12th IFDC 2017 Special issue – Foods from Latin America and their nutritional contribution: A global perspective

Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 83 (2019) 103291

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Discussion

12th IFDC 2017 Special issue – Foods from Latin America and their nutritional contribution: A global perspectivestar;

T

Lilia Masson Salaue Universidad de Chile, President of CAPCHICAL, Chilean Branch of LATINFOODS, Chile

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Food composition Latin America Biodiversity Native foods Indigenous peoples’ historical food systems Dietary diversity Food security Traditional foods

Before the Spaniards conquered America in 1492, several ancient cultures and empires – the Aztec, Maya, Inca, and Mapuche, among them – already inhabited the two continents and had made important advances in the arts and sciences as well as in architecture, astronomy, agriculture and the domestication of crops. These peoples lived according to their own rules and in harmony with their magnificent natural setting. More than 500 years have passed, and Latin America still hosts significant biodiversity reserves in terms of world flora and fauna. This natural storehouse represents a great value and enormous wealth for future generations. Different kinds of fruits, roots, tubers, seeds and spices assured not only good health and survival for the ancient civilizations, they were also foods with symbolic importance for the people who consumed and cultivated them, and this biodiversity has been maintained over the centuries until the present day. Today many of these indigenous and symbolic foods that originated in Latin America are more widely produced and consumed on other continents than in their land of origin. This is the case for the 21 foods and one spice presented in this Keynote Address: beans, cacao, cashew, corn, peanuts, quinoa, sunflowers, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava or yuca, avocados, chili peppers, pumpkins, tomatoes, cherimoya, guava, nopal, papaw, passion fruit, pineapple, strawberries and vanilla. These foods have contributed significantly not only to modifying traditional meals in other countries, but have improved nutrition and health worldwide through their natural macro- and micronutrients and bioactive compounds.

1. Introduction America was not an uninhabited continent before its “discovery” in 1492 by the Spaniards. It was home to a large population with many distinct cultures; different languages were spoken; and empires such as the Aztec, Mexica, Maya or Inca had developed art, science, architecture, astronomy, and agriculture and crop domestication to a very high level (Espinoza, 1997; Frühsorge, 2015; León Cázeres, 2015; LeónPortilla, 2017; Ramírez, 2006). Most of these cultures lived in close connection with their natural environment and their gods, e.g. Chac the Maya god of rain, thunder and lightning; the Quetzal bird for the Aztecs; Inti the sun for the Incas; the Moon for the Mapuches; and throughout the entire Andean region, there was Pachamama, or Mother Earth (Di Salvia, 2013). Each year she opened up to receive the seeds of the ancestral native foods according to natural laws in order for the people to survive for the next year. She thus offered to people all kinds of healthful foods from plants of both terrestrial and aquatic origin (Di Salvia, 2013). The Mapuches settled in

southern Chile, between 37°35′ Sand −39°37′ S. They would say, “We must tread lightly because nature is the origin of our life”. Such sacred principles were part of their lifestyle, and consequently they took care of the forest, the land, water resources, flora and fauna, and their symbolic foods (FAO, 2005; Sepúlveda, 2005). Latin America has preserved this globally important treasure, namely natural biodiversity. This can be found in the Amazon jungle, the largest tropical forest area in the world. It extends over 6 million km2 and is recognized as one of the most important flora and fauna reserves in the world (Levis et al., 2017). The broad biodiversity represented by the many native foods that were domesticated by these ancient peoples constitutes the great wealth provided by an exceptional state of nature. The value of their foods was not only nutritive, it was symbolic as well. It has remained abundant down through the centuries, providing many different species of fruits, roots, tubers, seeds, and spices that continue to contribute to a healthy life for the current population of Latin America (Bengoa, 2001; FAO, 2005; Herrera and Götz, 2014). A healthy life is directly related to the

This Conference Keynote Address corresponds to the 2017 Greenfield – Southgate Award, presented at the 12th International Food Data Conference held 11–13 October 2017 in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It is the slightly modified version of the Keynote Address presented at the conference under the title “Biodiversity and Healthy Foods in Latin America”. E-mail address: [email protected]. star;

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2019.103291 Received 2 February 2018; Received in revised form 28 December 2018; Accepted 8 August 2019 Available online 14 August 2019 0889-1575/ © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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play a significant role in many diets worldwide (FAO, 2016). The five key messages from the IYP were as follows: i) legumes are highly nutritive, due to their high protein content; ii) they are highly accessible from an economic point of view, contributing to food security; iii) they have important health benefits, and are excellent sources of iron and good sources of vitamins such as folate, and in addition they present a low glycemic index along with low fat contents, and can thus be consumed by individuals with diabetes; iv) they are a good crop for cultivation in arid zones, which also promotes biodiversity; and finally, v) they can be stored for long periods of time, which also contributes to food security (FAO, 2016).

foods selected for the daily diet. These foods contribute macro- and micronutrients, as well as bioactive compounds such as carotenoids, anthocyanin pigments and flavonoids, to the diet from childhood to old age, and they are a contributing factor in the prevention of degenerative diseases such as those linked with modern life styles (Diaz Neira, 2013, 2015; Hoffman-Ribani et al., 2009; Muñoz and Maldonado, 2003; Packer et al., 2005; Rodriguez-Amaya et al., 2008). Latin America produces a global supply of at least 21 native ancestral foods and one very well-known spice, all of them included in a historical review of 203 domesticated world food crops, which up to now have been an important part of the daily food preparations and ancient recipes of many countries worldwide (Meyer et al., 2012). Various factors were taken into consideration in choosing to present these 21 foods and one spice for this Keynote Address, namely:

2.1.2. Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) Origin: Amazonia; the cashew is native to north-eastern Brazil (Morton, 1987). It also grows in Venezuela and has spread to Panama, Mexico, Colombia, and Florida and the Antilles (Lacroix, 2003). The Portuguese carried cashew seeds to Mozambique and India in the 16th century, and from there cashews spread to East Africa (Morton, 1987). The name caju derives from the Tupí language acaju (Lacroix, 2003). The fruit has two parts: a pseudofruit called “caju apple”, used to make jam, jelly, and juice, and the nut itself located on the outside, measuring 3–5 cm long, with a curved shape and dry texture. Cashews are in high demand in many countries throughout the world as a snack (Lacroix, 2003). In Portuguese this seed/nut received the name of caju or cajueiro (Morton, 1987), which is the origin of the English name cashew. They are called marañon in most Spanish-speaking countries, although in Venezuela they are known as merey.

• their early introduction to the rest of the world by the Spaniards and • •

Portuguese during the centuries of the Latin-American conquest (Morton, 1987); their global importance in agriculture and trade, because currently many of the native foods from Latin America are produced and consumed more abundantly in other countries, far from their native continent of origin (Morton, 1987; FAOSTAT, 2016); their interest in terms of sensory attributes in the daily diets of millions of people around the world through their attractive colors, delicate or piquant taste, exotic flavors and new textures (Bourges et al., 1983; Masson, 2012; Tapia, 1990).

