- Email: [email protected]
A comparative analysis of site planning and design among green building rating tools
Accepted Manuscript A comparative analysis of site planning and design among green building rating tools Xiaosen Huo, Ann T.W. Yu, Zezhou Wu PII:
S0959-6526(17)30113-0
DOI:
10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.099
Reference:
JCLP 8846
To appear in:
Journal of Cleaner Production
Received Date: 2 November 2016 Revised Date:
12 January 2017
Accepted Date: 18 January 2017
Please cite this article as: Huo X, Yu ATW, Wu Z, A comparative analysis of site planning and design among green building rating tools, Journal of Cleaner Production (2017), doi: 10.1016/ j.jclepro.2017.01.099. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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Total words: 6722
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A comparative analysis of site planning and design among green building rating tools
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Xiaosen Huo1, Ann T.W. Yu2*, Zezhou Wu3 1
PhD Student, Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Email: [email protected]
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Associate Professor, Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
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University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Email: [email protected]
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Assistant Professor, Department of Construction Management and Real Estate, School of Civil
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Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shen Zhen, China; Email: [email protected]
Abstract
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Appropriate site planning and design (SPD) is a key solution for effective land
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use on construction sites. A Green Building Rating Tool (GBRT) includes systematic
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assessment criteria to evaluate whether a building is “green” or not. The effectiveness
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of GBRTs have been explored in energy use, waste management, and indoor air
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quality in green buildings. However, no investigation has been made to evaluate the
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effectiveness of GBRTs in site planning and design aspects. In this research, five
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international GBRTs were selected for a comparative analysis, to better understand the
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measures that help improve SPD in green buildings. Content analysis was applied to
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record and compare the relevant significance of SPD-related items in the selected
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GBRTs. The comparative study revealed that in terms of SPD, Building
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Environmental Assessment Method (BEAM) Plus allocates the highest importance
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while Green Mark (GM) allocates the lowest. Each GBRT emphasizes different
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aspects of SPD in green buildings, and BEAM Plus involves the most SPD related
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items. In addition, the main variables for effective SPD were identified and a
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theoretical framework was further proposed. The proposed theoretical framework can
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serve as a foundation for successful SPD in green buildings. The application and
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potential limitations of the theoretical framework were also discussed.
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Keywords: Construction site, Green building rating tool, Site planning and design,
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Theoretical framework
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1. Introduction Green building is part of the larger concept of “sustainable building”, which is
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regarded as the implementation of sustainable design (Montoya 2010). For a
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construction project, the location of the project is the foundation of sustainability, and
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site planners must consider how to minimize disturbance on construction sites. To
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form a sustainable site, one key issue is site planning and site design (Russ 2009).
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Besides, the operating and maintenance costs of a site is a reflection of site design
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(Mawdesley, Al-Jibouri et al. 2002). Planning and design is a process of bringing a
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vision to implementation, and the effective spatial arrangement and space utilization
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on a site is critical to construction projects (Tawfik & Fernando 2001). The phase of
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site planning and design (SPD) provides an important opportunity for site planner to
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re-organize the layout of the project site, and to re-locate facilities, material storage,
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temporary roads, parking lots, and buildings on site (Zolfagharian and Irizarry 2014).
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In site layout and use, green construction should aim to reduce the disturbance on site,
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reducing heat island effects, and minimizing construction waste from buildings and
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sites (Glavinich 2008, Montoya 2010). When designing a good construction site
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layout, two important elements are cost and safety. In site layout planning, the
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trade-off between reducing cost and improving site safety level should be considered
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(Ning & Lam 2013). A press released by the Occupational Safety and Health Centre
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of the Labor Department in Hong Kong stated that 24 industrial fatalities were
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recorded in 2015, of which 19 occurred at construction sites. Better and safer working
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environments for laborers must be provided by on-site facilities layout plans, where
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safety and design requirements should be considered (Huang & Wong 2015). Issues
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promoting SPD in green buildings have previously been considered in the research.
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Wedding (2007) assessed the brownfield redevelopment on site-level and incorporates
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with sustainable development and green buildings. Analytical Hierarchy Processes is
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helpful in formulating the indicator framework and forming Sustainable Brownfield
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Redevelopment Tool. Cook (2007) focused on storm water management in green site
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design and proposed that Low Impact Development is a sustainable storm water
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management strategy, which can help to prevent degradation of groundwater quality,
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manage storm water more efficiently, and protect drinking water supplies. Gonzales
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and Romero (2014) found that desirable community aspects include socio-cultural
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factors, such as a sense of community, the need of outdoor activities, and the access to
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open spaces. Technical tools to solve site layout planning problems have been
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proposed, such as Ant Colony Optimization, the Max-Min Ant System, genetic
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algorithms combined in MMAS-GA, and the Tacit-based Decision Support System
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(Lam et al. 2007, Lam et al. 2009, Abdul-Rahman et al. 2011). The Green Building Rating Tool (GBRT) is an effective technique for measuring
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the impact of building on the environment. A certified green building will perform
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better in safety, health, comfort, and efficiency than a conventional building (U.S.
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GBC 2013). The GBRT can thus serve as a guideline to assess whether a building is in
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line with green building requirements, and equitable certificates can be issued
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corresponding to the ranking. Different assessment criteria are involved in GBRTs, as
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the local climatic conditions and requirements vary in different countries (Zuo and
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Zhao 2014). Research on GBRTs has been conducted to show their positive effects on
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indoor air quality improvement, construction waste management, and passive design
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application (Gou et al. 2012, Chen et al. 2015, Wu et al., 2016). Comparative analyses
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of SPD-related items in GBRTs concerning site aspects are lacking, and how the
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GBRTs affect SPD has not been identified. The aim of this research is, therefore, to
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investigate SPD-related items in five selected GBRTs, so as to gain a better
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understanding of SPD in green buildings, and to explore how effective SPDs can be
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promoted. A theoretical framework for SPD in green buildings is developed according
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to the comparison analysis results.
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2. Research methodology
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As there are various GBRTs involved around the world, the researchers only
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consider the most representative tools for further analysis. In the similar research
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conducted by Wu et al. (2016), four screening criteria were applied to focus on the
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most representative GBRTs: relevant, available, latest, and measurable. According to
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their survey, nine GBRTs that meeting the criteria were screened out in total,
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including Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method
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(BREEAM),
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Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency (CASBEE),
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Building Environmental Assessment Method (BEAM), Green Mark (GM), The
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Assessment Standard for Green Building (ASGB), Green Building Index (GBI),
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Green Globes (GG), Pearl Rating System for Estidama (PRSE). In this study, five
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mainstream GBRTs were chosen to compare the items relating to SPD, considering
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Leadership
in
Energy
and
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Environmental
Design
(LEED),
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countries (BREEAM, LEED, GM), one from developing countries (ESGB), and one
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from developed regions (BEAM Plus). BREEAM, established in 1990, was selected
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as this was the first green building system, and is currently the leading sustainability
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assessment method worldwide. LEED is an influential green building rating system,
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and is also the most widely used third-party verification for green buildings, and was
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therefore chosen as a typical rating system in this study. BEAM was selected as this
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was the second system to be implemented outside Europe, which is now revised as
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BEAM Plus. GM in Singapore was selected as it concerns about the tropical climate
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and high-density regions, and provides a meaningful differentiation of buildings in the
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real estate market. ASGB is the most influential GBRT in China, which owns the
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largest construction market worldwide, so including this rating tool in the comparison
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is important.
