The mediation effect of mattering and self-esteem in the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and depression: Based on the social disconnection model

Personality and Individual Differences 88 (2016) 148–159

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The mediation effect of mattering and self-esteem in the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and depression: Based on the social disconnection model☆ Meehee Cha 1 Department of Psychology, Ajou University, 206, World cup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 443-749, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 18 June 2015 Received in revised form 28 August 2015 Accepted 3 September 2015 Available online xxxx Keywords: Perfectionism Depression Mattering Self-esteem Social disconnection model Double mediation effect

a b s t r a c t Many studies have identified a general connection between perfectionism and depression. Particularly, the social disconnection model (Hewitt et al., 2006) states that socially prescribed perfectionism leads to depression through the felt sense of isolation. Although Korea has collectivist cultures emphasizing group goals over individual desires, no study examines this association in Korean culture. Additionally, past research has examined whether perfectionism is associated with low self-esteem and low mattering respectively. However, research has not examined how self-esteem functions with mattering in the link between perfectionism and depression. To examine these associations in Korean culture, this study implemented a preparatory study to develop the Korean version of Mattering Scale based on the scale developed by Elliott and his colleagues (Elliott et al., 2004). This study investigated the double-mediation effect of mattering and self-esteem on the relationship between perfectionism and depression. Mattering is a precedent variable for self-esteem in the link between perfectionism and depression. The present study suggests that perfectionists perceive that they are not important to others as well as that others do not care about them. These negative perceptions influence their self-esteem. These findings thus contribute to an explanation as to why perfectionists are vulnerable to depression. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Previously, studies in perfectionism evolved from a psychodynamic theory that defines perfectionism as a common symptom of compulsive neurosis (Horney, 1950; Missildine, 1963). This early research considered perfectionism as a unidimensional negative personality trait in adjustment (e.g., Burns, 1980; Pacht, 1984). However, as studies continued, several models of perfectionism developed, all of which asserted that perfectionism contains positive as well as negative aspects. Moreover, perfectionism is related to both intra-individual and inter-individual aspects (e.g., Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990, Hewitt & Flett, 1991b). In addition, Hewitt and Flett (1991a) affirm that perfectionism is a multidimensional construct, and thus classify perfectionism into three different dimensions according to the object toward whom the perfectionistic behavior is aimed: self-oriented, other-oriented, or socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP). These dimensions are differently associated with various psychological outcomes (e.g., Blankstein & Dunkley, 2002; Hill, Zrull, & Turlington, 1997). In particular, SPP is consistently related to a variety of negative consequences, such as anxiety, depression, and the fear of negative evaluation. Building on ☆ Personality and individual differences. E-mail address: [email protected]. 1 Present address: 25 Bedford Ct., Amherst, MA 01002, USA.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.008 0191-8869/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

this evidence, Hewitt, Flett, Sherry, and Caelian (2006) suggest the use of the social disconnection model (SDM) which surmises that SPP leads to depression through a feeling of insignificance to others. Rosenberg and McCullough (1981) define mattering as “the feeling that one is the object of others' attention, one is important to others, and others are dependent on us.” Mattering, a sense of being significant and important to others, is essential to general well-being and can be the buffer against psychological difficulties. Indeed, Flett, GalfiPechenkov, Molnar, Hewitt, and Goldstein (2012) examine mattering as a mediator in the relationship between interpersonal perfectionism and depression based on the social disconnection model. Self-esteem, a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the self (Rosenberg, 1965), is an important construct for overall well-being and mental health (e.g., Brockner, 1984; DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Diener, 1984; Rosenberg, 1965). Research has established that self-esteem is negatively associated with SPP (e.g., Hewitt & Flett, 1991b; Rice, Ashby, & Slaney, 1998), but positively related to the feelings of mattering to others (e.g., Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981; Elliott et al., 2004; Taylor & Turner, 2001). 1.1. A multidimensional model of perfectionism Early research in perfectionism defined perfectionism as a unidimensional negative personality trait (e.g., Burns, 1980; Horney, 1950; Pacht, 1984). At the beginning of the 1990s, however, the definition

M. Cha / Personality and Individual Differences 88 (2016) 148–159

and understanding of perfectionism changed when two research groups demonstrated that perfectionism is a multidimensional trait. They individually developed two multidimensional scales based on their view of perfectionism (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991a, 1991b). While Frost et al. (1990) developed a scale in terms of individual characteristics, Hewitt and Flett's (1991a) scale contained both self-imposed and socially imposed aspects of perfectionism. Hewitt and Flett (1991a) conceptualized perfectionism along three dimensions: self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP). These dimensions are associated with various outcomes. Self-oriented perfectionism is generally related to positive factors, such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-realization (e.g., Blankstein & Dunkley, 2002; Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Heisel, 2001; Mills & Blankstein, 2000). Socially prescribed perfectionism, on the other hand, is usually related to negative factors, for example interpersonal problems, irrational thoughts, and self-criticism (e.g., Blankstein & Dunkley, 2002; Hewitt, Norton, Flett, Callender, & Cowan, 1998; Hill et al., 1997; Mosher, Flett, Blankstein, & Hewitt, 2001). Other-oriented perfectionism, however, is excluded in most studies that examine how multidimensional perfectionism is related to other clinical traits because the results of other-oriented perfectionism have been inconsistent (e.g., Blankstein & Dunkley, 2002; Dunkley, Sanislow, Grilo, & McGlashan, 2006; Hewitt et al., 2003). This current study focuses on SPP which is consistently associated with negative emotions and adjustment difficulties in order to examine the relation among interpersonal perfectionism, depression, and interpersonal beliefs. 1.2. The social disconnection model Among the dimensions of perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism or SPP is believed to have a strong relationship with suicidal ideation and attempts (e.g., Beevers & Miller, 2004; Hewitt & Flett, 2002). Several researches have identified factors that influence the association between SPP and suicidality (e.g., Hewitt, Flett, & Turnbull-Donovan, 1992; Hewitt, Newton, Flett, & Callander, 1997; Hewitt et al., 1998; Hewitt et al., 2006). Building on this evidence, Hewitt et al. (2006) demonstrated that variables such as a sense of alienation, lack of belonging, perceived lack of social support, and hopelessness about future interpersonal outcomes mediate the link between perfectionism and suicidality. They suggest the use of the social disconnection model (SDM) that includes SPP, objective and subjective social disconnection, and both interpersonal hostility and sensitivity. Moreover, the SDM holds that persons with high levels of SPP are vulnerable to depression because of their dysfunctional beliefs related to social disconnection (Sherry, Law, Hewitt, Flett, & Besser, 2008). 1.3. Mattering Rosenberg and McCullough (1981) defined mattering as “the feeling that others depend on us, are interested in us, are connected with our fate, or experience us as an ego-extension”. Mattering, whose conceptualization is based on the concept of the ‘significant other’ from object relation theory, shares conceptual ground with ‘significance’ from this same theory. This feeling of being important to others – mattering – is characterized by three sources: (1) awareness (i.e., the feeling of being interested and noticed by others); (2) importance (i.e., the feeling that we are a concern of others); and (3) dependence (i.e., the feeling that others rely and depend on us (Elliott et al., 2004; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981)). It is clear that mattering is related to overall well-being and mental health. A number of studies have shown that mattering is negatively associated with such undesirable emotions as depression, worries, and anxiety while positively associated with self-esteem and social support (e.g., Elliott et al., 2004; Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981; Taylor & Turner, 2001).