These 21 foods and one spice will be described in this presentation in terms of their origins, how and when they spread to the rest of world, their nutritional composition, and the main countries where they are currently cultivated and produced today. They have been grouped into the following five categories:

2.1.3. Cacao plant (Theobroma cacao L.) Origin: the cacao tree grows wild in the Amazon basin, which includes Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, and Brazil; it is found growing wild exclusively between 18 °N and 15 °S, at an elevation of 1250 m above sea level (Harwich et al., 2011). The word theobroma derives from the Greek for “food of the gods”, and in the Mayan language Kaj means bitter and Kab means juice. This food has been known for millennia, and was called cacaoatl or xocolatl and finally cacao (Harwich et al., 2011). The first written trace of the use of “cacao” is the word KA-KA-W (a), in Maya culture around year 1000 BCE (Henderson et al., 2007). Cacao cultivation is an integral part of the history of Latin America, from pre-Columbian times down to the present, because of its symbolic meaning in religious creation myths, and for the role it played in the history of agriculture and plant domestication. As one of the most significant symbolic representations of the peoples of Mesoamerica, it forms a part of the Latin American cultural identity, as well as providing an important source of work and income for more than 350,000 farmers in Latin American countries (Arvelo et al., 2016; Smofsky, 2015). It has been estimated that cacao was first consumed by the Olmec culture some 3500–5500 years ago (Harwich et al., 2011). The Olmecs developed a process to produce a bitter beverage known as cacao from the seeds. This drink was used to increase physical vigor and longevity; warriors consumed it as a restorative drink and used cocoa butter to treat wounds (Henderson et al., 2007). Some flavorings such as honey, vanilla, corn flour, or chili pepper would be added to reduce the bitter taste (Henderson et al., 2007). The ancient Aztec population considered the cacao tree as a divine gift from the god Quetzalcóatl to help humans resist fatigue, maintain physical activity, stimulate mental activity, and provide peaceful and enjoyable moments in daily life. It was consumed mainly by the elite groups of the population (Vela, 2012). In 1528, Hernán Cortés exported cacao seeds to Europe for the first time, and the first commercial load arrived in Spain in 1585 (Vela, 2012).In 1879, the Spaniards took cacao seeds to Trinidad, Haiti and Africa for the purpose of cultivation (Vela, 2012). Chocolate, which is made from cacao, is a very special food with high economic value in the European Union. The principal uses of cacao seeds are for cocoa powder, raw cacao paste, and the cacao butter used

• seeds: bean, cashew, cocoa, corn, peanut, quinoa, sunflower • roots and tubers: potato, cassava (yuca or mandioca), sweet potato • vegetables: avocado, chili pepper, pumpkin, tomato, • fruits: cherimoya, guava, nopal, papaw, passion fruit, pineapple, strawberry • vanilla spice 2. Twenty-one native Latin American foods, and one spice 2.1. Seven native seeds: bean, cashew, cocoa, corn, peanut, quinoa, sunflower These seven foods are illustrated in Fig. 1 along with the location of their region of origin in Latin America. 2.1.1. Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) Origin: Mexico; domesticated and cultivated since 7000 BCE (Bitocchi et al., 2012). Beans, which are part of the food group known as legumes or pulses, are one of the most important and traditional ancient foods still consumed today in every country in Latin America and throughout the world, with high biodiversity in terms of size, shape, and color (FAOSTAT, 2016; Saburido Álvarez and Herrera Estrella, 2015). Beans have gone by various names: the Aztecs called them etl; the Mayas, búul; the Incas, purutu. Cristopher Columbus called them favas (fava bean) because they resembled the “habas” of Spain (Vicia faba L.) (Saburido Álvarez and Herrera Estrella, 2015). The Mesoamerican origin of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) has been demonstrated by gene sequencing data (Bitocchi et al., 2012). Beans spread throughout the world via explorers and traders, and they became a popular crop in Europe, Africa and Asia at the beginning of the 17th century (Saburido Álvarez and Herrera Estrella, 2015). The United Nations International Year of Pulses (IYP) in 2016 emphasized the contribution of pulses to human health, because beans 2

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Fig. 1. Seven native seeds: bean, cashew, cocoa, corn, peanut, quinoa, and sunflower, with their region of origin in Latin America.

Central and South America. The Caribbean native people, the Tainos, called it mahís, which means, “that which sustains life”; and in the Quechua language it was called choclo (FAO, 1993, No. 25). It was considered a sacred food for the Maya, Aztec, Inca, and Aymara cultures, due to its meaning: “The sun trapped in kernels” (FAO, 1993, No. 25). Corn was eaten with potatoes, quinoa, beans, pumpkins, and chili peppers for the basic meal that was consumed daily in many Latin American countries (Nuss and Tanumihardjo, 2010). It was the first vegetable species from Latin America to reach Europe in the 17th century. (Ranum et al., 2014). Corn is a good alternative for people who

to make chocolate (Valenzuela, 2007). The healthful effects of chocolate have been previously described, particularly due to its flavonoid (as epicatechin) and antioxidant content (Perea-Villamil et al., 2009; Vinson et al., 2006). A minor component, theobromine, increases serotonin and dopamine levels; adding sugar to chocolate may increase this effect (Engler et al., 2004; Vinson et al., 2006; Visioli et al., 2009).

2.1.4. Corn (Zea mays L.) Origin: Mexico, domesticated by native people 10,000 years ago (FAO, 1993, No. 25); corn cultivation later spread to the regions of 3

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Fig. 2. One native tuber, potato, and two native roots, cassava and sweet potato, with their region of origin in Latin America.

Nahualt, and is now known as maní and cacahuate, the more common Latin-origin names for peanut (Hammons, 1994); according to the Mochica religion, maní means “to be reborn” (Alva, 1994). Archeological data indicate that this legume has been cultivated as food for 3500 years, after traces found in the prehistoric cemetery of Ancon, near Lima, Peru (Hammons, 1994). The “peanut collar” found in the tomb of Señor de Sipan in Peru is a well-known precious object crafted from ten gold and ten silver peanuts. The two metals symbolized the dual presence of the main sky gods, the Sun and the Moon, both necessary to maintain equilibrium in nature. The Spaniards brought peanuts to Spain, then to Asia, Africa and Oceania. Portuguese merchants introduced them into China in the 17th century, where they immediately became very popular, as demonstrated by the inclusion of peanuts as an ingredient in Chinese meals (Ayón Morante, 2010; Chasiluisa Salazar, 2015). Peanuts can cause allergic reactions, so sensitive individuals should be careful about

require a gluten-free diet (Estévez and Araya, 2016; García, 2006). 2.1.5. Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Origin: South Amazonia, Peru, mainly in the coastal Andean area of Mochica culture. Domesticated long before the Spanish Conquest, peanut (a type of groundnut) is an ancient South American crop that spread to and was widely cultivated in Mexico and Central America in pre-Columbian times. The domesticated species had already evolved into subspecific and varietal groups before being brought to Europe by early Spanish and Portuguese explorers. Peanuts are now cultivated around the world in warm, temperate climates (Stalker, 1997). The Spaniards had observed that this legume that was cultivated and widely consumed by the native populations in South and Central America went by several different names according to the region in Latin America where it was cultivated. It was called maní in Guaraní, mandubí in Taíno, inchic in Quechua, chocopu in Aymara, tlacacaualt in 4

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Andes Mountains, all of them characterized by different sizes, colors and shapes (FAO, 2008; International Potato Center (IPC, 2015). Another ancient source of this tuber is Chiloé Island, Southern Chile, 41°–43 °S, where potatoes were already being cultivated at sea level in pre-Columbian times (FAO, 2008). They are as biodiverse as the Andean potatoes in size and shape and in the color of the skin and pulp, mainly red and violet. Their nutrient composition is good, and they are available in open markets on Chiloé Island (Moenne-Locoz, 2008). The Spanish sailors valued the potato during their long ship journeys, and thus it was that the potato arrived in India, China and Japan as early as the beginning of the 17th century (FAO, 2008). Although the entire Andes mountain range is considered the birthplace of the potato (Devaux et al., 2002-2006), recent DNA studies have shown that current potato varieties cultivated in different parts of the world descend mainly from Chilean cultivars. The 19th century European potato blight caused the potato crops of Andean origin to fail during the 19th century, and as a result only the potatoes that descended from Chilean germplasm have survived (FAO, 2008).