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Krippendorff (2012) made the definition of content analysis as “a research
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technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful
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matter) to the contexts of their use”. Content analysis is a widely used method of
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identifying emerging themes from collected data, and is a common approach for
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qualitative data analysis in built environment-related studies (Zuo et al. 2014). By
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determining and counting the presence of certain words or concepts in a set of texts,
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the researchers can quantify and analyze the meanings and relationships of these text
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data. Similar studies have been conducted by Wu et al. (2016) to identify and compare
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waste management items in several GBRTs. Therefore, content analysis is an
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appropriate tool for recording and comparing the importance of SPD related items in
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the selected GBRTs. In this research, content analysis was applied to classify and
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summarize SPD relevant information, including identifying SPD related items in
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selected GBRTs, calculating the scores of SPD related items, and comparing SPD
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related items in different GBRTs.
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3. Overview of the selected GBRTs
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In this research, new residential building is selected as the building type to
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compare SPD aspect items in five major GBRTs. To ensure the reliability of the
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comparison in different rating tools, the latest versions currently in use are selected.
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3.1 Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) 4
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT BREEAM was the earliest international GBRT, launched in 1990, and is the
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leading global sustainability assessment method for master planning projects,
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infrastructures, and buildings. The new version, BREEAM International New
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Construction, issued in 2016, is considered in this study. The application of BREEAM
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helps to measure and reduce the environmental impact of buildings, creating higher
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value and lower risk assets. Ten categories are assessed in BREEAM; management,
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health and wellbeing, energy, transport, water, materials, waste, land use and ecology,
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pollution, and innovation. In the assessment and classification of green building, when
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a building passes or exceeds a particular indicator baseline the corresponding scores
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are obtained. The grades ranking is then calculated, based on the final BREEAM
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scores. The maximum credits in this system is 150. Six grades are used in BREEAM
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rating benchmarks according to the percentage score; Outstanding ( 85%), Excellent
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( 70%), Very Good (
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30%).
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3.2 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
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55%), Good ( 45%), Pass ( 30%), and Unclassified (
LEED was issued by the U.S. Green Building Council in 2000. The latest version,
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LEED v4 for Building Design and Construction, was updated in July 2015. LEED is a
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rating system aimed at “evaluating and accrediting energy efficiency and sustainable
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design features of new and renovated buildings” (Ambrozic and Barnes 2012). The
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sustainable categories in LEED include location and transportation, sustainable site,
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water efficiency, energy and atmosphere, materials and resources, indoor
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environmental quality, innovation, and regional priorities. The LEED assessment
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involves certain prerequisites before calculating the credits, and the maximum
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possible score is 110. According to the total points of the building calculated through
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the scorecard, new construction can be classified into four levels; Certified (40 to 49
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points), Silver (50 to 59 points), Gold (60 to 79 points), and Platinum (80 to 110
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points).
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3.3 Building Environmental Assessment Method (BEAM) Plus
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HK-BEAM was established in 1996, and was the second system to be
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implemented outside Europe. After several revisions, the current green building rating
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systems in Hong Kong include BEAM Plus New Buildings Version 1.2, BEAM Plus
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Existing Buildings Version 2.0, and BEAM Plus Interiors Version 1.0. The purpose of 5
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BEAM Plus is to enhance the building quality, stimulate sustainable building demand,
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provide
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whole-life-cycle environment impacts of buildings. The assigned weightings for each
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category are Site Aspects (25%), Materials Aspects (8%), Energy Use (35%), Water
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Use (12%), and Indoor Environmental Quality (20%). The maximum credits in
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BEAM Plus are 143. Based on the percentage of the applicable credits obtained under
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each section and the weighting factor, the overall assessment grade can be determined
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as Platinum (75%), Gold (65%), Silver (55%), and Bronze (40%).
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3.4 Green Mark (GM)
building
performance
standards,
and
reduce
the
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comprehensive
Green Mark was launched in January 2005 at first in Singapore. In this research,
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the Green Mark for Residential Buildings (Version RB/4.0) is considered, which was
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issued in 2010. Green Mark is regarded as an initiative to promote more
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environmentally friendly buildings in the construction industry in Singapore. To
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achieve a Green Mark Award, the prerequisite requirements in different Green Mark
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Rating must be fully followed according to the new residential building criteria.
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Under the precondition, two categories requirements are involved in the framework.
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In the category of energy related requirements, the maximum allocated points are 87,
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and the minimum are 30 points. In the category of other green requirements,
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maximum 155 points are assigned, where the minimum are 20 points. The maximum
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points in GM is 242. The four categories of green mark rating are Green Mark
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Platinum (90 and above), Green Mark Gold
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84), and Green Mark Certified (50 to 74).
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3.5 Assessment Standard for Green Building (ASGB)
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(85 to 89), Green Mark Gold (75 to
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The National Ministry of Construction of China established the Evaluation
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Standard for Green Building (ESGB) in 2006, which was revised and issued in 2015
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as ASGB. The establishment of the GBRT intends to promote sustainable construction
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development, save natural resources, protect environment, and normalize green
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building assessment in China. The system includes seven major indicators: land
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saving and outdoor environment, energy saving and energy utilization, water saving
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and water resource utilization, material saving and material resource utilization,
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indoor environment quality, construction management, and operation management.
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For each indicator the two categories of items to be evaluated are prerequisite items 6
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT and scoring items, and the total score is 100 points. Considering the innovation
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involved in the building, the maximum score in ASGB is 110. Evaluated buildings are
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ranked into three levels; One Star ( 50 points), Two Stars ( 60 points), and Three
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Stars ( 80 points), which reflect greenness levels of certified buildings from low to
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high. All buildings must meet the prerequisite items, and the scoring items of each
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indicator should be at least 40 points.
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4. Comparison of SPD related items in GBRTs
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To compare the relative importance of SPD in different GBRTs, the significance
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score (SS) of SPD items in each GBRT was calculated by the Equation (1), (2) and
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(3).
For BREEAM and BEAM Plus, the total credits were calculated within the
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consideration of the section weights. So the SS of SPD related items is calculated by
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Equation (1).
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SS = ∑ SPDCi C j *W j
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Where SPDCi represents the maximum credits of the SPD related item i , C j
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means the maximum total credits of the corresponding section j . W j refers to the
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weight of the corresponding section j .
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section weights. Then the SS of SPD related items is calculated by Equation (2).
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For LEED and GM, the total points were calculated without considering the
SS = ∑ SPDPi TP
(2)
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(1)
Where SPDPi means the maximum points of the SPD related item i . TP
represents the total points of the system. For ASGB, the total score of assessed building is the sum of weighted score and
added score. So the total score of SPD related items is calculated by Equation (3).
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SS = ∑ ( SPDSi *W j + SPDSI ) TS
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Where SPDSi refers to the maximum score of the SPD related item i . W j
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refers to the weight of the corresponding weighted section j . SPDSI refers to the
(3)
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maximum score of SPD related items in innovation section. TS refers to the
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maximum total scores of the system. Table 1 gives the points and scores of SPD items in the selected GBRTs. The
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column of score represents the maximum score that the item accounting for in the
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GBRT. The allocation and importance of SPD can be seen in each GBRT. In
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BREEAM, SPD items account for about 13.3% of the weightings. LEED allocates a
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very high weighting of credits for SPD of up to 23.6%, including sections for
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transportation and sustainable sites. BEAM Plus assigns 25% of weightings to SPD
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aspects. In the BCA Green Mark, about 7.44% of credits are allocated to SPD items.
