San Diego (1975) 195-198 3Murphy, P 'Community attitudes to tourism' lnt J Tourism Management 1981 2 (3) 189-195 4Lankford, S V and Howard, D R 'Developing a tourism impact attitude scale' Annals of Tourism Research 1994 21 121-139 5Adams, W M Green Development: Environment and Sustainability in the Third World Routledge, London (1992) Ch 8 6Krippendorf, J The Holidaymakers: Understanding the Impact o f Leisure and Travel Heinemann, London (1987) 34 7Martin, B S and Uysal, M 'An examination of the relationship between carrying capacity and the tourism lifecycle: management and policy implications'. J Environmental Management 1990 31 327-333 [quotation is from p 330] 8Jafari, J 'Socioeconomic dimensions of tourism: an English language literature review" in Bystrzanowski, J (ed) Tourism as a Factor of Change: A Socio-Cultural Study Vienna Centre, Vienna (1989) 16-60 '~Belisle, F J and Hoy, D 'The perceived impact of tourism by residents: a case study in Santa Marta, Colombia' Annals of Tourism Research 1980 VII (1) 83-101 ~°Rothman, R A 'Residents and transients: community rcaction to seasonal visitors' J Travel Research 1978 VI (3) 8-12 J~Var, T, Kendall, K W and Tarakcioglu, E 'Resident attitudes towards tourists in a Turkish resort town" Annals of Tourism Research 1985 X | (4) 652-658 ~epizam, A, Milman, A and King, B 'The perceptions of tourism employees and their families towards tourism" Tourism Management 1994 15 (1) 53-61 ~3AIlen, L R, Long, P T, Perdue, R R and Kieselbach, S 'The impact of tourism development on residents" perceptions of community life' J Travel Research 1988 XXVI (1) 16-21 HLong, P T, Perdue, R R and Allen, L R 'Rural resident tourism perceptions and attitudes by community level of tourism' J Travel Research 1990 XXVIII (3) 39 ~SAllen, L R, Hafer, H R, Long, P T and Perdue, R R 'Rural residents' attitudes towards recreation and tourism development' J Travel Research 1993 XXXI (4) 27-33 ~6Johnson, J D, Snepenger, D J and Akis, S 'Residents' perceptions of tourism development" Annals o f Tourism Research 1994 XXI (3) 629-642 ~TKammas, M 'The positive and negative effects of tourism development in Cyprus' Cyprus Review 1993 V (1) 70-89 ~SLockhart, D G 'Tourism and politics: the example of Cyprus" in Lockhart, D G, Drakis-Smith, D and Schembri, J (ed) The Development Process in Small Island States Routledge, London (1993) 228-246 V)Lockhart, D G 'Tourism in northern Cyprus: patterns, policies and prospects' Tourism Management 1994 15 (5) 370-379 2°Akis, S and Warner, J 'Tourism in northern Cyprus: a descriptive analysis' Tourism Management 1994 15 (5) 379-388 2tMartin, J "The history and development of tourism" in Dodd, C H (ed) The Political Social and Economic Development of Northern Cyprus Eothen, Huntingdon (1993) 335-372 22Andronikou, A 'Tourism in Cyprus" in de Kadt, E (ed) Tourism: Passport to Development? Oxford University Press, New York (1979) 237-264 2SAndronikou, A Development o f Tourism in Cyprus: Harmonization of Tourism with the Environment Cosmos, Nicosia (1987) 26-27 24peristianis, N and Vakis, K unpublished paper, Nicosia (n.d.) 25Cyprus Weekly editorial, 2 October 1992 Z~'Babbie, E The Practice o f Social Research Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, USA (1989) Appendix G 27Kinnear, T C and Taylor, J R Marketing Research: An Applied Approach McGraw-Hill, New York (1987) 475 ZSBrougham, J E and Butler, R W 'A segmentation analysis of resident attitudes to social impact of tourism' Annals o f Tourism Research 1981 VII (4) 569-590

Residents" attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus: S Akis et al.

Appendix Questionnaire The following questions are about your perceptions of tourism. There are several statements about the potential economic, social, and environmental impacts that can result from tourism. Please record whether you strongly agree (SA), agree (A), neither agree nor disagree (N), disagree (D), or strongly disagree (SD) with each of the following statements. There are no right or wrong answers, so please give the answer which most closely expresses your perception.