eating them (Peralta et al., 2015). 2.1.6. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Origin: Quinoa is an annual plant that grows to a height of 1–2 m; the seeds are small and of different colors: white, pink, orange, red, brown, or black (FAO, 2011; Tapia, 1990). It has been estimated that quinoa was cultivated 3000–5000 years ago in Bolivia, Ecuador and the Peruvian Andean Mountains at 4000 m above sea level, at 7–13 °S (FAO, 2011). However, quinoa is very adaptable and can be cultivated in other climates, altitudes and sea level conditions, e.g. Chiloé Island at 41°– 43 °S, and Chile (Fuentes et al., 2009a). Quinoa is an important, traditional transversal seed that has been eaten for millennia by native cultures such as the Inca, Aymara, and Mapuche (FAO, 2011; Tapia, 1990), with very significant global potential today (Jacobsen et al., 2003; Vega-Gálvez et al., 2010). Raw quinoa seed pericarp contains saponins at 0.1–0.5%, which gives the seeds a bitter taste that can be eliminated before cooking through soaking, which is the traditional procedure, or heating the grains and scraping the pericarp (GómezCaravaca et al., 2014; Ridout et al., 1991). After this treatment, quinoa seeds are ready to be used as an ingredient in different preparations (Astaíza et al., 2010; Schumacher et al., 2010; Stikic et al., 2012): in gluten-free foods such as such as soups and savory or sweet dishes for celiac people (Zevallos et al., 2014a, b); as toasted seeds to be ground into flour for pasta and baked foods; fermented for beer; or combined with other cereals. The leaves are edible and can be consumed raw in salad or boiled as a vegetable (Abugoch James, 2009; Tapia, 1990).

2.2.2. Cassava, also known as yuca, mandioca or tapioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) This root food originated in two separate areas of central and southern Amazonia. This staple plant was cultivated as early as 2700 BCE (Cartay, 2004), and is still part of the daily diet in the tropical regions of Latin America (Cartay, 2004). The bitter variety must be thoroughly soaked to leech out the cyanogenic glucosides naturally present in the roots before being cooked and eaten (Padmaja and Steinkraus, 1995). Cassava is the third most important staple food crop in the world, especially in tropical countries; the Portuguese successfully introduced cassava cultivation into Africa and Asia in the 17th century (Cartay, 2004). The market for cassava is principally local, due to high yields and low production costs as well as how easy it is to prepare as a staple food in the countries where it is cultivated (Cartay, 2004). It is very useful in family farming because it rapidly adapts (with high yields) to a variety of ecological systems; the non-cyanogenic-containing varieties can be consumed raw, and all varieties can be eaten boiled or fried as a substitute for potatoes. Many traditional meals are prepared with cassava in the tropical countries in Latin America (FAO Alimentación y Nutrición 47/2, 1990). The starch is used as ingredient in a variety of processed foods in Brazil, Paraguay, Venezuela and Colombia (Cartay, 2004). Another very common use is to process it as flour, which is the base for preparing the farofa widely consumed in Brazil in a number of food preparations (FAO Alimentación y Nutrición 47/2, 1990).

2.1.7. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) Origin: Central America, North America, domesticated and cultivated. Interest in the distribution of the sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in Mexico has recently been renewed because of the discovery of domesticated Helianthus annuus L. in ancient archaeological deposits in Tabasco and elsewhere in Mexico dating from 2600 BCE (Lentz et al., 2008b). The sunflower represented the sun god (Lentz et al., 2008a). The Spanish colonists brought sunflower seeds to Spain in the 16th century, and today the sunflower is cultivated around the world for food, seed oil and as an ornamental plant (Lentz et al., 2008a). 2.2. Native tuber: potato and two native roots: cassava (yuca, mandioca or tapioca) and sweet potato These three foods are illustrated in Fig. 2 along with the location of their region of origin in Latin America. 2.2.1. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) Origin: the Andes, dating back 8000 years, in the region of Lake Titicaca, Bolivia, at an altitude ranging from 3000 to 4000 m above sea level, 15°–16 °S (FAO, 2008). Potato is an indigenous food that also played an important cultural and symbolic role among the Aymara and Quechua people who cultivated it. It continues to be a traditional food in Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina, and it is currently the most cultivated non-cereal crop in the world. It spread from South America to other continents, and is now produced in 52 countries (FAO, 2008). Brought to Europe by the Spaniards, it was cultivated in 1565 in the Canary Islands and in 1573 on the Iberian Peninsula (FAO, 2008). During the 19th c. potatoes were consumed in Europe to prevent scurvy because they are a good source of vitamin C, and they were an important food in European countries during famines, saving many lives (FAO, 2008). The International Potato Center (IPC) in Lima, Peru, maintains the largest potato collection in the world along with the most important germplasm bank. The Center seeks to achieve food security through scientific research into this native food, maintaining the biodiversity of potatoes and other native roots such as sweet potatoes (International Potato Center (IPC, 2015). The biodiversity of the potato is remarkable: there are more than 4000 separate varieties of native potatoes in the

2.2.3. Sweet potato, or yam (Ipomea batatas L.) Origin: this edible root was cultivated by the Mayas in Central America and domesticated and cultivated by the Incas in South America (Peru) 8000–10,000 years ago, and is seen in the images found on ancient ceramic cooking vessels (Martí et al., 2011). The origin of the word camote is camohtli in the Náhuatl Aztec language. Batata is the name in the Taino language in the Caribbean (Martí et al., 2011). Yams are an inexpensive and easy-to-cultivate crop, and they grow in a variety of adverse climate conditions (Martí et al., 2014; Tique et al., 2009). At the end of the 15th century, Columbus brought the sweet potato to Spain where it is now an important crop in Malaga; in the 16th century it arrived in China, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines and Polynesia (Linares et al., 2008; Langdon, 2001). In Mexico, sweet potato is consumed in either savory or sweet dishes at various meals as an important part of the daily diet; currently, it is cultivated worldwide, especially in developing countries because of easy propagation and cultivation, high yields, low water and fertilizer requirements, and because it will grow in very hot climates (Linares et al., 2008). There are white, yellow, and violet sweet potato varieties (Chamba Herrera, 2009). The International Potato Center (CPI) in Peru maintains the largest genetic bank of sweet potatoes in the world, with 5

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Fig. 3. Four native vegetables: avocado, chili pepper, pumpkin, tomato, with their region of origin in Latin America.

named aguacate and was cultivated as early as 8000 years BCE; and in South America, in Peru, it was called palta 3000–4000 years BCE (Barrientos Priego, 2010). The name aguacate derives from the Aztec ahuácatl, while palta is from the Quechua word pallta. Today both names are used in Latin America, depending on the country where it is cultivated (Barrientos Priego, 2010). The avocado migrated not only to Jamaica in the West Indies in 1696, but to nearly every tropical and subtropical region in the world (Morton, 1987). Today the avocado is grown commercially in the United States, throughout the tropical regions of Central and South America and the larger islands of the Caribbean, as well as in Polynesia,

more than 1000 botanical or hybrid varieties catalogued (Tique et al., 2009). 2.3. Four native vegetables: avocado, chili pepper, pumpkin, tomato These four foods are illustrated in Fig. 3 along with the location of their region of origin in Latin America. 2.3.1. Avocado (Persea americana Mill. Or Persea gratissima gaertn.) Origin: archeological research has established the origin of the avocado in two separate locations. In Central America, in Mexico, it was 6