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In ASGB, similar as in LEED, SPD is considered important, and 23% of the total
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marks are allocated to SPD-related items.
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Table 1. SPD-related requirements and scores in selected GBRTs
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Item
Transport
BREEAM
5
Proximity to amenities
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Alternative modes of transport
2
Selection of previously occupied or contaminated land
3
Protection of ecological features
2
Enhancing site ecology
3
Minimization of long-term impact on biodiversity
2
Sensitive land protection
1
High-priority site
2
Surrounding density and diverse use
5
Access to quality transit
5
Promotion of bicycling and transportation efficiency
1
Reduced parking footprint
1
Promotion of green vehicles
1
Site assessment
1
Protection or restoration of habitat on site
2
Creation of exterior open space
1
Rainwater management
3
Heat island reduction
2
Light pollution reduction
1
Remediation of contaminated land
1
Reduction of private vehicle use
3
Integration of neighborhood amenities
3
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Land us and ecology
LEED
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Location and transportation
Sustainable sites
BEAM Plus
Site aspect
Score
Public transport accessibility
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GBRT
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SS
9/10*0.07+ 10/10*0.07 =13.3%
26/110=23.6%
20/20*0.25 =25%
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Land saving and outdoor environment ASGB
Energy saving and energy utilization Promotion and innovation
1
1
Protection of cultural heritage
1
Proper landscaping and planters on site
3
Ensure microclimate around buildings
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Preservation of neighborhood daylight access
1
Environmental management plan
1
Irrigation system and landscaping
3
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Environmental protection
Reduction of ecological impact
Greenery provision
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Green transport
4
Storm water management Economic and efficient land use Outdoor environment
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18
Transport facilities and public services
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Site design and site ecology
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Architecture and envelope structure Promotion and innovation
4.1 SPD in BREEAM
18/242=7.44%
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Water efficiency
Proactive approach in integrating site planning issue
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(0.21*100+0.24*6+3) /(100+10) = 23%
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In BREEAM, SPD is involved in the categories of “Transport” and “Land Use
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and Ecology.” To reduce the pollution and congestion caused by transport, building
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development in the proximity of good transport networks should be encouraged. The
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proximity to amenities should also be considered in the site location, facilitating
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building users to take advantage of local services, which helps reduce emissions
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resulting from an extended building user footprint. To avoid construction development
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on land that has not been previously disturbed, selecting previously occupied or
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contaminated land for sites is encouraged, as is selecting land of low ecological value,
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to protect existing ecological features. In developing new buildings, the impact on
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existing site ecology should be minimized by decreasing the change in the ecological
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value on the project site. A qualified ecologist should be appointed at an early stage to
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provide advice and recommendations on enhancing the site ecology. To minimize any
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long-term effect on the biodiversity around the site, ensuring compliance with
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relevant legislation on the protection and enhancement of ecology from the design to
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construction process is necessary. A suitable landscape and habitat management plan
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for the site should be developed, where at least the first five years after completing the
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project should be covered.
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4.2 SPD in LEED LEED considers SPD in “Location and Transportation” and “Sustainable Sites.”
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To protect environmentally sensitive lands, the development footprint should be
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located on land that has already been developed or is not environmentally sensitive, so
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locating the project in historic districts, designated prioritized sites, or brownfield is
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encouraged. Locating construction site in areas with existing infrastructure and
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amenities helps to save land, preserve farmland and wildlife habitats, which also
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encourages daily physical activity and improves public health. A well-located site can
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also promote walkability, transportation efficiency, and reduce vehicle travel distances.
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To reduce environmental pollution or public health risks relevant to the use of motor
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vehicle such as greenhouse gas emission and air pollution, minimum multimodal
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transportation choices must be met for a new construction. Promoting cycling and
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transportation efficiency can also reduce vehicle travel distances. Reducing the
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parking footprint helps to minimize the environmental harm resulting from vehicle
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dependence, land use, and storm water runoff. Green vehicles can also reduce
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pollution associated with motor vehicle use, and 5% of all parking spaces should be
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designated for green vehicles parking. Alternative fuel stations should also be
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provided, either as electric vehicle charging points, or liquid, gas, and battery facilities.
19
For new residential construction, the prerequisite must be met to create and
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implement an erosion and sedimentation plan before construction activities begin.
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Before site design, a survey should be conducted to assess the site conditions. The
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assessment should demonstrate relevant site features and how these will affect site
23
design. In site development, existing natural areas and use of native or adapted
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vegetation to provide habitat and promote biodiversity are required, to conserve or
25
restore damaged areas. Outdoor space should be provided, which encourages
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environmental interaction, social interaction, passive recreation, and physical
27
activities. Water balance of the site can be maintained by replicating the natural
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hydrology, on-site rainwater management can reduce runoff volume and improve
29
water quality. To reduce heat islands and minimize the impacts on the microclimate
30
and on human and wildlife habitats, strategies such as non-roof measures,
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high-reflectance roofs, and undercover parking should be applied on site. To increase
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night sky access and nighttime visibility, light pollution reduction can be achieved by
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using the backlight-up light glare method or the calculation method.
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4.3 SPD in BEAM Plus In their site design appraisals, planners should take into consideration the
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surroundings and neighborhoods of the site from the aspects of substances and
4
environment. Clients and design teams should attempt to integrate the development
5
into the immediate surroundings. Habitat conservation is an effective method of
6
preserving the ecological value and conserving the natural environment. Considering
7
the redevelopment of the local ecosystem requires more time and effort and building
8
development on brownfield sites is encouraged, as these have low ecological value.
9
Preservation of cultural heritage is important, so special attention should be given and
10
measures taken to protect cultural heritage relevant features on site and to maintain
11
cultural sustainability around site. To mitigate the damage to site ecology, landscaping
12
strategies should be applied which can enhance the microclimate, providing efficient
13
irrigation and controlled surface run-off. The microclimate conditions on site should
14
also be designed by thoroughly considering and balancing the wind, sunlight, and
15
temperature and air quality. The effects on the access of sensitive neighboring
16
buildings to daylight caused by the developed building should be analyzed. To
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decrease the environmental impact during the demolition and construction stages, an
18
environmental management plan should be implemented, to ensure that environmental
19
monitoring and auditing can be carried out.
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4.4 SPD in GM
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In GM the maximum Green Mark Score is 155, and SPD-related items account
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for 18 points, which is 7.44%. SPD related items are considered in “Water Efficiency”
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and “Environmental Protection.” Rainwater or other non-potable water should be used
24
for landscaping irrigation in irrigation systems and landscaping. Automatic water
25
irrigation systems with rain sensors can help water reservation, and drought tolerant
26
plants on site can also reduce water consumption. To reduce the heat island effect,
27
more use of greenery is encouraged, such as restoring trees on construction site, or
28
reserving or relocating existing trees. To reduce pollution caused by private car use,
29
quality and environmental friendly transport modes should be encouraged, and should
30
include the provision of good access and covered walkways to surrounding public
31
transport, charging points for green electric vehicles, and covered or sheltered bicycle
32
parking lots. Before storm water on site is discharged into public drains, treating
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storm water run-off is encouraged, and infiltration or design features include
2
bio-retention swales, rain gardens, constructed wetlands, retention ponds, and
3
cleansing biotopes.