149

1.3.1. Mattering and the social disconnection model Flett et al. (2012) examined whether mattering affects the relationship between SPP and depression based on the SDM. Research prior to Flett et al.'s had found that one's self-perception of social support from a significant other can buffer psychological distress (e.g., Dunkley, Blankstein, Halsall, Williams, & Winkworth, 2000; Rice, Leever, Christopher, & Porter, 2006). Such findings on mattering indicate that the sense of being supported by others helps alleviate and buffer maladjustment status such as depression. In support of this assertion, the association among SPP, mattering, and depression has been demonstrated (Flett et al., 2012). Although mattering has been confirmed as a mediator of the relationship between SPP and depression, mattering only partially mediates this association. This result suggests that there will still be a direct link between SPP and depression after taking mattering into consideration. Flett et al. thus point to self-esteem as another possible mediator of the relationship between SPP and depression. Therefore, the current study examines self-esteem conceptualized as an overall self-evaluation as a mediator of the link between SPP and depression, along with mattering that is self-evaluation in a relational sense. 1.4. Self-esteem Self-esteem has been defined as ‘a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the self’ (Rosenberg, 1965). Research consistently demonstrates that low self-esteem is related to negative attributes such as depression, aggression, and alienation while high self-esteem is related to positive attributes such as self-confidence, life satisfaction, and happiness (e.g., Gecas, 1982; Rosenberg, 1965). Moreover, both the cognitive psychology and psychoanalytic theories regard low self-esteem as an important contributor to depression. 1.4.1. Socially prescribed perfectionism and low self-esteem In the early studies of perfectionism, there were agreements that low self-esteem had a relation with perfectionism (e.g., Burns, 1980; Horney, 1950; Sorotzkin, 1985). However, as the view of perfectionism changed from unidimensional to multi-dimensional, the relationship between perfectionism and self-esteem also changed. Specifically, in the model of Hewitt and Flett (1991b), self-esteem had a positive association with self-oriented perfectionism, but a negative association with SPP. Added to this result, a number of studies also have shown that there is a significant difference between self-esteem's relation between self-oriented perfectionism in comparison to its association with SPP (e.g., Rice et al., 1998; Kilbert, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, & Saito, 2005). 1.4.2. Self-esteem and mattering Rosenberg and McCullough (1981), after examining the connection between mattering and mental health factors such as self-esteem, depression, worries, and anxiety, conceptualized mattering as the feeling of being important and significant to others. Of these factors, they found that self-esteem demonstrates a particularly clear positive association with mattering across four different samples (Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981). Since then, many studies continually show that a higher sense of mattering predicts higher self-esteem (e.g., Elliott et al., 2004; Marshall, 2001; Taylor & Turner, 2001). According to the ‘sociometer theory’ (Leary, Tambor, Terdal, & Downs, 1995), self-esteem is a ‘sociometer’ that plays a role in maintaining interpersonal relationships. More specifically, one's self-esteem system monitors others' reactions to uphold one's successful relationship with others. Leary and colleagues assert that it is important to understand the social situations in which self-esteem forms rather than the simple degree of self-esteem. That is, self-esteem is not solely the accumulative result of feedback on performance that people have fulfilled but also the subjective feeling of being included in society (Kirkpatrick & Ellis, 2001). Based on this sociometer theory, the current

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M. Cha / Personality and Individual Differences 88 (2016) 148–159