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2.4.1. Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.) Origin: believed to have originated in the inter-Andean valleys of Ecuador, Peru, Colombia and Bolivia, this indigenous fruit must have spread in ancient times to Chile and Brazil, where it became naturalized and was cultivated widely in the highlands of these countries (Morton, 1987). In the northern Peruvian Andean zone, cherimoya is cultivated at an altitude between 1500 and 2200 m; the name cherimoya derives from the word chirimuya in the Quechua language: chiri means “cold”, and muya means “seeds” (Bonavia et al., 2004). Cherimoya is a large fruit with a green peel, or white pulp with black seeds; it is characterized by a pleasant texture, sweet juicy taste, with a unique and recognizable aroma (Gayoso Bazán and Chang Chávez, 2017; León and Monsalve, 2006). In Chile, the cherimoya tree is considered an important crop for the local market, especially in the Coquimbo Region located at sea level from 29°20´–32°15´ S, for export to the USA, Japan and other Latin American countries (Díaz Neira, 2006; Gardiazabal and Rosenberg, 1993; Gardiazabal and Cano, 1999). In 1757, it was brought to southern Spain, close to Malaga; Spain has now applied for commercialization of the “Fino de Jete” variety of this fruit, under protected origin status, with the document, “Denominación de origen Chirimoya de la costa tropical de Granada – Málaga”. The fruit is also called “blancmange” (Hermoso et al., 1999; Morton, 1987).

the Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar, Mauritius, Madeira, the Canary Islands, Algeria, tropical Africa, South Africa, southern Spain, southern France, Sicily, Crete, Israel and Egypt (Morton, 1987). Botanically classified as a single-seeded fruit, the avocado can be consumed in various traditional sweet or savory food preparations: with sugar as a beverage, with chopped tomatoes in a very well-known Mexican purée called guacamole (guacamol in Guatamala, with a few slight taste differences), in salads, and so on (González Basulto and del Amo Hernández, 2012). There are many varieties of avocado with different sizes, peel textures and colors (green or black), and oil content (González Basulto and del Amo Hernández, 2012). The oil content of the Hass variety of avocado is the highest, thus it is the main variety cultivated in those countries producing edible avocado oil, namely Mexico, Peru, and Chile (Barrientos Priego, 2010). 2.3.2. Chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Origin: Mexico, Central America, Andean Mountains, with wide biodiversity in size and shape, and various colors: white, green when immature, yellow, bright red (Ascoytia, 2009). In Peru, archeological evidence of its presence has been found dating from 8000 years ago (Acurio, 2009; Bedoya Garland, 2015). Classified as a pungent berry, this plant is called chili pepper or chile in Latin American countries from the Náhuatl language chīlli, except in Chile where it is called ají, and in the Taíno language haxí; note that bell pepper is considered sweet, not pungent (Mendoza, 2006). In Spain the name is guindilla and in Italy peperoncino (Ascoytia, 2009). It was introduced in Spain in 1493, producing a gastronomic revolution in the Mediterranean countries (Bedoya Garland, 2015). It rapidly spread throughout the world, transforming cooking practices in China, India, Thailand and Korea (Acurio, 2009). Its use as a flavoring is now universal, and it continues as a traditional addition to many dishes in a large number of Latin American countries, especially in Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, and Chile (Acurio, 2009).

2.4.2. Guava (Psidium guayaba L) Origin: northern Caribbean, Central and South America. The guava plant was domesticated 2000 years ago (Amador et al., 1991), and is still cultivated in many Latin American countries, such as Mexico, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Brazil, and Ecuador (Mendes et al., 2017). Early Spanish and Portuguese colonizers brought it from Latin America to the East Indies and Guam (Morton, 1987). It has been adopted as a crop in Asia, India, and in warm parts of Africa; Egyptians have grown it for a long time, and it may have traveled from Egypt to Palestine; it is occasionally seen in Algeria and on the Mediterranean coast of France; it reached Hawaii in the early 1800s (Morton, 1987). Today it is cultivated throughout the Pacific islands of Hawaii, Malaysia, New Caledonia, and Fiji, and in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Cuba and southern Florida as well (Morton, 1987). Guava is a round edible fruit with a diameter of 5–10 cm, peel colors of green, yellow, pink or red according to the variety, a creamy white or orange pulp, and a highly aromatic flavor. The English name is guava, in Portuguese it is goiaba, and in Spanish it is known as guayaba (Morton, 1987).

2.3.3. Pumpkin or squash (Cucurbita máxima Duchesne) Origin: Mexico and Central America; archaeological evidence for this native crop has been found in Mexico and Central America dating from 8000–10,000 years ago (Paris, 1989). Together with corn and beans, the pumpkin, whose pulp, flowers and seeds are edible (Paris, 1989), constituted one of the staple foods for indigenous Central American peoples and it spread to all of Latin America. There are many varieties of pumpkins, with different colors, sizes, and shapes; the largest ones may weigh 18–36 kg (Wang et al., 2011). In the 16th century it was introduced by colonists to Europe, Asia and Africa (Paris, 1989).

2.4.3. Nopal (Opuntia ficus indica L.) Origin: Mexico, in Náhuatl language nopalli or nochtli. According to a mythological legend, Aztecs had to find the perfect place to build their new kingdom, and the sign they were expecting to find was an eagle perched on a nopal, devouring a snake (Tapia Rodríguez, 1997). The Aztecs found this place on a rock at lake Texcoco, where they settled and founded Tenochtitlan city, which means “place among nopals”; this city is known today as Mexico City (Alvarado Tezozómoc, 1998). The shape and the red color of the fruit are associated with the image of the “Mexican heart” and represented on the Mexican national flag (Alvarado Tezozómoc, 1998; Tapia Rodríguez, 1997). The nopalli fruit was used more than 2500 years ago as a basic food in ancient Mesoamerica, which included Mexico; from there it spread to South America, Europe, Africa, and Oceania (Sáenz, 2002).

2.3.4. Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) Origin: Andean region, from southern Colombia to northern Chile; it was first classified as Lycopersicum peruvianum. The tomato was first domesticated in Mexico with the Aztec name xitomatl, which is still used in that country (Rodríguez et al., 1997). During the 16th century, tomatoes, which were as small as cherries, were transported to Spain with the name tomati. The Spanish brought them to Italy in 1554, after which Italians adopted the tomato as the base of almost all their dishes, especially in their tomato sauces for pasta (Nuñez Viñals, 1999). The plant spread to Asia and Africa via the Spanish and Portuguese, and from Europe to North America (Rodríguez et al., 1997). Tomato varieties are very diverse in shape and color, and are used in many traditional meals in all of the Latin American countries (Nuñez Viñals, 1999).

2.4.4. Papaw - Papaw, Carica papaya L. Origin 1: Tropical zone of Mesoamerica; in Mexico, this fruit has a wide distribution from Tamaulipas Gulf to Yucatan Peninsula. On the Pacific side of the continent it is found from Baja California to Chiapas (Morton, 1987; Jiménez Díaz, 2002). It is also found in the eastern Andes, corresponding to Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia and Venezuela (Jiménez Díaz, 2002). In Mexico it was called

2.4. Seven native fruits: cherimoya, guava, nopal, papaw, passion fruit, pineapple, strawberry, and one spice, vanilla These seven native fruits and one spice are illustrated in Fig. 4 along with the location of their region of origin in Latin America. 7

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Fig. 4. Seven native fruits: cherimoya, guava, nopal, papaw, passion fruit, pineapple, white strawberry and one spice, vanilla, with their region of origin in Latin America.