4
4.5 SPD in ASGB In ASGB, SPD relevant items are considered in the categories “Land saving and
6
outdoor environment,” “Energy saving and energy utilization,” and “Promotion and
7
innovation.” Intensive land use is encouraged, which means residential land per capita
8
should be controlled within reasonable limits. A rational use of green land and
9
underground space is also encouraged. Regarding the outdoor environment, effective
10
measures should be conducted to control environmental noise, the outdoor wind
11
environment, and the urban heat island intensity. The assessment also considers
12
convenient access to public transport facilities, wheelchair accessible sidewalks,
13
rational parking plot settings, and convenient public services. To protect the original
14
ecology, the topography should be considered in the site design and layout. For
15
rainwater management, a green rainwater infrastructure should be implemented by
16
making full use of the site space. Through rational planning of the surface and roof
17
rainwater runoff, the amount of site rainwater efflux can be controlled. Appropriate
18
green plants and green methods should be selected for sites. Innovative architectural
19
schemes combined with the site characteristics and building function, and the
20
appropriate location of constructions on brownfields, will also contribute to green
21
building assessments.
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5. Discussion
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A comparison of SPDs in selected GBRTs results in the summary of 15 variables
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during the SPD process given in Table 2. The allocation of these main variables in
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each GBRT is also provided.
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 2 Main variables of SPD in green buildings BREEAM
1
Land use
2
Site assessment
3
Passive building design
4
Open space
5
Neighborhood amenities
6
Local transport
7
Green vehicles parking
8
Reduced parking footprint
9
Ecological value and protection
10
Cultural heritage
11
Landscaping and irrigation
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Microclimate around buildings
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Neighborhood daylight access
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Storm water management
15
Environmental management plan
LEED
BEAM Plus
GM
ASGB
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Variable
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The comparison in Table 2 shows that BEAM Plus seems to include most of the
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SPD related items, followed by ASGB, LEED, BREEAM and Green Mark. A
4
comparison of the items shown in Table 2 finds that there are certain outstanding
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SPD-related items in the selected GBRTs. For instance, in BEAM Plus, the protection
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and conservation of cultural heritage is considered. Preserving cultural heritage on or
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around construction sites enables change to be interpreted from social, economic, and
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cultural aspects, and can enhance community identity. Maintaining access to daylight
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for buildings around the construction site is stressed in BEAM Plus, as if sunlight and
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daylight is valued this can reinforce the concept of “good neighbor buildings.” Open
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space, as an effective means of connecting residents with the environment, is stressed
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in LEED and ASGB. A certain percentage of land should be provided as open space in
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new constructions, such as lawns that are convenient for physical activity, outdoor
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social activity, or other forms of human interaction. To reduce energy use and
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pollution, LEED and BEAM Plus both consider the item green vehicles, suggesting
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that parking spaces and charging facilities for green vehicles is provided. In BEAM
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Plus and Green Mark, comprehensive environmental management practices are also
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construction. The comparison of GBRTs also identifies certain limitations. Neither
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economic and intensive land use, nor taking advantage of neighborhood amenities are
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stressed in Green Mark, for example. Though efficient water use equipment and water
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recycle are identified in BREEAM, there is no consideration of appropriate plants that
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requiring minimal irrigation, or using recycled materials for hard landscaped areas. To
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conduct an effective SPD in green buildings, the 15 items above need to be taken into
8
consideration when conducting SPD. The relationships among the 15 variables are
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summarized to develop a theoretical framework for SPD in green buildings, as shown
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in Figure 1. Each of the fifteen variables are summarized according to how they
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influence the SPD process. SPD in green buildings can be classified according to
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which of three sustainable principles they are based on: an efficient use of resources,
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the surrounding conditions, and the natural environment.
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Figure 1. Theoretical framework for SPD in green buildings
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In Figure 1, the process of SPD in green building contains two stages, i.e. site
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planning stage and site design stage. Based on the process of SPD developed by
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LaGro (2011), the SPD process in green buildings is shown in Figure 1. In the stage
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of site planning, after briefing/programming and site selection, site assessment is a 14
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site design, conceptual design and detailed design concerns the key elements and
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spatial organizations on site under the sustainable principles. In green assessment, the
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SPD scheme should be assessed combining with economic feasibility, local policies,
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and the level of local green building development. In construction documentation, the
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site design can be translated into technical language for contractors, then the project
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can be implemented.
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(1) Based on efficient resource use
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The first principle in green SPD is sustainable resource using, which means
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improving resource using efficiency, and reducing energy and other resource
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consumption.
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Land use. In the theoretical framework, land use should be the primary concern
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in SPD, as it involves interdependencies among individuals and communities that
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have significant effects on economic and social wellbeing (Bergstrom et al. 2013).
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Development of environmentally sensitive land should be avoided, to reduce the
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environmental impact on construction sites. Selecting previously occupied or
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contaminated land should be encouraged for site development, with proper
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investigations and remediation for any redevelopment. Based on the principle of
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sustainable development, underground construction aims to minimize environmental
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hazards, saving energy, increasing the functional diversity of the urban structure, and
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reducing local transportation needs (Rönkä et al. 1998). Underground developments
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on site are isolated from all types of climates, and underground structures are
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naturally protected from severe weather (Godard 2004).
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Passive building design. A passive design approach involves using natural
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elements, such as sunlight, to heat, cool, or light a building (Su 2008). Passive design
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is the most economically effective and widely accepted strategy for reducing the
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thermal load of residential buildings. Through the use of passive solutions, the use of
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mechanical systems, energy demand, and CO2 emissions can be reduced or even
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eliminated.
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harmful to the environment than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles
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running on gasoline or diesel, or those using alternative fuels. Promoting green
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vehicles helps to reduce air pollution by encouraging alternatives to conventionally
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fueled vehicles. In green SPD, a certain percentage of parking space for green
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vehicles should be reserved, within electrical vehicle supply equipment, or liquid or
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gas alternative fuel refueling facilities.
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Reduced parking footprint. The total area of paved surfaces should be reduced,
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allowing for rainwater and snowmelt to travel more naturally across the landscape,
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and for surface water to naturally filter down to groundwater aquifers. Minimizing the
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site development footprint can help preserve existing natural areas, and allow for
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more to be restored. In practice, reducing the parking footprint limits the amount of
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land area dedicated to surface parking.
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Landscaping and irrigation. Landscaping refers to activities that modify visible
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land features, and can include preserving or expanding urban greenery and mitigating
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damage to ecology on site. Suitable landscape irrigation systems that utilize rainwater
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or recycled water should be provided, and plants that require minimal irrigation
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should be selected to reduce potable water consumption.
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Storm water management. Storm water, or surface runoff, management is
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essential to prevent agricultural land erosion and flooding in inhabited urban or rural
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areas. Storm water management includes detaining, retaining, or providing a
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discharge point for storm water to be reused or infiltrated into the groundwater. Storm
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water management should preserve or mimic the natural hydrologic cycle as far as
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possible, within the capacity of the existing infrastructure.
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(2) Based on surrounding conditions
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The second principle is to consider surrounding conditions, including making use
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of the existing construction resources around the construction site, continuing the
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sustainable development of urban humanities history, and maximizing the use of site
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resources.