study proposes mattering as a precedent variable which contributes to developing and forming self-esteem. 1.5. Goals and hypotheses The primary goal of this present study is to examine whether the social disconnection model (SDM) is at work in Korean culture. No study could be found that examined the SDM with Korean culture, even though Korea has a collectivist culture that places emphasis on group purpose over individual goals. Therefore, this research carried out a preliminary study to develop the Korean version of the Mattering Scale based on the scale that was developed by Elliott and his colleagues (Elliott et al., 2004). In addition to examining the SDM in Korean culture, this study tested self-esteem as another mediator for this model. As mentioned previously, the evidence has shown that self-esteem has an association with interpersonal perfectionism as well as with depression (e.g., Brown & Gallagher, 1992; Hewitt & Flett, 1991b). In addition, the study of Flett et al. (2012) suggested examining self-esteem as a mediator of the SDM. In response to this evidence, the current study investigated self-esteem as a mediator of the link between SPP and depression. Furthermore, this study examined an extended model of the SDM with self-esteem added to mattering. Previous research considered social disconnection as a main factor which may make persons high in SPP vulnerable to depression (e.g., Flett et al., 2012; Hewitt et al., 2006; Sherry et al., 2008). Based on this finding, researchers have examined objective and subjective social disconnection, perceived social support, and mattering as mediators between SPP and depression respectively (Hewitt et al., 2006). Nonetheless, there is no study that examines several factors within the same model. The present study thus looks at the double-mediation effect of mattering as a selfevaluation in a relational sense and at self-esteem as an overall selfevaluation in the relationship between SPP and depression. 2. Study 1 The Korean version of the Mattering Scale was required to examine the SDM, including mattering as a mediator, in Korean culture. First, the use of the Mattering Scale was approved by Gregory Elliott, who is the main author of the scale (Elliott et al., 2004). Then, the original mattering scale was translated into Korean, and three researchers reviewed the first translated version. The reviewed version was retranslated into English by a bilingual English and Korean speaker. Then, three native English speakers rated the consistency of meaning between the original and the retranslated scales by utilizing a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (completely different) to 7 (completely same). Using the rating results, the items which scored more than 4 on average were accepted while the items which scored below 4 on average were revised and the consistency of meaning rerated. 2.1. Method 2.1.1. Participants Two different groups were gathered via the social network service (SNS) page of the researcher to validate the Korean version of the Mattering Scale. One might question the reliability of collected data through an online service. However, Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, and John (2004) provide strong evidence of the reliability of Internet data collection in their comparison of samples of Internet methods with those of traditional methods. According to their results, the data collected on the Internet are as credible as those provided by traditional methods as well as reflective of more diverse and motivated respondents. Two different samples were collected for the exploratory and the confirmatory factor analyses; the data from these two samples was carefully screened, and any occurrence of careless responding was

excluded from the data. The number of the first sample group for the exploratory factor analysis was 312, and after screening for careless responding, 306 respondents (181 men, 125 women) were included in the exploratory factor analysis. In addition, the respondents of the second group were originally 264, but after screening for responding, 257 respondents (119 men, 138 women) were used in the confirmatory factor analysis. 2.1.2. Measures The Mattering Scale developed by Elliott et al. (2004) is a 24-item questionnaire that measures the perception of being significant to others. It has three components of mattering: awareness (i.e., “I am the object of other's attention”), importance (i.e., “I am an object of other's concern”), and reliance (i.e., “Other chooses/looks to me”). The Korean version of the mattering scale (below KMS), which is based on the scale developed by Elliott et al. (2004), was validated with a procedure combining translation and retranslation, as mentioned above. The converted version of the mattering scale then was tested by exploratory factor analysis, inter item correlation analysis, and internal consistency. Based on these results, the KMS was developed as nine items: three items were selected for each component based on their representativeness to explain the meaning of the consistency with the original structure. Thus, this Korean version of the mattering scale (KMS) with these nine items was used for the confirmatory factor analysis. The Perceived Social Support Scale (PSSS; Kim, 1995) is a 25-item questionnaire that measures emotional support (e.g., “People around me always love me and take care of me”), informational support (e.g., “People around me advise me to make a rational decision”), material support (e.g., “When I need money, people around me are always willing to lend me the money”), and assessmental support (e.g., “People around me make me feel being needed and worthy”). Evidence supports the reliability and validity of the PSSS (e.g., Kim, 1995, 2006). The Self-Consciousness Scale (SCS; Kim, 2002) is a 23-item questionnaire that measures private self-consciousness, public self-consciousness, and social anxiety. However, in this study, the items for social anxiety were excluded because they did not have direct bearing on this analysis. Research supports the reliability and validity of the SCS (e.g., Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975; Kim & Oh, 1994; Kim, 2002). 2.2. Data analysis Exploratory factor analysis was used to validate the KMS with the first sample group. Then, with the questions which were determined through exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis was adopted for the second sample group. At the same time, to determine the convergent and discriminant validity of the KMS, Pearson's correlation between the mattering items and other related variables was performed. In the confirmatory factor analysis, several indexes for goodness of fit were adopted including the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). Values over 0.90 for the CFI and TLI indexes were considered as a good model fit. Regarding RMSEA, values less than 0.08 indicated a well-fitting model. 2.3. Results 2.3.1. Internal consistency and inter-item correlation analysis Table 1 gives the mean, standard deviation, internal consistency, skewness values, and kurtosis of the KMS. The corrected item-total correlations for most items were over 0.40. However, those for items 1, 5, and 20 were relatively low: 0.26, 0.29, and 0.38, respectively. There is no item which affects the internal consistency of the scale if the item is deleted. These results were used to determine the items for

M. Cha / Personality and Individual Differences 88 (2016) 148–159

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Table 1 Results for item analysis. Item no.

Mean

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

3.71 3.76 4.29 3.92 3.32 3.58 4.11 4.48 4.03 3.75 4.42 3.76 4.07 3.80 3.67 3.71 3.58 3.96 3.88 3.49 3.85 3.97 4.16 3.64

Standard deviation 1.12 .80 .89 1.03 .90 .94 .81 .80 .75 1.02 .82 .84 .79 .89 .93 1.02 .89 .83 .89 .99 .78 .84 .83 .82

Skewness

Kurtosis

Statistics

Standard error

Statistics

Standard error

Corrected item-total correlation

−.78 −.73 −1.36 −.67 −.25 −.46 −.61 −1.60 −.60 −.61 −1.48 −.69 −.57 −.60 −.52 −.61 −.36 −.66 −.50 −.34 −.28 −.85 −.86 −.29

.14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14 .14

−.12 1.04 1.61 −.33 .00 −.12 −.23 2.19 .57 −.20 2.02 .56 .13 .27 −.04 −.09 −.11 .43 −.29 −.44 −.08 .95 .50 .14

.28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28

.26 .47 .53 .56 .29 .41 .59 .64 .60 .48 .58 .49 .51 .71 .64 .60 .50 .67 .49 .38 .59 .55 .57 .52

the confirmatory factor analysis. The total internal consistency for 24 items was 0.91.