Papaw is a large fruit weighing on average 500–600 g, and it has been known to attain a weight of 9 kg (Jiménez Díaz, 2002). It may be consumed raw, as juice or in sweet preparations, with the black seeds removed due to their sharp, hot taste; the peel contains papain, which is considered to aid digestion (Jiménez Díaz, 2002). - Papaw: Carica pubescens Lenné et Koch. Origin 2: Andean region in Peru and Chile, where it is cultivated in the coastal zone, protected from the cold weather and wind, from the Coquimbo Region, 29°30′ S as far as the Maule Region, 36°33′ S (Muñoz, 1988; Sudzuki, 1996). The Coquimbo Region is the largest producing zone in the country, and is famous for the characteristics of the papaw it produces: small, oblong-shaped, very aromatic fruit with five grooves, 7–10 cm

chichihualtzapotl, which in the Náhuatl Aztec language means zapote (or “nurse” in English), because this fruit was strongly linked to fertility. (Jiménez Díaz, 2002); in other countries it is known as mamón (Jiménez Díaz, 2002). Papaw cultivation was introduced in Europe, Asia and Africa, (Jiménez Díaz, 2002). Spaniards brought the seeds to the Philippines around 1550, and the papaya traveled from there to Malacca and India and on to Naples in 1626 (Morton, 1987). Now the papaya can be found in nearly every tropical region of Europe and Asia, along with the Pacific Islands, and has become naturalized in many areas (Morton, 1987). Papaw seeds were probably brought to Florida via the Bahamas (Morton, 1987). 8

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and it is the ancestor of all the commercial strawberry varieties produced today throughout the world. This fruit presents intermediate characteristics from both original Fragarias ancestors (Finn et al., 2013; Lavín et al., 2000; Porebski and Catling, 1998).

long, 4–6 cm in width, with a thin peel and yellow pulp, containing small brown oblong seeds 8 mm long (Díaz Neira, 2006). The fruit cannot be consumed raw like carica papaya, because it contains large amounts of latex with the proteolytic enzyme papain, and gloves are necessary to peel the fruits, which must be boiled before consumption (Díaz Neira, 2006). Locally, different sweet dishes are prepared with this native papaw fruit such as juices, jams, small soft candies and so on, and it is also canned with syrup (Díaz Neira, 2006; Muñoz, 1988).

2.4.8. Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Mill.) Origin: The Gulf coast of Mexico, close to the current location of Veracruz and Papantla (Ossenbach, 2005). The Totonaca people produced vanilla from the fruit of the orchid Vanilla planifolia Mill. for the Aztec Empire, continuing this production until the 19th century (Ossenbach, 2005). The Aztec called the vanilla sheath tlilxochitl, which means “black flower”, and the Spanish named it vainilla because the fruit resembled the sheath of a very small sword; there is a sad, romantic story about its origin (Ossenbach, 2005). Vanilla planifolia is the only non-ornamental orchid currently cultivated for food, industrial, and cosmetic purposes (Ossenbach, 2005). The story of vanilla is also associated with chocolate, since Maya and Mexica people added vanilla to the thick beverage called xocoatl, a cocoa-based preparation for the Aztec nobility and warriors (Ossenbach, 2005). From the 17th century to the mid-19th century, the Totonaca people from Veracruz, Mexico, retained a worldwide monopoly on vanilla production (Ossenbach, 2005). It proved to be quite difficult to reproduce vanilla anywhere except in its land of origin, but in the end it was successfully cultivated on the Île Bourbon, known today as Réunion Island, and from there it was introduced in Madagascar, whence it spread to other tropical countries. Vanilla is a unique and highly appreciated flavor, widely used in the industrial production of chocolate, ice cream, beverages, creams, pastries, and also in perfumery; the international trade of this commodity is complex (Bouvier, 1998; Ecott, 2004; Loeillet, 2003).

2.4.5. Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims) Origin: There are two varieties, yellow (Passiflora. edulis f. flavicarpa) and violet (Passiflora. edulis f. edulis) growing in tropical zones in Central and South America; it is also called maracuyá (Morton, 1987). In 1610 Jesuit missionaries named it “passion fruit” because the flowers and vine bore a resemblance to the religious symbols associated with the passion of Jesus Christ (Gómez Cruz, 2005). The purple passion fruit is indigenous in the area from southern Brazil to Paraguay and northern Argentina, and the yellow fruit probably originated in the Amazon region of Brazil (Morton, 1987). In Central and South America it is cultivated in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, El Salvador, Puerto Rico, and Cuba, and it has spread to the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Israel, and other parts of the world (Morton, 1987). Passion fruit is round or oval shaped, 5.0–5.5 cm in diameter with a hard peel, and the pulp is reddish-yellow, juicy, and with black seeds (Calzada, 1970). Consumers prefer the purple variety for eating as fresh fruit; the yellow fruit is prepared as juice and preserves (Morton, 1987). 2.4.6. Pineapple (Ananas comosus L.) Origin: South American, native to southern Brazil and Paraguay where it was domesticated by native people, after which it spread throughout Central America to Mexico (Morton, 1987). Around the year 200 CE it was cultivated in Peru by the Mochica people, who painted it on their ceramic vessels (Betancur and García, 2006). Christopher Columbus and his shipmates saw pineapples for the first time on the island of Guadeloupe in 1493 (Morton, 1987). Spaniards introduced the pineapple to the Philippines and probably then to Hawaii and Guam early in the 16th century (Morton, 1987). It is said that Portuguese traders are responsible for having taken the seeds to India from the Moluccas in 1548, and they also introduced the pineapple to the east and west coasts of Africa; it reached Europe in 1650 (Morton, 1987). For the past 100 years the pineapple has been the most successful and accepted Latin American fruit in Europe, and worldwide it has become one of the leading commercial fruit crops from the tropics (Morton, 1987).

3. Nutritional composition None of the foods discussed above were known to the inhabitants of Europe, Africa or Asia before the end of the 15th century, and their distribution throughout the world over the next three centuries not only produced important changes in world dietary habits but also possibly contributed to saving lives in times of famine (FAO, 2008). See Table 1 for the detailed composition of each food discussed in this section (Schmidt-Hebbel et al., 1992; USDA, 2018). The fatty acid composition of the lipids of all the foods is presented in Table 2 (Lacroix, 2003; Masson et al., 2008; Masson and Mella, 1985). 3.1. Seeds The chemical composition of the seven seeds presented above (beans, cashew, cocoa, corn, peanuts, quinoa, and sunflower) in terms of carbohydrate, protein, fat, fiber, minerals and vitamins makes them very important foods from a nutritional point of view. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the main legume or pulse for direct human consumption, cultivated in around 150 countries; it represents an important source of vegetal protein, vitamins, minerals, and fiber (Rodríguez-Castillo and Fernández-Rojas, 2003; Bitocchi et al., 2012). Cooked beans contain good levels of proteins and carbohydrates (Schmidt-Hebbel et al., 1992). Raw cashew nut has good levels of carbohydrates, fat, and protein (USDA, 2018). Cashew oil can be extracted through cold-pressing the seeds; this produces a monounsaturated oil whose principal component is oleic acid 18:1n−9 (see Table 2; Lacroix, 2003). Unsweetened dry cocoa powder contains carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber (Schmidt-Hebbel et al., 1992). The cocoa butter obtained from cocoa beans contains the best edible fat known for making highquality chocolate (Valenzuela, 2007). It is a saturated fat, composed mainly of the fatty acids palmitic 16:0 and stearic 18:0 (Masson and Mella, 1985). Uncooked corn kernels and soft-cooked corn kernels are used in