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Local transport. According to the European Union Council of Ministers of 16
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Transport, sustainable transportation systems can meet the basic access and
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development needs of individuals, companies, and societies in a manner that fits
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human and ecosystem health safely, and promotes equity within and between
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generations. To limit private vehicle use, the car parking capacity on a sustainable
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building project site environment should be restricted. To tackle air pollution,
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convenient public transport should be promoted around the project site, and the
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occupants in the building should also be encouraged to make use of public transport
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instead of using private vehicles and taxis.
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Open space. An open space can refer to any undeveloped and public accessible
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land where has no buildings or other built structures. In land use planning, open space
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can include parks, community gardens, public seating areas, public squares, and
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playgrounds. Open space encourages interaction with the environment and the society,
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provides areas for passive recreation and physical activities, and helps to enhance
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environmental quality of the communities and neighborhoods.
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Neighborhood amenities. Integrating building development with the immediate
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neighborhood should be encouraged. Neighborhood amenities should be provided for
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local residents and building users, which will be beneficial to the neighborhood,
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including the supply of basic services and the recreational facilities.
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Neighborhood daylight access. Buildings receive light from the sun and the sky
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and from the spaces between and around them. A neighborhood of light can configure
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the urban fabric in response to the climate, providing access to daylight for all
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buildings and the spaces between. The extent to which building development will
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affect sensitive neighboring buildings, in terms of access to daylight, should be
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comprehensively analyzed in green SPD.
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(3) Based on natural environment
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In the third principle of SPD in green buildings, the natural environment within
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and surrounding the project site should be maintained properly, to achieve
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coordination and harmonization between project site and surrounding environment.
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Microclimates around buildings. Commonly and frequently accessed areas such
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as entrances and exits to buildings, pedestrian routes, opening spaces, streets, podium 17
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gardens, walkways, sitting-out areas, and playground areas constitute microclimates
2
around buildings. When designing microclimate conditions for a site, the wind,
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sunlight, temperature, and air quality should be thoroughly and equally considered. Cultural heritage. Cultural heritage gives a method of understanding and
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interpreting the past, and the social, cultural, and economic changes. Cultural heritage
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resource preservation is indispensable for sustainable development because it
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demonstrates the significance of cultural continuity and humanity history in the
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promotion of social cohesion and sense of belonging. Maintaining local and regional
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cultural heritage requires the conservation of archaeological remains, historic
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buildings, and monuments on site, to protect and retain cultural heritage features in
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the surrounding areas properly.
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Ecological value and protection. To promote green land use, developing green
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buildings on land that has limited ecological value is encouraged, which aiming at
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protecting existing ecological features from substantial damage from site planning to
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construction completion. Habitat conservation is the most effective means of
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minimizing the impact of new development on the natural environment. At site level,
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to maintain and increase local ecological diversity, the creation or preservation of
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habitats of native species is encouraged in green buildings.
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Environmental management plan. Construction sites are the main working
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surfaces on which projects take place, so poor site management can be a source of
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serious environmental nuisance and associated pollution, which can affect adjoining
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occupants and the general public in addition to workers on site. During construction
23
process, appropriate actions should be taken to minimize the environmental impacts
24
of construction and demolition activities on site. Higher environmental management
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standards should be encouraged by implementing plans that include environmental
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monitoring and auditing, and effective environmental management should minimize
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noise pollution, air pollution, water use and construction waste, and improve human
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health on construction sites.
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The theoretical framework (Figure 1) for sustainable site development should be
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considered when SPD is applied to green buildings. According to the five selected
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GBRTs, the variables involved can significantly influence green SPD, and help to
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identify any potential determinants of and barriers to SPD in green buildings. The 18
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theoretical framework presented here is derived from five major GBRTs, so no
2
limitations of local climates or other specific regional features are involved, allowing
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for a broader exploration of strategies for SPD in green buildings in future research.
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6. Conclusions In green building development, qualified professionals conduct site planning and
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design to ensure that a site is functionally efficient, aesthetically pleasing, and
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environmentally sustainable. Site planners and designers must consider how to
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minimize disturbance on a construction site. In this study, a comparative analysis of
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site aspects in five selected GBRTs was conducted, to explore the relative importance
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of SPD. By applying content analysis, SPD-relevant items in GBRTs were recorded
11
and analyzed. Of these, BEAM Plus allocates the highest weights to SPD with 25%.
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LEED and ASGB assigns 23.4% and 23% of weightings to SPD aspects respectively,
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followed by BREEAM, which assigns 13.3%. GM allocates about 7.44% of credits to
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SPD items, which is the lowest weight. Especially, in BEAM Plus, the importance of
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cultural heritage and neighborhood daylight access are addressed. In LEED and
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ASGB, maintaining enough open space is also paid attention to. And in LEED and
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BEAM Plus, green vehicles parking is also referred to. The SPD theoretical
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framework for green buildings includes summaries of fifteen major variables and is
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developed according to the comparison and analysis of these variables, laying a
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theoretical foundation for promoting comprehensive SPD in green buildings.
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Strategies for SPD in green buildings can be further explored in future research, based
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on the proposed theoretical framework.
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References
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S0959-6526(17)30113-0
DOI:
10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.099
Reference:
JCLP 8846
To appear in:
Journal of Cleaner Production
Received Date: 2 November 2016 Revised Date:
12 January 2017
Accepted Date: 18 January 2017
Please cite this article as: Huo X, Yu ATW, Wu Z, A comparative analysis of site planning and design among green building rating tools, Journal of Cleaner Production (2017), doi: 10.1016/ j.jclepro.2017.01.099. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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Total words: 6722
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A comparative analysis of site planning and design among green building rating tools
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Xiaosen Huo1, Ann T.W. Yu2*, Zezhou Wu3 1
PhD Student, Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Email: [email protected]
6 2*
Associate Professor, Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
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University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Email: [email protected]
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3
Assistant Professor, Department of Construction Management and Real Estate, School of Civil
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Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shen Zhen, China; Email: [email protected]
Abstract
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Appropriate site planning and design (SPD) is a key solution for effective land
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use on construction sites. A Green Building Rating Tool (GBRT) includes systematic
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assessment criteria to evaluate whether a building is “green” or not. The effectiveness
15
of GBRTs have been explored in energy use, waste management, and indoor air
16
quality in green buildings. However, no investigation has been made to evaluate the
17
effectiveness of GBRTs in site planning and design aspects. In this research, five
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international GBRTs were selected for a comparative analysis, to better understand the
19
measures that help improve SPD in green buildings. Content analysis was applied to
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record and compare the relevant significance of SPD-related items in the selected
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GBRTs. The comparative study revealed that in terms of SPD, Building
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Environmental Assessment Method (BEAM) Plus allocates the highest importance
23
while Green Mark (GM) allocates the lowest. Each GBRT emphasizes different
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aspects of SPD in green buildings, and BEAM Plus involves the most SPD related
25
items. In addition, the main variables for effective SPD were identified and a
26
theoretical framework was further proposed. The proposed theoretical framework can
27
serve as a foundation for successful SPD in green buildings. The application and
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potential limitations of the theoretical framework were also discussed.
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Keywords: Construction site, Green building rating tool, Site planning and design,
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Theoretical framework
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1. Introduction Green building is part of the larger concept of “sustainable building”, which is
3
regarded as the implementation of sustainable design (Montoya 2010). For a
4
construction project, the location of the project is the foundation of sustainability, and
5
site planners must consider how to minimize disturbance on construction sites. To
6
form a sustainable site, one key issue is site planning and site design (Russ 2009).