2.3.2. Exploratory factor analysis The exploratory factor analysis was performed to verify the factor structure of the KMS with the first sample group. First, Bartlett's sphericity test and the KMO index (Kaiser–Mayer– Olkin) were used to validate whether the sample data were suitable for the factor analysis. Values greater than 0.80 for the KMO index were considered appropriate for the factor analysis. The observed significance level of Bartlett's sphericity test was less than 0.05 to be recommended as suitable for the factor analysis. For the results using the first sample group, the KMO index was 0.91, and Bartlett's test of sphericity was less than 0.000 (χ2 = 2873.459, p b .000). Therefore, the first sample group was verified as acceptable for the factor analysis (DeVellis, 1991). The factors were extracted through Principal Axis Factoring, and Direct Oblimin rotation was used in order to consider the correlations between factors. There were six factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0, and these six factors accounted for 48.56% of the total variation. However, integrating the scree plot (Fig. 1) and the original theory of the Mattering Scale, three factors were considered appropriate, and the number of factors was set at three. These three factors accounted for 39.87% of the total variance. The factor structure and factor loadings are reported in Table 2. Sixteen questions of the 24 loaded high on the first factor. It was clear that no question loaded on the third factor while the first question, “People do not ignore me”, did not load highly on any factor. Therefore, to construct and examine the factor structure reflecting the original theory of the Mattering Scale, three items for each factor were chosen based on values for the corrected item-total correlation, communalities, factor loadings, and content validities of the questions. Finally, the nine items were selected for the KMS. The KMO index for the KMS with nine items was 0.84, which means it was acceptable. The result of Barlett's sphericity test (χ2 = 778.843, p b .000) was also significant. Principal Axis Factoring with Direct Oblimin rotation was implemented for the factor analysis. The total variation was 51.35%, and Table 3 reports the factor structure and loadings.

Internal consistency after item deleted .91 .91 .91 .91 .91 .91 .91 .90 .91 .91 .91 .91 .91 .90 .90 .90 .91 .90 .91 .91 .91 .91 .91 .91

2.3.3. Confirmatory factor analysis Confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate the validity of the KMS with the nine items (KMS-N) that were chosen from the exploratory factor analysis. The AMOS 18.0 (2009) program was used for the confirmatory factor analysis that was conducted with the second sample group. To test the adequacy of the confirmatory factor analysis model, several indexes for goodness of fit were adopted including overall χ2, CFI, TLI, and RMSEA. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis are given in Table 4. All the indexes measure the adequacy of the goodness-of-fit. These results suggest that the model of the KMS-N, which is given in Fig. 2, is acceptable.

2.3.4. Convergent and discriminant validity This present study examined the convergent and discriminant validity of the KMS-N according to the criteria used in the study by Elliott et al. (2004). The correlations between the selected criteria and the three factors of the KMS-N are reported in Table 5.

Fig. 1. Scree plot of the KMS.

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Table 2 Results of the exploratory factor analysis of the KMS. Item

Factor loadings

4. Sometimes, I feel almost as if I were invisible. 7. At social gatherings, no one recognizes me. 16. It is hard for me to get the attention of other people. 18. Most people do not seem to notice when I come or go. 14. People do not care what happens to me. 8. No one would notice if one day I disappeared. 15. Much of the time, people are indifferent to my needs. 22. When I have a problem, people usually don't want to hear about it. 11. There is no one who really takes pride in my accomplishments. 21. People generally know when I am around. 3. No one really needs me. 9. People are usually aware of my presence. 13. People tend not to remember my name. 19. I have noticed that people will sometimes inconvenience themselves to help me. 10. I am not someone people would turn to when they need something. 6. My successes are a source of pride to the people in my life. 24. People count on me to be there in times of need. 2. When people need help, they come to me. 17. Quite a few people look to me for advice on issues of importance. 12. Often, people trust me with things that are important to them. 5. People tend to rely on me for support. 20. There are people who react to what happens to me in the same way they would if it happened to them. 23. There are people who care enough about me to criticize me when I need it. 1. People do not ignore me. Cumulative %

Moreover, this study focused on two related constructs: selfconsciousness and perceived social support. Self-consciousness is the persistent tendency to be aware of one's own actions. Kim (2002) identifies three forms of self-consciousness: private self-consciousness, public self-consciousness, and social anxiety. However, in keeping with the methodological approach of Elliott et al. (2004), this study examined only private and public self-consciousness; it did not look at self-anxiety. No significant correlations were found except two associations: one was between public self-consciousness and awareness (r = −.135, p b .05), while the other was between private self-consciousness and reliance (r = .155, p b .05). However, all the correlations between the components of mattering and that of self-consciousness achieved statistical significance. Interestingly, the correlations between the components of mattering and private self-consciousness were higher than those between the components of mattering and public self-consciousness. Perceived social support – the belief that some social support is available if needed – differs from the actual received support or supportive relationship (Sarason, Sarason, & Pierce, 1990). Elliott et al. (2004) suggest that perceived social support would be highly related to the importance among the components of mattering. The correlations between the components of mattering and perceived social support in this study (Table 5) did produce similar results to those of Elliott et al. (2004); their correlations between perceived social support

1

2

3

.81 .74 .70 .70 .68 .68 .61 .57 .56 .56 .54 .52 .46 −.42 .32 .28 .044 −.01 .09 .09 −.07 .058 .30 .14

−.21 −.10 −.04 .07 .12 .02 .10 .04 .05 .10 .05 .19 .14 −.19 .27 .18 .65 .65 .55 .54 .47 .42 .38 .19