2.4.7. White Strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Duchesne) Origin: the white strawberry originated in southern Chile in the Araucanía Region, 37°35′–39°37′ S; this is the original ancestor of the red hybrid strawberry (INIA-FIA Project, 2016). Spaniards discovered that the Mapuches, the native people living in this area, ate this unknown fruit directly from the forest. Mapuches were the first to cultivate the fruit in southern Chile. Alfonso Ovalle, a Spaniard missionary, tasted this sweet, white, perfumed fruit and classified it as Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Duchesne (INIA-FIA Project, 2016; Portal Frutícola, 2016). Chile is now preparing to present the certification of origin of denomination for the white strawberry (INIA-FIA Project, 2016; Portal Frutícola, 2016). In 1712 Amédée François Frézier, a military engineer in the service of the French king Louis XIV brought some of these white strawberry plants to France; only five survived the trip (Finn et al., 2013), and they were used for hybridization with red strawberries. The first documented hybrid crossing the red strawberry Fragaria virginiana Duchesne from North America with white Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Duchesne from Chile was obtained in Brest (France) in 1766; it was designated Fragaria x ananassa Duchesne (Finn et al., 2013). The color of this hybrid is red, 9

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Table 1 Macro- and micronutrient composition of 22 seeds, tubers and roots, vegetables and fruits, macronutrients in g/100 g and micronutrients in mg/100 g/edible portion. FOODS SEEDS Bean, cookedc Bean, tender, cookedc Cashewd Cocoa powder, unsweetenedc Corn, kernel, tender, cookedc Corn, kernelc Peanutd Quinoac Sunflowerd TUBERS AND ROOTS Potato, boiledc Sweet potato, rawc Cassava, rawd VEGETABLES Avocado, pulpc Chili pepper, rawc Pumpkin, boiledc Tomato, rawc FRUITS Cherimoya, rawc Guava, rawd Nopal, rawc Papaw (Carica papaya), rawd Papaw (Carica pubescens), rawc Passion fruit, rawd Pineapple, rawd Red strawberry, rawd a b c d

Moisture

Protein Nx6.25

Fat

Carbohydratea

Fiber raw

Ash

Ca

P

Fe

Na

K

Vit B1

Vit B2

Niacin

VIT C

64.2 92.8 5.20 3.7 74.4 10.6 6.50 9.8 4.73

9.7 1.6 18.22 Nx5.3 27.0 3.9 Nx5.7 10.6 Nx5.7 25.80 13.0 Nx5.7 20.78 Nx5.3

0.7 0.3 43.85 11.7 1.1 4.5 49.24 7.4 51.46

23.6 3.5 30.19 39.0 19.0 68.0 16.13 64.1 20.00

0.7 1.4 3.3b 11.2b 0.9 4.8 8.5b 2.7 8.6b

1.1 0.4 2.54 7.4 0.7 1.5 – 3.0 3.02

260 69 37 – 7.0 8.0 92 94 78

168 23 593 – 100 333 376 140 660

2.8 1.8 6.68 – 1.5 3.2 4.58 16.8 5.25

2.6 – 12 – – – 18 – 9.0

271 – 660 – – – 705 – 645

0.15 0.05 0.42 – 0.11 0.46 0.64 0.30 1.48

0.04 0.06 0.06 – 0.06 0.18 0.135 0.59 0.355

– 0.3 1.06 – 0.8 2.9 12.066 1.4 8.335

– 4.5 0.5 – 4.1

79.4 66.1 59.68

2.6 1.6 1.36

0.1 0.4 0.28

16.7 30.2 38.06

0.4 0.7 1.8b

0.8 1.0 –

8 41.0 16

38 21.0 27

0.7 8.0 0.27

15 – 14

319 – 271

0.09 – 0.09

0.02 – 0.05

1.3 – 0.85

17.0 – 20.6

71.6 88.3 92.0 94.5

1.3 1.9 0.4 0.8

18.6 0.3 0.5 0.4

5.5 6.4 6.1 3.2

1.4 2.4 0.6 0.6

1.6 0.7 0.4 0.5

47 25 29 15

34 25 10 19

2.2 1.4 0.4 0.7

4 – 7.6 3

513 – 203 147

0.07 0.08 0.03 0.05

0.15 0.11 0.04 0.05

0.8 2.2 0.6 0.9

10.7 19.0 5.3 17.0

83.3 80.8 81.4 88.06 93.2 72.93 86.0 90.95

2.9 2.55 1.1 0.47 1.0 2.2 0.54 0.67

0.5 0.95 0.4 0.26 0.3 0.7 0.12 0.3

11.7 14.32 13.5 10.82 3.3 23.38 13.12 7.68

1.0 5.4b 3.1 1.7b 1.4 10.4b 1.4b 2.0b

0.6 1.39 0.5 0.39 0.8 0.8 0.22 0.4

24 18 57 20 36 12 13 16

27 40 32 10 28 68 8 24

0.6 0.26 1.2 0.25 1.3 1.6 0.29 0.41

9 2 – 8 – 28 1 1

206 417 – 182 – 348 109 153

0.09 0.067 0.01 0.023 0.060 0.00 0.079 0.024

0.13 0.04 0.02 0.027 0.05 0.13 0.032 0.022

0.6 1.084 0.3 0.357 0.6 1.5 0.5 0.386

5.2 228.3 18.0 60.9 26.0 30.0 47.8 58.8

0.0 1.3 1.4

By difference. Total fiber. Schmidt-Hebel et al., 1992. USDA, 2018.

acid balance; quinoa lysine is not limiting as in other cereals; and this seed is gluten free (Abugoch James et al., 2008; Ramelli et al., 1959). It is a good source of minerals and vitamins (Schmidt-Hebbel et al., 1992). Quinoa seed oil is mainly polyunsaturated and is a good source of the essential fatty acids linoleic 18:2n−6 and α-linolenic acids 18:2 n−3 (Masson and Mella, 1985; Masson, 2013; Rubio et al., 2013). Sunflower seed is a good source of fat, protein, carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins and minerals (USDA, 2018). Sunflower oil is the fourth mostproduced vegetable oil in the world (Cerero-Hernandez, 2008; STATISTA, 2018); it is a polyunsaturated oil and a good source of essential linoleic acid 18:2n−6 (Masson et al., 1971; Masson and Mella, 1985).

many indigenous and traditional food preparations in Latin America; both contain carbohydrates, protein, fat, fiber, minerals, and vitamins (Schmidt-Hebbel et al., 1992). The kernels come in many sizes and colors and are important sources of phytochemicals such as carotenoid pigments, especially zeaxanthin and lutein (Kimura et al., 2007). The oil obtained from the corn germ is mainly polyunsaturated, and is a good source of linoleic 18:2n−6 essential fatty acid (Masson and Mella, 1985). Peanut is composed of protein and fat (USDA, 2018). Peanut oil is a good source of oleic acid 18:1 n−9 and essential linoleic acid 18:2n−6 (Masson and Mella, 1985). Quinoa seeds contribute carbohydrates, proteins and fat (Abugoch James, 2009); the protein has good functionality and adequate amino

Table 2 Fatty acid composition of 12 Latin American native seeds and 1 pulp, fatty acid %a,b, g/100 g FAc. Fatty acid