7
Besides, the operating and maintenance costs of a site is a reflection of site design
8
(Mawdesley, Al-Jibouri et al. 2002). Planning and design is a process of bringing a
9
vision to implementation, and the effective spatial arrangement and space utilization
10
on a site is critical to construction projects (Tawfik & Fernando 2001). The phase of
11
site planning and design (SPD) provides an important opportunity for site planner to
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re-organize the layout of the project site, and to re-locate facilities, material storage,
13
temporary roads, parking lots, and buildings on site (Zolfagharian and Irizarry 2014).
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In site layout and use, green construction should aim to reduce the disturbance on site,
15
reducing heat island effects, and minimizing construction waste from buildings and
16
sites (Glavinich 2008, Montoya 2010). When designing a good construction site
17
layout, two important elements are cost and safety. In site layout planning, the
18
trade-off between reducing cost and improving site safety level should be considered
19
(Ning & Lam 2013). A press released by the Occupational Safety and Health Centre
20
of the Labor Department in Hong Kong stated that 24 industrial fatalities were
21
recorded in 2015, of which 19 occurred at construction sites. Better and safer working
22
environments for laborers must be provided by on-site facilities layout plans, where
23
safety and design requirements should be considered (Huang & Wong 2015). Issues
24
promoting SPD in green buildings have previously been considered in the research.
25
Wedding (2007) assessed the brownfield redevelopment on site-level and incorporates
26
with sustainable development and green buildings. Analytical Hierarchy Processes is
27
helpful in formulating the indicator framework and forming Sustainable Brownfield
28
Redevelopment Tool. Cook (2007) focused on storm water management in green site
29
design and proposed that Low Impact Development is a sustainable storm water
30
management strategy, which can help to prevent degradation of groundwater quality,
31
manage storm water more efficiently, and protect drinking water supplies. Gonzales
32
and Romero (2014) found that desirable community aspects include socio-cultural
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factors, such as a sense of community, the need of outdoor activities, and the access to
34
open spaces. Technical tools to solve site layout planning problems have been
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proposed, such as Ant Colony Optimization, the Max-Min Ant System, genetic
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algorithms combined in MMAS-GA, and the Tacit-based Decision Support System
3
(Lam et al. 2007, Lam et al. 2009, Abdul-Rahman et al. 2011). The Green Building Rating Tool (GBRT) is an effective technique for measuring
5
the impact of building on the environment. A certified green building will perform
6
better in safety, health, comfort, and efficiency than a conventional building (U.S.
7
GBC 2013). The GBRT can thus serve as a guideline to assess whether a building is in
8
line with green building requirements, and equitable certificates can be issued
9
corresponding to the ranking. Different assessment criteria are involved in GBRTs, as
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the local climatic conditions and requirements vary in different countries (Zuo and
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Zhao 2014). Research on GBRTs has been conducted to show their positive effects on
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indoor air quality improvement, construction waste management, and passive design
13
application (Gou et al. 2012, Chen et al. 2015, Wu et al., 2016). Comparative analyses
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of SPD-related items in GBRTs concerning site aspects are lacking, and how the
15
GBRTs affect SPD has not been identified. The aim of this research is, therefore, to
16
investigate SPD-related items in five selected GBRTs, so as to gain a better
17
understanding of SPD in green buildings, and to explore how effective SPDs can be
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promoted. A theoretical framework for SPD in green buildings is developed according
19
to the comparison analysis results.
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2. Research methodology
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As there are various GBRTs involved around the world, the researchers only
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consider the most representative tools for further analysis. In the similar research
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conducted by Wu et al. (2016), four screening criteria were applied to focus on the
24
most representative GBRTs: relevant, available, latest, and measurable. According to
25
their survey, nine GBRTs that meeting the criteria were screened out in total,
26
including Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method
27
(BREEAM),
28
Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency (CASBEE),
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Building Environmental Assessment Method (BEAM), Green Mark (GM), The
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Assessment Standard for Green Building (ASGB), Green Building Index (GBI),
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Green Globes (GG), Pearl Rating System for Estidama (PRSE). In this study, five
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mainstream GBRTs were chosen to compare the items relating to SPD, considering
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Leadership
in
Energy
and
3
Environmental
Design
(LEED),
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the popularity and influence degree of these tools. Three of them are from developed
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countries (BREEAM, LEED, GM), one from developing countries (ESGB), and one
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from developed regions (BEAM Plus). BREEAM, established in 1990, was selected
4
as this was the first green building system, and is currently the leading sustainability
5
assessment method worldwide. LEED is an influential green building rating system,
6
and is also the most widely used third-party verification for green buildings, and was
7
therefore chosen as a typical rating system in this study. BEAM was selected as this
8
was the second system to be implemented outside Europe, which is now revised as
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BEAM Plus. GM in Singapore was selected as it concerns about the tropical climate
10
and high-density regions, and provides a meaningful differentiation of buildings in the
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real estate market. ASGB is the most influential GBRT in China, which owns the
12
largest construction market worldwide, so including this rating tool in the comparison
13
is important.
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Krippendorff (2012) made the definition of content analysis as “a research
15
technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful
16
matter) to the contexts of their use”. Content analysis is a widely used method of
17
identifying emerging themes from collected data, and is a common approach for
18
qualitative data analysis in built environment-related studies (Zuo et al. 2014). By
19
determining and counting the presence of certain words or concepts in a set of texts,
20
the researchers can quantify and analyze the meanings and relationships of these text
21
data. Similar studies have been conducted by Wu et al. (2016) to identify and compare
22
waste management items in several GBRTs. Therefore, content analysis is an
23
appropriate tool for recording and comparing the importance of SPD related items in
24
the selected GBRTs. In this research, content analysis was applied to classify and
25
summarize SPD relevant information, including identifying SPD related items in
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selected GBRTs, calculating the scores of SPD related items, and comparing SPD
27
related items in different GBRTs.
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3. Overview of the selected GBRTs
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In this research, new residential building is selected as the building type to
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compare SPD aspect items in five major GBRTs. To ensure the reliability of the
31
comparison in different rating tools, the latest versions currently in use are selected.
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3.1 Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) 4
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2
leading global sustainability assessment method for master planning projects,
3
infrastructures, and buildings. The new version, BREEAM International New
4
Construction, issued in 2016, is considered in this study. The application of BREEAM
5
helps to measure and reduce the environmental impact of buildings, creating higher
6
value and lower risk assets. Ten categories are assessed in BREEAM; management,
7
health and wellbeing, energy, transport, water, materials, waste, land use and ecology,
8
pollution, and innovation. In the assessment and classification of green building, when
9
a building passes or exceeds a particular indicator baseline the corresponding scores
10
are obtained. The grades ranking is then calculated, based on the final BREEAM
11
scores. The maximum credits in this system is 150. Six grades are used in BREEAM
12
rating benchmarks according to the percentage score; Outstanding ( 85%), Excellent
13
( 70%), Very Good (
14
30%).
15
3.2 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
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55%), Good ( 45%), Pass ( 30%), and Unclassified (
LEED was issued by the U.S. Green Building Council in 2000. The latest version,
17
LEED v4 for Building Design and Construction, was updated in July 2015. LEED is a
18
rating system aimed at “evaluating and accrediting energy efficiency and sustainable
19
design features of new and renovated buildings” (Ambrozic and Barnes 2012). The
20
sustainable categories in LEED include location and transportation, sustainable site,
21
water efficiency, energy and atmosphere, materials and resources, indoor
22
environmental quality, innovation, and regional priorities. The LEED assessment
23
involves certain prerequisites before calculating the credits, and the maximum
24
possible score is 110. According to the total points of the building calculated through
25
the scorecard, new construction can be classified into four levels; Certified (40 to 49
26
points), Silver (50 to 59 points), Gold (60 to 79 points), and Platinum (80 to 110
27
points).