−.02 .00 −.11 −.10 .08 .07 .09 .25 .42 .04 .05 −.24 −.22 .18 −.16 .20 −.06 −.23 .10 .04 .03 .30 .28 −.17

Eigenvalues

% of variance

7.73

32.21

1.11

4.64

.72

3.02 39.87

and the components of mattering (i.e., awareness, reliance, and importance) were .45, .75, and .49 (p b .05), respectively. 2.4. Discussion In Study 1, the Korean version of the mattering scale was developed and validated based on the original theory of mattering offered by Rosenberg and McCullough (1981) and Elliott et al. (2004). Although the KMS-N did not support the original scale with the three factors of 24 items, it still contained the three-factor structure based on the original idea from Rosenberg and McCullough (1981) and Elliott et al. (2004). The results of the exploratory factor analysis thus indicate that the KMS with 24 items could not deliver the original factor structure. Therefore, based on the three-factor model, the nine items among the 24 were selected for the Korean version of the Mattering scale according to the corrected item-total correlations, communalities, factor loadings, and content validities. These findings hereby suggest that there may be different standards and definitions between Korean and Western cultures for this relationship. The correlation between mattering and perceived social support was statistically significant as well as high among this Korean sample. Additionally, the correlation between mattering and self-consciousness was

Table 3 Results of the exploratory factor analysis for the KMS with nine items. Item

Importance

Reliance

Awareness

11. There is no one who really takes pride in my accomplishments. 22. When I have a problem, people usually don't want to hear about it. 15. Much of the time, people are indifferent to my needs. 2. When people need help, they come to me. 10. I am not someone people would turn to when they need something. 12. Often, people trust me with things that are important to them. 18. Most people do not seem to notice when I come or go. 21. People generally know when I am around. 7. At social gatherings, no one recognizes me. Eigenvalues % of variance Cumulative % Internal consistency

0.77 0.58 0.56 −0.07 0.19 0.12 −0.13 0.20 0.29 3.30 36.69 36.69 0.73

0.00 0.02 0.08 1.05 0.34 0.27 0.07 −0.04 −0.03 0.91 10.12 46.81 0.60

0.09 −0.12 −0.13 0.10 −0.15 −0.17 −0.95 −0.54 −0.45 0.41 4.53 51.34 0.76

M. Cha / Personality and Individual Differences 88 (2016) 148–159 Table 4 Goodness-of-fit statistics for the confirmatory factor analysis for the KMS with nine items. χ2

p

df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

51.49

.001

24

.932

.899

.067

153

Table 5 Correlations between the KMS-N and other constructs. Self-consciousness Mattering

Private

Public

Perceived social support

Awareness Reliance Importance

.332⁎⁎ .331⁎⁎ .273⁎⁎

.244⁎⁎ .152⁎ .188⁎⁎

.387⁎⁎ .418⁎⁎ .499⁎⁎

also statistically significant and positively correlated. However, the correlations of mattering with private self-consciousness were higher than with public self-consciousness. These results indicate that mattering and public self-consciousness may reflect different constructs in comparison to private self-consciousness. Finally, Cronbach's alpha for the KMS-N was .82 with the first sample group, and .79 with the second sample group. Therefore, these findings demonstrate that the KMS-N is a reliable scale for Korean culture.

population, used the Korean version of CES-D that has been verified by Chon & Rhee and thus has demonstrated adequate reliability and validity (e.g., Chon & Rhee, 1992).

3. Study 2

3.2. Results

The study of the social disconnection model in Korean culture is relatively limited compared to its study in Western culture. Thus the SDM needs to be examined as to its applicability to Korean culture. Consequentially, the initial goal of Study 2 was to examine whether the SDM is relevant to Korean culture or not.

3.2.1. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations Means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations between all variables are reported in Table 6. The coefficient alphas ranged from .79 to .90. First-order correlations confirmed that SPP was associated negatively with mattering, but positively with depression. In addition, mattering and depression were negatively correlated.

3.1. Method 3.1.1. Participants In Study 2, the participants were the same as those in the second group in Study 1 (257 respondents: 119 men and 138 women). 3.1.2. Measures The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), developed by Hewitt and Flett (1991a), is a 45-item questionnaire assessing three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, otheroriented perfectionism, and SPP. Hewitt and Flett (1991a) originally developed this scale. This present study used the Korean version of MPS that was translated by Han (1993), and then verified by Jeon (2009); evidence supports the scale's reliability and validity (e.g., Han, 1993; Jeon, 2009). The KMS-N, which has been verified through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses in Study 1, also was used. In addition, the Korean version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Chon & Rhee, 1992) was chosen to assess the level of depressive symptoms. The original CES-D was developed by Radolff (1977). This study, because of the language of its sample

⁎⁎ p b .01. ⁎ p b .05.

3.2.2. Structural equation modeling (SEM) AMOS 18.0 (2009) was used for the structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis in this current study. The chi-square difference test was conducted to compare the fully mediated model with the partially mediated model. A significant chi-square difference indicated a better fit of the partial mediation model (Hardy & Bryman, 2009). In addition to the chi-square difference test, several indexes were used to evaluate the fit of the model: CFI, TLI, and RMSEA. 3.2.2.1. Measurement model for the SDM. To attain more stable and reliable analytical results, we utilized item parceling to examine the measurement model. Several researchers have shown that parcels are more reliable than individual items (e.g., De Bruin, 2004; Kishton & Widaman, 1994). Hence, all the latent variables of the model – which measure SPP and depression – consisted of three parcels. All the factor loadings between observed indicators and latent variables were statistically significant at the level of p b .001 (Fig. 3). The measurement model also fit the data well (Table 7).

Fig. 2. The result of the confirmatory factor analysis for the KMS with nine items. Note. ***p b .001.