Cashewa

Cocoab

Cornb

Peanutb

Quinoab

Sunflowerb

Avocado pulpb

Pumpkinb

Tomatob

Cherimoyac

Nopalc

Papawc

Passion fruitc

16:0 18:0 20:0 22:0 ∑ AGS 16:1n−7 18:1n−9 20:1 ∑ AGMI 18:2 n−6 18:3 n−3 ∑ AGPI

16.0 9.0 – – 25.0 – 60.0 – 60.0 14.0 – 14.0

27.2 36.0 – – 63.2 – 34.6 – 34.6 1.7 – 1.7

10.7 2.8 – 0.1 13.6 – 26.1 – 26.1 57.7 2.2 59.9

12.0 4.5 2.8 3.2 22.5 – 41.0 1.4 42.4 35.0 – 35.0

11.1 1.1 – 0.3 12.5 1.2 22.8 – 24.0 50.5 7.8 58.3

6.8 4.2 – – 11.0 – 19.7 – 19.7 69.1 0.2 69.3

11.0 1.1 – – 12.1 4.7 69.8 – 74.5 10.2 2.3 12.5

13.7 6.1 – – 19.8 – 33.0 – 33.0 47.1 – 47.1

14.1 4.2 – – 18.3 – 22.1 – 22.1 59.5 – 59.5

14.91 7.60 0.78 0.18 23.47 0.32 42.96 0.18 43.46 31.33 1.32 32.65

12.53 3.25 0.33 0.21 16.32 0.91 19.84 0.53 21.28 61.48 0.58 62.06

9.53 3.46 0.23 0.16 13.38 0.36 71.86 0.31 72.53 13.16 0.70 13.86

11.2 3.4 – – 14.6 0.1 18.0 – 18.1 66.3 – 66.3

Nomenclature: palmitic acid 16:0, stearic acid 18:0, arachidic acid 20:0, behenic acid 22:0, palmitoleic acid 16:1n-7, oleic acid 18:1n-9, eicosenoic acid 20:1, linoleic acid 18:2n-6, α-linolenic acid 18:3n-3, AGS Saturated fatty acids, AGMI Monounsaturated fatty acids, AGPI Polyunsaturated fatty acid. a Lacroix, 2003. b Masson and Mella, 1985. c Masson et al., 2008. 10

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(sugars), potassium (K), and vitamin C (Schmidt-Hebbel et al., 1992; USDA, 2018). Guava is also a good source of β-carotene, with a level of 374 μg/100 g (USDA, 2018). Various health benefits have been linked to the consumption of nopal (Nazareno, 2013). Nopal fruit is an excellent source of soluble fiber, and it contains Vitamin C, β-carotene, flavonoids and betalain pigments (Nazareno, 2013; Nefzaoui et al., 2008; Sáenz, 2006; Sáenz et al., 2004), as well as bioactive non-nutrients in the form of red, orange, and yellow pigments in the peel and pulp, corresponding to the betalains constituted by betaxanthins and betacyanins (Muñoz and Maldonado, 2003). Papaw is also a good source of Mg, β-carotene, and lycopene, with levels of 1800 μg/100 g (Jiménez Díaz, 2002). The presence of phenolic compounds in the exocarp, as well as carotenoids with provitamin A and phytochemicals in the mesocarp of the Maradol variety of the papaya fruit, indicate the potential importance of this fruit for human nutrition and health (Rivera-Pastrana et al., 2010; Schmidt-Hebbel et al., 1992; USDA, 2018). Passion fruit is highly appreciated by consumers for its healthful properties linked to flavonoids, glycosides, alkaloids, phenolic compounds and volatile components (Dhawan et al., 2001a, b), along with its delicious flavor and bioactive pigments (Díaz et al., 2006). Pineapple contains the proteolytic enzyme bromelain, an enzyme that may have positive effects on the digestive system (Bhui et al., 2010; Ketnawa et al., 2011). Red strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duchesne) is also recognized as a very good source of bioactive non-nutrients (Meyers et al., 2003). Oil can be extracted from the seeds of cherimoya, nopal, papaw (Carica pubescens Lenné et Koch) and passion fruit (Masson et al., 2008; Masson and Mella, 1985). Cherimoya seed oil is very well equilibrated among the fatty acid groups: saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated, and it is a good source of essential linoleic acid, 18:2n−6 (Masson et al., 2008). The seed oil of nopal and passion fruit presents a predominantly polyunsaturated fatty acid composition, mainly linoleic acid 18:2n−6 (Masson et al., 2008; Masson and Mella, 1985). Papaw (Carica pubescens Lenné et Koch) seed oil is mainly monounsaturated, principally composed of oleic acid 18:1 n−9 (Masson et al., 2008). Vanilla is a very exclusive spice, and when it was introduced in Europe by the Spanish it produced a revolution with its unique, unmistakable flavor and aroma. due principally to the presence of vanillin 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde (SAGARPA, 2012).

3.2. Tuber and roots Boiled potatoes are a good source of starch, potassium (K), and vitamin C (Schmidt-Hebbel et al., 1992), and they contain natural phytochemicals such as β-carotene, along with bioactive compounds such as anthocyanin pigments. The peel and pulp are rich in flavonoids (Andre et al., 2007a, b; Burmeister et al., 2011; Jiménez et al., 2009). Currently in Chile the Institute of Agriculture Research (INIA) has developed a genetic improvement in the red and violet peel and pulp of indigenous varieties of potatoes, with the purpose of obtaining a source of natural anthocyanin pigments such as delphinidin, petunidin, cyanidin, and peonidin (Pino et al., 2017a). Cassava root is a rich source of starch (USDA, 2018). Raw sweet potato is a good source of carbohydrates, minerals and potassium (K) (Montes Hernández et al., 2010; Schmidt-Hebbel et al., 1992). The skin and pulp present high concentrations of carotenoid pigments, flavonoids, and anthocyanins (Kimura et al., 2007). Another area of research has been focusing on the development of new uses for this root, taking into consideration the health-promoting components of yams such as anthocyanins, polyphenols, dietary fiber, and so on (Yamakawa and Yoshimoto, 2002). Currently in Chile the Institute of Agriculture Research, INIA, has developed research in different sweet potato clones that are enriched in β-carotene with intense orange-colored pulp; others have also been successfully enriched in anthocyanins to be used as a new source of natural pigments, with high agricultural crop yield (Pino et al., 2017b). 3.3. Vegetables Avocado pulp is a good source of fat, minerals, potassium (K), and B-complex vitamins. In Chile, extra virgin avocado oil has been developed using the Hass variety (Masson and Camilo, 2004). This is a gourmet oil with a bright green color due to its chlorophyll content, delicate flavor, and primarily monounsaturated fatty acid composition high in oleic 18:1n−9 acid and essential linoleic acid 18:2n−6 content (Masson and Mella, 1985). It is a good source of bioactive compounds such as α-tocopherol (200 mg/kg), total carotenoid pigments (0.9–3.5 mg/kg), principal lutein, phytosterols (4000–6000 mg/kg), mainly β-sitosterol 3000–5000 mg/kg. It is exported as an edible gourmet oil (Masson and Camilo, 2004). The edible portion of raw chili pepper contains macro- and micronutrients along with bioactive compounds: capsaicin is the hot component of chili pepper, and it is 70 times hotter than piperine, the hot component of black pepper (Acurio, 2009). The red carotenoid pigments such as capsanthin and capsorubin present in this berry may be used as natural pigments (Packer et al., 2005; Pino et al., 2017c). More research is needed into the wide variety and biodiversity of these native pungent and non-pungent peppers, along with their carotenoid pigment content, in order to determine their biological activity (Packer et al., 2005). The edible portion of boiled pumpkin is composed of carbohydrates, minerals, with high levels of potassium (K) and B-complex vitamins. It contains β-carotene that is responsible for the characteristic orangeyellow color of the pulp (Azevedo-Meleiro and Rodriguez-Amaya, 2007). The oil extracted from the seeds has a balanced fatty acid composition. Tomato contributes to the diet with macro- and micronutrients, it is a good source of vitamin C, and it is the principal source of the bioactive phytochemical compound lycopene (Garrido et al., 2013; Packer et al., 2005). Edible oil can be obtained from the seeds, with a fatty acid composition that is principally polyunsaturated and composed mainly of essential linoleic acid 18:2n−6.