28
3.3 Building Environmental Assessment Method (BEAM) Plus
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HK-BEAM was established in 1996, and was the second system to be
30
implemented outside Europe. After several revisions, the current green building rating
31
systems in Hong Kong include BEAM Plus New Buildings Version 1.2, BEAM Plus
32
Existing Buildings Version 2.0, and BEAM Plus Interiors Version 1.0. The purpose of 5
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 1
BEAM Plus is to enhance the building quality, stimulate sustainable building demand,
2
provide
3
whole-life-cycle environment impacts of buildings. The assigned weightings for each
4
category are Site Aspects (25%), Materials Aspects (8%), Energy Use (35%), Water
5
Use (12%), and Indoor Environmental Quality (20%). The maximum credits in
6
BEAM Plus are 143. Based on the percentage of the applicable credits obtained under
7
each section and the weighting factor, the overall assessment grade can be determined
8
as Platinum (75%), Gold (65%), Silver (55%), and Bronze (40%).
9
3.4 Green Mark (GM)
building
performance
standards,
and
reduce
the
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comprehensive
Green Mark was launched in January 2005 at first in Singapore. In this research,
11
the Green Mark for Residential Buildings (Version RB/4.0) is considered, which was
12
issued in 2010. Green Mark is regarded as an initiative to promote more
13
environmentally friendly buildings in the construction industry in Singapore. To
14
achieve a Green Mark Award, the prerequisite requirements in different Green Mark
15
Rating must be fully followed according to the new residential building criteria.
16
Under the precondition, two categories requirements are involved in the framework.
17
In the category of energy related requirements, the maximum allocated points are 87,
18
and the minimum are 30 points. In the category of other green requirements,
19
maximum 155 points are assigned, where the minimum are 20 points. The maximum
20
points in GM is 242. The four categories of green mark rating are Green Mark
21
Platinum (90 and above), Green Mark Gold
22
84), and Green Mark Certified (50 to 74).
23
3.5 Assessment Standard for Green Building (ASGB)
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The National Ministry of Construction of China established the Evaluation
25
Standard for Green Building (ESGB) in 2006, which was revised and issued in 2015
26
as ASGB. The establishment of the GBRT intends to promote sustainable construction
27
development, save natural resources, protect environment, and normalize green
28
building assessment in China. The system includes seven major indicators: land
29
saving and outdoor environment, energy saving and energy utilization, water saving
30
and water resource utilization, material saving and material resource utilization,
31
indoor environment quality, construction management, and operation management.
32
For each indicator the two categories of items to be evaluated are prerequisite items 6
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2
involved in the building, the maximum score in ASGB is 110. Evaluated buildings are
3
ranked into three levels; One Star ( 50 points), Two Stars ( 60 points), and Three
4
Stars ( 80 points), which reflect greenness levels of certified buildings from low to
5
high. All buildings must meet the prerequisite items, and the scoring items of each
6
indicator should be at least 40 points.
7
4. Comparison of SPD related items in GBRTs
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To compare the relative importance of SPD in different GBRTs, the significance
9
score (SS) of SPD items in each GBRT was calculated by the Equation (1), (2) and
10
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(3).
For BREEAM and BEAM Plus, the total credits were calculated within the
12
consideration of the section weights. So the SS of SPD related items is calculated by
13
Equation (1).
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SS = ∑ SPDCi C j *W j
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Where SPDCi represents the maximum credits of the SPD related item i , C j
16
means the maximum total credits of the corresponding section j . W j refers to the
17
weight of the corresponding section j .
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section weights. Then the SS of SPD related items is calculated by Equation (2).
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For LEED and GM, the total points were calculated without considering the
SS = ∑ SPDPi TP
(2)
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(1)
Where SPDPi means the maximum points of the SPD related item i . TP
represents the total points of the system. For ASGB, the total score of assessed building is the sum of weighted score and
added score. So the total score of SPD related items is calculated by Equation (3).
25
SS = ∑ ( SPDSi *W j + SPDSI ) TS
26
Where SPDSi refers to the maximum score of the SPD related item i . W j
27
refers to the weight of the corresponding weighted section j . SPDSI refers to the
(3)
7
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maximum score of SPD related items in innovation section. TS refers to the
2
maximum total scores of the system. Table 1 gives the points and scores of SPD items in the selected GBRTs. The
4
column of score represents the maximum score that the item accounting for in the
5
GBRT. The allocation and importance of SPD can be seen in each GBRT. In
6
BREEAM, SPD items account for about 13.3% of the weightings. LEED allocates a
7
very high weighting of credits for SPD of up to 23.6%, including sections for
8
transportation and sustainable sites. BEAM Plus assigns 25% of weightings to SPD
9
aspects. In the BCA Green Mark, about 7.44% of credits are allocated to SPD items.
10
In ASGB, similar as in LEED, SPD is considered important, and 23% of the total
11
marks are allocated to SPD-related items.
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Table 1. SPD-related requirements and scores in selected GBRTs
12 Section
Item
Transport
BREEAM
5
Proximity to amenities
2
Alternative modes of transport
2
Selection of previously occupied or contaminated land
3
Protection of ecological features
2
Enhancing site ecology
3
Minimization of long-term impact on biodiversity
2
Sensitive land protection
1
High-priority site
2
Surrounding density and diverse use
5
Access to quality transit
5
Promotion of bicycling and transportation efficiency
1
Reduced parking footprint
1
Promotion of green vehicles
1
Site assessment
1
Protection or restoration of habitat on site
2
Creation of exterior open space
1
Rainwater management
3
Heat island reduction
2
Light pollution reduction
1
Remediation of contaminated land
1
Reduction of private vehicle use
3
Integration of neighborhood amenities
3
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Location and transportation
Sustainable sites
BEAM Plus
Site aspect
Score
Public transport accessibility
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GBRT
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3
8
SS
9/10*0.07+ 10/10*0.07 =13.3%
26/110=23.6%
20/20*0.25 =25%
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Land saving and outdoor environment ASGB
Energy saving and energy utilization Promotion and innovation
1
1
Protection of cultural heritage
1
Proper landscaping and planters on site
3
Ensure microclimate around buildings
4
Preservation of neighborhood daylight access
1
Environmental management plan
1
Irrigation system and landscaping
3
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Environmental protection
Reduction of ecological impact
Greenery provision
8
Green transport
4
Storm water management Economic and efficient land use Outdoor environment
34
18
Transport facilities and public services
24
Site design and site ecology
24
Architecture and envelope structure Promotion and innovation
4.1 SPD in BREEAM
18/242=7.44%
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Water efficiency
Proactive approach in integrating site planning issue
6
(0.21*100+0.24*6+3) /(100+10) = 23%
3
In BREEAM, SPD is involved in the categories of “Transport” and “Land Use
3
and Ecology.” To reduce the pollution and congestion caused by transport, building
4
development in the proximity of good transport networks should be encouraged. The
5
proximity to amenities should also be considered in the site location, facilitating
6
building users to take advantage of local services, which helps reduce emissions
7
resulting from an extended building user footprint. To avoid construction development
8
on land that has not been previously disturbed, selecting previously occupied or
9
contaminated land for sites is encouraged, as is selecting land of low ecological value,
10
to protect existing ecological features. In developing new buildings, the impact on
11
existing site ecology should be minimized by decreasing the change in the ecological
12
value on the project site. A qualified ecologist should be appointed at an early stage to
13
provide advice and recommendations on enhancing the site ecology. To minimize any
14
long-term effect on the biodiversity around the site, ensuring compliance with
15
relevant legislation on the protection and enhancement of ecology from the design to
16
construction process is necessary. A suitable landscape and habitat management plan
17
for the site should be developed, where at least the first five years after completing the
18
project should be covered.