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Table 6 Means, standard deviations, coefficient alphas, and correlations. SPP SPP Mattering Depression M SD α

– −0.226⁎⁎ 0.234⁎⁎ 59.05 9.79 0.90

Mattering – −.273⁎⁎ 36.13 3.81 0.79

Table 7 Goodness-of-fit statistics for the measurement model. Depression

χ2

p

df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

70.727

.000

24

.934

.900

.087

– 35.82 8.01 0.88

Note. n = 257, SPP = socially prescribed perfectionism. ⁎⁎ p b .01.

3.2.2.2. Structural model for the SDM. As mentioned above, the chi-square difference test and fit model indexes were conducted to test the structural model for the SDM. To test the significance of the mediation effect, 2000 bootstrap samples and the 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals (CIs) were utilized. The partially mediated model was first estimated and showed a very good fit, χ2 (24, N = 257) = 70.727, p b .001, CFI = .934, TLI = .900, and RMSEA = .087. The fully mediated model was also estimated and showed a very good fit as well: χ2 (25, N = 257) = 76.604, p b .001, CFI = .927, TLI = .894, and RMSEA = .090. The chi-square difference test was implemented to compare these two models. Results indicated that the difference in model fit, Δχ2 (1, N = 257) = 5.877 (p b .025), was statistically significant. Thus, the partially mediated model was chosen for the best fit for the data (Fig. 4.). The bootstrap procedure was also conducted to estimate the significance of the indirect effects. Results from 2000 bootstrap samples and the 95% bias-corrected CIs indicated that the indirect effects of SPP to depression via mattering were statistically significant (β = .089, 95% CI = 0.015–0.230). 3.3. Discussion Study 2 examined the social disconnection model (SDM) in Korean culture. Correlational analysis confirmed previous research which has shown a relationship among interpersonal perfectionism, mattering, and depression. More specifically, lower mattering has been found to be related with socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP). These results are consistent with the general notion that SPP includes a lack of meaningful interpersonal relationships (e.g., Hewitt et al., 2003). That is, the findings reveal the possibility that high SPP may negatively affect a sense of mattering to others because other people may never be

Fig. 4. The mediation model. Note. SPP = socially prescribed perfectionism, *p b .05, **p b .01.

satisfied or pleased. As expected, mattering in the current study was also related negatively with depression. Based on these correlational analyses, Study 2 tested the SDM, and found that mattering partially mediated the association between SPP and depression. These results thus indicate that SPP can be vulnerable to depression due to a lack of the feeling of being important to others, which is self-evaluation in a relational sense. Study 2 examined the SDM, according to the study of Flett et al. (2012), and all the results mentioned above were consistent with previous studies. Furthermore, this study confirmed that the social disconnection model could be adaptable to Korean culture. Importantly, after taking mattering into account, there was still a direct link between SPP and depression, which means that other constructs – such as selfesteem – should be considered along with mattering, as Flett et al. (2012) have suggested.

4. Study 3 As found in Study 2, mattering only partially mediated the relation between SPP and depression; there was still a direct link between them. In addition to this finding, Flett et al. (2012) suggested selfesteem as another possible mediator of the link between SPP and depression. Therefore, the primary goal of Study 3 was to investigate

Fig. 3. The results of the measurement model. Note. SPP = socially prescribed perfectionism, A = awareness, R = reliance, I = importance, **p b .01, ***p b .001.

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155

Table 8 Means, standard deviations, coefficient alphas, and correlations. SPP SPP Self-esteem Depression M SD α

– −0.232⁎⁎ 0.234⁎⁎ 59.05 9.79 0.90

Self-esteem

Depression

– −.631⁎⁎ 37.08 5.32 0.82

– 35.82 8.01 0.88

Note. n = 257, SPP = socially prescribed perfectionism. ⁎⁎ p b .01.

whether self-esteem mediates the association between SPP and depression.

Fig. 6. The mediation model. Note. SPP = socially prescribed perfectionism, ***p b .001.

significant chi-square difference between the two models, and this means the partially mediated model would have exhibited the better model fit (Hardy & Bryman, 2009). Moreover, other indexes were used to evaluate the fit of the model: CFI, TLI, and RMSEA.

4.1. Method 4.1.1. Participants In Study 3, the participants were the same as those in the second group in Study 1 (257 respondents: 119 men and 138 women). 4.1.2. Measures As in Study 2, the MPS and the Korean version of CES-D were used. The Korean version of the Self-Esteem Scale (KSES; Lee & Won, 1995) is a 10-item questionnaire assessing the level of self-esteem. Rosenberg (1965) originally developed the Self-Esteem Scale; given the population, the present study used the Korean version which Lee and Won (1995) verified. Evidence supports the reliability and validity of this version (e.g., Lee & Won, 1995). 4.2. Results 4.2.1. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations Table 8 reports the means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations among SPP, self-esteem, and depression. The coefficient alphas varied from .82 to .90. Self-esteem was negatively correlated with SPP, as well as depression. 4.2.2. Structural equation modeling (SEM) As in Study 2, AMOS 18.0 (2009) was used for the SEM analysis. All the procedures and standards were also the same as those utilized in Study 2. Through the chi-square difference test, the fully mediated model was compared to the partially mediated model. There was a

4.2.2.1. Measurement model. All the factor loadings between the observed indicators and latent variables were statistically significant at the .001 level (Fig. 5). The validity of the measurement model was acceptable, χ2 (17, N = 257) = 58.302, p b .05, CFI = .954, TLI = .924, RMSEA = .097. 4.2.2.2. Structural model. To examine the structural model, the chi-square difference test and fit model indexes were implemented. To validate whether the mediation effect was statistically significant, 2000 bootstrap samples and the 95% bias-corrected CIs were used. First, the partially mediated model was estimated and had a good model fit, χ2 (17, N = 257) = 58.302, p b .05, CFI = .954, TLI = .924, RMSEA = .097. The fully mediated model was also estimated and it too had a good model fit χ2 (18, N = 257) = 60.488, p b .05, CFI = .952, TLI = .926, RMSEA = .096. The partially and fully mediated models were compared with the chi-square difference test. Results showed no difference in model fit, Δχ2 (1, N = 257) = 1.186, at the .05 level. Therefore, the fully mediated model was selected as the best fit (Fig. 6). Next the bootstrap procedure was implemented to validate whether the indirect effect was statistically significant. Results indicated that the 95% CIs for the indirect effect varied from .054 to .410. Therefore, the indirect effect was statistically significant. 4.3. Discussion Study 3 investigated whether self-esteem mediated the link between socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) and depression, as

Fig. 5. The results of the measurement model. Note. SPP = socially prescribed perfectionism, ***p b .001.