4. Main producing countries These 21 symbolic foods and one spice native to Latin America presented in this Keynote Address have made historical contributions to nutritionally healthier diets for many populations throughout the world (Casa Luker, 2010; FAOSTAT, 2016; Mendes et al., 2017; Ramírez et al., 2015; Rosell García et al., 2007; Saravia Tasayco, 2001; Van Damme and Scheldeman FAO, 1999). Table 3 shows that the majority of these 22 indigenous products transported by Spanish and Portuguese navigators more than 500 years ago to Europe, Africa and Asia are now being successfully cultivated worldwide (FAOSTAT, 2016). Potato is the fourth most cultivated crop in the world after rice, wheat and corn (FAO, 2008); cassava is the seventh principal staple food worldwide (FAO Alimentación y Nutrición 47/2, 1990); corn production is higher than that of both wheat and rice (Ranum et al., 2014); and sweet potato is considered the eighth most cultivated crop after wheat, rice, potato, tomato, corn, cassava and bananas, with Asia the highest producer of this food (Chamba Herrera, 2009, 2010; FAOSTAT, 2016; Marti et al., 2011; Mendes et al., 2017; Ramírez et al., 2015; Rosell García et al., 2007; Saravia Tasayco, 2001; Van Damme and Scheldeman, FAO, 1999; United Nations, 2015 Revision). For the majority of these 22 foods in Table 3, some information is given here for the six countries with highest world production, but the comments are only for the country with the highest production at a global level, for each one of the specific

3.4. Fruits, and vanilla In general, the main contribution of these fruits is carbohydrates 11

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Table 3 Twenty-one foods and one spice in alphabetical order, six main producing countries worldwide. Food

Country a

Avocado Beana Cashewa Cassavaa Cocoaa Corna Cherimoyab Chili peppera Guavac Nopald Papawa Passion fruite Peanuta Pineapplea Potatoa Pumpkina Quinoaa Strawberrya Sunflowera Sweet potatoa Tomatoa Vanillaa a b c d e

Mexico Myanmar Viet Nam Nigeria Ivory Coast USA Spain China India Mexico India Brazil China Costa Rica China China Peru China Ukraine China China Madagascar

Dominican Republic India Nigeria Thailand Ghana China Chile Mexico Pakistan Italy Brazil Ecuador India Brazil India India Bolivia USA Russian Federation Nigeria India Indonesia

Peru Brazil India Brazil Indonesia Brazil USA Turkey Sudan South Africa Mexico Peru Nigeria Philippines Russian Federation Russian Federation Ecuador Mexico Argentina United Republic of Tanzania USA China

Colombia USA Ivory Coast Indonesia Cameroon Argentina Argentina Indonesia Brazil Chile Indonesia Colombia USA China Ukraine Ukraine – Egypt China Indonesia Turkey Mexico

Indonesia United Republic of Tanzania Philippines Ghana Nigeria Mexico Bolivia Spain Egypt Colombia Dominican Republic Kenya Sudan India USA USA – Spain Romania Uganda Egypt Papua New Guinea

Brazil China United Republic of Tanzania Democratic Republic of Congo Brazil Ukraine Ecuador USA Mexico Israel Nigeria – Myanmar Thailand Germany Mexico – Russian Federation Bulgaria Ethiopia Italy Turkey

FAOSTAT, 2016. Rosell García et al., 2007; Van Damme and Scheldeman FAO, 1999. Mendes et al., 2017. Saravia Tasayco, 2001; Ramírez et al., 2015. Casa Luker, 2010.

reveal their health secrets, and to protect and manage them wisely.

foods included in this Keynote Address. The highest-producing region of the world for eleven of these foods, practically 50% of the total considered here, is Asia, with China the highest producer for seven of the eleven foods: chili pepper, peanut, potato, pumpkin, red strawberry, sweet potato and tomato (FAOSTAT, 2016). For chili pepper, China represents roughly 48% of the total global production, five times more than the next-highest producer, Mexico (World Atlas, Economic, 2014; FAOSTAT, 2016). India is the main producing country for guava and papaw; Myanmar is the principal producer for beans, which together with India and Brazil represent around 45% of total world bean production; and Viet Nam is the main producing country for cashew (Banfi-Piazza, 2014; Evans and Ballen, 2012; FAOSTAT, 2016; Mendes et al., 2017). Three African countries – Nigeria, Ivory Coast, and Madagascar – are the main producing countries in the world for cassava, cocoa and vanilla, respectively. Two European countries – Ukraine and Spain – are the main producing countries in the world for sunflower and cherimoya, respectively (FAOSTAT, 2016; Rosell García et al., 2007; Van Damme and Scheldeman, FAO, 1999). The USA is the main producing country in the world for corn (FAOSTAT, 2016). These data show that Latin America, the birthplace of these 21 foods and one spice, actually maintains first place in world production for only five native foods: avocado and nopal in Mexico, passion fruit in Brazil, pineapple in Costa Rica and quinoa in Peru (Casa Luker, 2010; FAOSTAT, 2016; Ramírez et al., 2015; Saravia Tasayco, 2001).

Disclaimer This Keynote Address was written solely for academic purposes and is not associated with any commercial interest. All of the images used in this paper are the property of the respective image holders. They are only used for explanatory purposes. Declaration of Competing Interest There is no conflict of interest with any organization or natural person regarding the information in this paper. Acknowledgments I wish to thank Ms. Lucía Araneda from Cahuil, Sixth Region, Chile for her photographic contributions of Chilean quinoa plants and seeds, and Ms. María Teresa Pino INIA, Chile for her photographic contributions of Chilean potatoes, sweet potato, hot chili pepper and bell pepper. References Abugoch James, L.E., 2009. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): composition, chemistry, nutritional, and functional properties. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 58, 1–31. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S1043-4526(09)58001-1. Abugoch James, L.E., Romero, N., Tapia, C.A., Silva, J., Rivera, M., 2008. Study of Some Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Quinoa (Chenopodium Quinoa Willd.) Protein Isolates. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56, 4745–4750. https://doi.org/10.1021/ jf703689u. Acurio, G., 2009. Ají peruanos. Sazón Para El Mundo. Sociedad Peruana de Gastronomía, (APEGA), Programa de Hortalizas de la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM), Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA) and Instituto de Investigaciones en Hotelería y Turismo de la Universidad de San Martín de Porres (USMP). Editor: Sociedad Peruana de Gastronomía (APEGA), Empresa editora El Comercio S. A., Lima, Perú, pp. 1–120. ISBN: 9786124558306. http://www. lamolina.edu.pe/hortalizas/webdocs/ajiesdelPeru.pdf. Alva, W., 1994. Sipán. Colección, Cultura Y Artes Del Perú. Edición. José Antonio Lavalle. Cervecería Backus & Johnston S.A., Lima - Perú. Alvarado Tezozómoc, F., 1998. Crónica mexicáyotl. Tercera Edición, Universidad

5. Some final remarks This overview of native Latin American plant foods that spread around the world, and whose cultivation now surpasses production in their lands of origin, satisfactorily demonstrates that this continent has contributed generously to the people of the planet through attractive, health-promoting foods. Moreover, in every country in Latin America, there remain many other native foods that are still hidden in the magnificent Andes mountain range as well as in the forests, rivers, lakes and oceans that surround the continent. The challenge for future generations of researchers will be to continue to discover these plants and 12

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