Now think about all the potential economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism and please answer the following two questions in the same manner as above: (1) Overall, the benefits of tourism are greater than the costs to the people of the area. (2) Overall, the benefits of tourism are greater than the costs to Cyprus as a whole. II.

Potential economic impacts of tourism (1) Tourism attracts more investment and spending to the region. (2) Our standard of living is increasing more rapidly because of the money that tourists are spending in the region. (3) Prices of many goods and services in the region have increased because of increases in tourism. (4) Tourism gives benefits to a small group of people in the region. (5) Tourism creates more jobs for foreigners than for local people in the region.

(1) During an average week in summer, how often do you talk to tourists'? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

daily almost every day a couple of times a week once a week seldom or never

(2) When you talk with tourists, which one of the following best describes your contact with tourists? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Potential social impacts of tourism (1) Meeting tourists from all over the world is definitely a valuable experience. (2) Tourism has led to an increase in the availability of recreational facilities (like swimming pools, tennis courts, etc) for local people. (3) High-spending tourists have an undesirable effect on the way of life in the region. (4) Tourism causes changes in the traditional culture of the region. (5) Local residents have a lower quality of life as a result of living in a tourist area.

very positive experience positive experience no effect negative experience very negative experience

(3) Is your job related to tourism'? (a) yes (b) no (4) What was your job five years ago?

(5) Is any member of your family employed in tourism'?

Potential environmental impacts of tourism (1) Tourism provides an incentive for the restoration of historical buildings and for the conservation of natural resources. (2) Because of tourism our roads and other public facilities are kept at a higher standard than they otherwise would be. (3) T o u r i s m results in u n p l e a s a n t l y c r o w d e d beaches, parks, picnic places, etc for the local population. (4) Tourists greatly add to the traffic congestion, noise and pollution in the region. (5) The construction of hotels and other tourist facilities has destroyed the natural environment in the region.

The following questions ask about your interaction with tourists in the region. Please circle the letter of only one answer for each question.

(a) yes (b) no llI.

Now, please answer the next five questions. (1) (a) What is the greatest contribution of tourism to the area that you are living in?

(b) What is the greatest contribution of tourism to Cyprus?

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Residents' attitudes to tourism development in Cyprus: S Akis et al.

(iii) other factors only (iv) no idea

(c) What is the biggest damage tourism causes in the area in which you are living?

(d) increased crime rates by youngsters (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(d) What is the biggest damage tourism causes in Cyprus?

tourism tourism and other factors other factors only no idea

(e) increased number of cases of rape (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(2) (a) Did you hear of any family problems caused by tourism in your area within the last year? (i) yes

(ii) no (iii) no idea (b) Was it the same five years ago? (i) yes (ii) no (iii) no idea (3) (a) Did you hear of any problems between the residents of the area within the last year? (i) yes (ii) no (iii) no idea (b) Was it the same five years ago? (i) yes

(ii) no (iii) no idea (4) Has your own family been affected by tourism? If your answer is yes, how?

(5) Today's young people have different behaviour patterns from those of a generation ago. Below are some of the changes, together with possible reasons. Please mark the answer which most closely expresses your perspective as to why behaviour has changed. (a) Free relations between the sexes (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

tourism tourism and other factors other factors only no idea

(b) increased drug use (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

tourism tourism and other factors other factors only no idea

(c) increased divorce rate (i) tourism (ii) tourism and other factors 494

IV.

tourism tourism and other factors other factors only no idea

The following background questions are included to help us to interpret your responses on other questions. Please circle only one letter for each item. (1) What is your sex? (a) female (b) male (2) What is your age? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

18 to 20 21 to 30 31 to 40 41 to 50 51 to 60 60 and over

(3) How long have you been living in the region'? (number of years) (4) Where were you living before coming to this area?

(5) What is the level of education you have completed? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (i)

no formal education elementary school middle school high school two years of higher education Bachelor's degree (university degree) Master's degree or doctorate other (please indicate) _ _

(6) What is your household's average net monthly income from all sources? (See Composition of the sample above)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Thank you for your time and attention!