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suggested in the study of Flett et al. (2012). Correlational analysis indicated that self-esteem has negative associations with interpersonal perfectionism and depression. These data confirm the previous findings that persons with high SPP tend to have a maladaptive self-presentation and self-criticism. This is because they usually believe that they can be accepted only if they perfectly achieve the others' expectations and standards (e.g. Enns & Cox, 1999; Flett, Besser, Davis, & Hewitt, 2003). In addition, self-esteem was found to be negatively associated with depression. Considering these results, this current study examined the proposed mediation model which included SPP, self-esteem, and depression. Study 3 found that self-esteem did indeed fully mediate the link between SPP and depression. This result suggests that selfesteem should be considered when explaining the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and depression. Additionally, it is consistent with the general understanding that individuals with high SPP have a negative self-evaluation because they recognize the negative feedback from others as evidence of the gap between the ideal ‘perfect’ self and the real self. This negative self-evaluation may be the reason why individuals with high SPP are more sensitive and susceptible to depression.

Table 9 Goodness-of-fit statistics for the measurement model. χ2

p

df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

133.127

.000

38

.913

.875

.099

5.2. Results 5.2.1. Structural equation modeling (SEM) As in Studies 2 and 3, SEM analysis was implemented by AMOS 18.0 (2009). All the procedures and standards were consistent with those utilized in the previous analyses in this study. M-plus was used to compare the mediation effect between mediators. 5.2.1.1. Measurement model. Every observed indicator loaded significantly to the corresponding latent variables at the .001 level (Fig. 7). However, the results of the fit indexes that show the simplicity of the model – such as the TLI and RMSEA indexes – fell short of the standard, while CFI was satisfactory at .913 (Table 9). These results indicate that this model fits the data well, but the model is unnecessarily complicated (Hong, 2000).

5. Study 4 While a number of previous studies have examined variables which are associated with the relationship between interpersonal perfectionism and depression, there is no research which has tested several factors within the same model. In addition, as examined in Studies 2 and 3, mattering and self-esteem mediated the association between interpersonal perfectionism and depression. Therefore, Study 4 verified the extended model of the SDM, including mattering and self-esteem as mediators. 5.1. Method 5.1.1. Participants In Study 4, the participants were the same as those in the second group in Study 1 (257 participants: 119 men, 138 women). 5.1.2. Measures All the measures used in Study 4 are the same as those in the previous studies.

5.2.1.2. Structural model. Study 4 demonstrated the double mediation effect of self-esteem and mattering on the association between SPP and depression. M-plus was used to analyze the specific indirect effect, because AMOS reports only the total indirect effect rather than the specific indirect effect for the multiple mediation models. First, the chi-square difference test between the hypothesized model and the competing model was implemented. The competing model was the fully mediated model which had more degrees of freedom (Fig. 8). Among the fit indexes for these two models, only CFI was acceptable. Other fit indexes, TLI and RMSEA, were below the standard, which would mean that the model needs to be simplified. Results of the chisquare difference test reported no significant difference between the two models (Table 10). For this reason, the competing model is more concise. The bootstrap procedure was conducted to examine the specific direct effect among variables along with the indirect effect in the selected model, which is the fully mediated model. The results from 2000 bootstrap samples are given in Fig. 9 and Table 11. All the 95% Cis for the direct effects – except the direct effect of socially prescribed

Fig. 7. The results of the measurement model. Note. SPP = socially prescribed perfectionism, A = awareness, R = reliance, I = importance, ** p b .01, ***p b .001.

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157

Fig. 8. The hypothesized model and the competing model.

perfectionism (SPP) on self-esteem – were statistically significant. Among the indirect effects, only the double mediation effect was statistically significant. 5.3. Discussion Study 4 was conducted to verify whether there is a difference between the two mediators of mattering and self-esteem, and to validate the double mediation effect of mattering and self-esteem on the association between interpersonal perfectionism and depressive symptoms. First, correlational analysis confirmed that mattering was positively related with self-esteem, as several previous studies have reported (e.g., Elliott et al., 2004; Marshall, 2001; Schieman & Taylor, 2001). These results reaffirmed that individuals who feel that they are important to others usually have higher self-esteem. Next, the model including the two mediators – mattering and self-esteem – was examined to verify the relationship between SPP and depression. The double mediation effect of perfectionism to depression via mattering and then selfesteem was indeed significant, although the indirect effect of perfectionism to depression through both mattering and self-esteem was not statistically significant. These results are in keeping with the general definition of self-esteem. Rosenberg (1965, 1989) as well as Coopersmith (1967) consider self-esteem a psychological construct which has developed through the relationships with others during life, especially with significant others. In addition, according to the sociometer theory (Leary et al., 1995), self-esteem is defined as “the interpersonal monitor”. Along with these definitions and studies of self-esteem, the double mediation effect of mattering and self-esteem on the relations between socially prescribed perfectionism and depression present the possibility that self-esteem reflects certain aspects of mattering. In other words, as already suggested in several studies, self-esteem is formed throughout life, by relationships with others – in particular with significant others – such as parents and close friends.

the original 24 items, it retains the three-factor structure of the first construct from Rosenberg and McCullough (1981). With the KMS-N developed through Study 1, Study 2 investigated the social disconnection model in Korean culture. As found in the previous study which was implemented in Western culture (e.g., Flett et al., 2012), the current study revealed an association among socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP), mattering, and depression; moreover, mattering partially mediated the link between SPP and depression. These results suggest that the social disconnection model is relevant based on Korean culture as it was in the previous study in Western culture (e.g., Flett et al., 2012). However, mattering only partially mediated the relationship between interpersonal perfectionism and depression. For this reason, another mediator other than mattering is required. In Study 3, according to the idea of the previous study (Flett et al., 2012), self-esteem was examined as a mediator of the relationship between SPP and depression. As expected, self-esteem was negatively related with SPP and depression, and self-esteem mediated this link between SPP and depression. These results suggest that persons high in SPP may think that they are controlled by an external force and in addition may experience self-condemnation because they tend to hold themselves to standards to be perfect along with unrealistic expectations which they feel are imposed by others. Therefore, individuals with high socially prescribed perfectionism may experience more depressive symptoms. Finally, in Study 4, the social disconnection model was extended to include self-esteem as a mediator, and used to examine the difference of the mediation effect of self-esteem in comparison with that of mattering, as well as the double mediation effect of mattering and self-esteem on the relationship between SPP and depression. Although each single mediation effect of self-esteem and mattering was not significant, the double mediation effect of mattering and self-esteem in that order was statistically significant. These results are in accordance with previous studies of the association of the social disconnection model and self-esteem. Flett et al. (2012) suggested that high levels of

6. General discussion The purpose of the current study was to examine the social disconnection model (SDM) in Korean culture, to extend the SDM in terms of its relationship with self-esteem, and ultimately to compare the mediation effect of mattering and self-esteem in the link between interpersonal perfectionism and depression. In Study 1, the Korean version of the Mattering Scale was developed and verified. Even though the Korean version of the Mattering Scale includes only nine items among Table 10 Goodness-of-fit statistics for the hypothesized and competing model. χ2 Hypothesized model Competing model

133.127 135.370

Δχ2

df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

2.243

38 39

.913 .912

.875 .876

.099 .098

Fig. 9. The results from 2000 bootstrap samples.

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Table 11 Direct and indirect effects for the hypothesized model. Effect

Direct

Indirect

SPP → mattering (a1) Mattering → depression (a2) SPP → self-esteem (b1) Self-esteem → depression (b2) Mattering → self-esteem (c) a1 × a2 b1 × b2 a1 × c × b2

B (β)

S.E.

95% CI Bootstrap percentile

−.105 (−.314)⁎⁎ .505 (.249)⁎ −.127 (−.167)⁎ −.809 (−.906)⁎⁎⁎ 1.407 (.620)⁎⁎⁎ −0.115 (−.078) .223 (.152) .259 (−)

.033 .241 .059 .109 .248 .208 .223 .276

(−.351, −.007) (.000, 1.539) (−.428, .047) (−1.203, −.549) (.829, 1.539) (−.608, .016) (−.101, .708) (.014, .856)

Note. ⁎⁎⁎pb.001, ⁎⁎pb.01, ⁎pb.05

SPP and low levels of mattering may exist along with a vulnerable self that strives to appear perfect in public and to avoid making mistakes in this context. Moreover, in terms of the sociometer theory (Leary et al., 1995), self-esteem is “the interpersonal monitor”, and its maintenance is motivated by the need to belong. Taken as a whole, individuals with high level of SPP may feel that they are not mattering to others because of their tendency to perceive that they are unable to please others and to meet their standards. This felt sense of not being significant and important to others may negatively affect self-esteem. In other words, persons with high SPP may have low self-esteem because they might feel that they are not important to others as well as being disconnected from them. 6.1. Limitations and future directions There are several limitations in this current study. First, the data of this study were collected online. Therefore, the data might be biased toward the reported behaviors and propensities of those who tend to use the Internet. In addition, the current study did not include a clinical sample group; thus, there could be limitations in applying the results directly to a clinical sample. Second, this study was cross-sectional, so it does not affirm causal assumptions among variables. Longitudinal research is required to confirm any casual inferences. In conclusion, socially prescribed perfectionism should be considered as a risk factor for depression. Additionally, when counselors and therapists treat distressed perfectionists, they should take into consideration self-evaluation both in a relational and overall sense. Furthermore, in order to lower the level of depression, counselors may benefit from striving to make clients with high socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) feel important and taken care of in therapeutic relationships not based on their achievements or performances but based on the clients' presence itself. References Beevers, C.G., & Miller, I.W. (2004). Perfectionism, cognitive bias, and hopelessness as prospective predictors of suicide ideation. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 34, 126–138. Blankstein, K.R., & Dunkley, D.M. (2002). Evaluative concerns, self-critical, and personal standards perfectionism: A structural equation modeling strategy. In G.L. Flett, & P.L. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: theory, research, and treatment (pp. 285–315). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Brockner, J. (1984). Low self-esteem and behavioral plasticity: Some implications of personality and social psychology. Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 237–271. Brown, J.D., & Gallagher, F.M. (1992). Coming to terms with failure: Private enhancement and public self-effacement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 3–22. De Bruin, G.P. (2004). Problems with the factor analysis of items: Solutions based on item response theory and item parceling. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 30(4), 16–26. Burns, D.D. (1980). The perfectionist's script for self-defeat. Psychological Today, 34–52 Nov. Chon, K. -K., & Rhee, M. -K. (1992). Preliminary development of Korean version of CES-D. Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 11(1), 65–76. Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. DeNeve, K., & Cooper, H. (1998). The happy personality: A meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 197–229. DeVellis, R.F. (1991). Scale development: Theory and applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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