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4.2 SPD in LEED LEED considers SPD in “Location and Transportation” and “Sustainable Sites.”
3
To protect environmentally sensitive lands, the development footprint should be
4
located on land that has already been developed or is not environmentally sensitive, so
5
locating the project in historic districts, designated prioritized sites, or brownfield is
6
encouraged. Locating construction site in areas with existing infrastructure and
7
amenities helps to save land, preserve farmland and wildlife habitats, which also
8
encourages daily physical activity and improves public health. A well-located site can
9
also promote walkability, transportation efficiency, and reduce vehicle travel distances.
10
To reduce environmental pollution or public health risks relevant to the use of motor
11
vehicle such as greenhouse gas emission and air pollution, minimum multimodal
12
transportation choices must be met for a new construction. Promoting cycling and
13
transportation efficiency can also reduce vehicle travel distances. Reducing the
14
parking footprint helps to minimize the environmental harm resulting from vehicle
15
dependence, land use, and storm water runoff. Green vehicles can also reduce
16
pollution associated with motor vehicle use, and 5% of all parking spaces should be
17
designated for green vehicles parking. Alternative fuel stations should also be
18
provided, either as electric vehicle charging points, or liquid, gas, and battery facilities.
19
For new residential construction, the prerequisite must be met to create and
20
implement an erosion and sedimentation plan before construction activities begin.
21
Before site design, a survey should be conducted to assess the site conditions. The
22
assessment should demonstrate relevant site features and how these will affect site
23
design. In site development, existing natural areas and use of native or adapted
24
vegetation to provide habitat and promote biodiversity are required, to conserve or
25
restore damaged areas. Outdoor space should be provided, which encourages
26
environmental interaction, social interaction, passive recreation, and physical
27
activities. Water balance of the site can be maintained by replicating the natural
28
hydrology, on-site rainwater management can reduce runoff volume and improve
29
water quality. To reduce heat islands and minimize the impacts on the microclimate
30
and on human and wildlife habitats, strategies such as non-roof measures,
31
high-reflectance roofs, and undercover parking should be applied on site. To increase
32
night sky access and nighttime visibility, light pollution reduction can be achieved by
33
using the backlight-up light glare method or the calculation method.
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4.3 SPD in BEAM Plus In their site design appraisals, planners should take into consideration the
3
surroundings and neighborhoods of the site from the aspects of substances and
4
environment. Clients and design teams should attempt to integrate the development
5
into the immediate surroundings. Habitat conservation is an effective method of
6
preserving the ecological value and conserving the natural environment. Considering
7
the redevelopment of the local ecosystem requires more time and effort and building
8
development on brownfield sites is encouraged, as these have low ecological value.
9
Preservation of cultural heritage is important, so special attention should be given and
10
measures taken to protect cultural heritage relevant features on site and to maintain
11
cultural sustainability around site. To mitigate the damage to site ecology, landscaping
12
strategies should be applied which can enhance the microclimate, providing efficient
13
irrigation and controlled surface run-off. The microclimate conditions on site should
14
also be designed by thoroughly considering and balancing the wind, sunlight, and
15
temperature and air quality. The effects on the access of sensitive neighboring
16
buildings to daylight caused by the developed building should be analyzed. To
17
decrease the environmental impact during the demolition and construction stages, an
18
environmental management plan should be implemented, to ensure that environmental
19
monitoring and auditing can be carried out.
20
4.4 SPD in GM
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In GM the maximum Green Mark Score is 155, and SPD-related items account
22
for 18 points, which is 7.44%. SPD related items are considered in “Water Efficiency”
23
and “Environmental Protection.” Rainwater or other non-potable water should be used
24
for landscaping irrigation in irrigation systems and landscaping. Automatic water
25
irrigation systems with rain sensors can help water reservation, and drought tolerant
26
plants on site can also reduce water consumption. To reduce the heat island effect,
27
more use of greenery is encouraged, such as restoring trees on construction site, or
28
reserving or relocating existing trees. To reduce pollution caused by private car use,
29
quality and environmental friendly transport modes should be encouraged, and should
30
include the provision of good access and covered walkways to surrounding public
31
transport, charging points for green electric vehicles, and covered or sheltered bicycle
32
parking lots. Before storm water on site is discharged into public drains, treating
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storm water run-off is encouraged, and infiltration or design features include
2
bio-retention swales, rain gardens, constructed wetlands, retention ponds, and
3
cleansing biotopes.
4
4.5 SPD in ASGB In ASGB, SPD relevant items are considered in the categories “Land saving and
6
outdoor environment,” “Energy saving and energy utilization,” and “Promotion and
7
innovation.” Intensive land use is encouraged, which means residential land per capita
8
should be controlled within reasonable limits. A rational use of green land and
9
underground space is also encouraged. Regarding the outdoor environment, effective
10
measures should be conducted to control environmental noise, the outdoor wind
11
environment, and the urban heat island intensity. The assessment also considers
12
convenient access to public transport facilities, wheelchair accessible sidewalks,
13
rational parking plot settings, and convenient public services. To protect the original
14
ecology, the topography should be considered in the site design and layout. For
15
rainwater management, a green rainwater infrastructure should be implemented by
16
making full use of the site space. Through rational planning of the surface and roof
17
rainwater runoff, the amount of site rainwater efflux can be controlled. Appropriate
18
green plants and green methods should be selected for sites. Innovative architectural
19
schemes combined with the site characteristics and building function, and the
20
appropriate location of constructions on brownfields, will also contribute to green
21
building assessments.
22
5. Discussion
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A comparison of SPDs in selected GBRTs results in the summary of 15 variables
24
during the SPD process given in Table 2. The allocation of these main variables in
25
each GBRT is also provided.
26
12
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 2 Main variables of SPD in green buildings BREEAM
1
Land use
2
Site assessment
3
Passive building design
4
Open space
5
Neighborhood amenities
6
Local transport
7
Green vehicles parking
8
Reduced parking footprint
9
Ecological value and protection
10
Cultural heritage
11
Landscaping and irrigation
12
Microclimate around buildings
13
Neighborhood daylight access
14
Storm water management
15
Environmental management plan
LEED
BEAM Plus
GM
ASGB
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Variable
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1
The comparison in Table 2 shows that BEAM Plus seems to include most of the
3
SPD related items, followed by ASGB, LEED, BREEAM and Green Mark. A
4
comparison of the items shown in Table 2 finds that there are certain outstanding
5
SPD-related items in the selected GBRTs. For instance, in BEAM Plus, the protection
6
and conservation of cultural heritage is considered. Preserving cultural heritage on or
7
around construction sites enables change to be interpreted from social, economic, and
8
cultural aspects, and can enhance community identity. Maintaining access to daylight
9
for buildings around the construction site is stressed in BEAM Plus, as if sunlight and
10
daylight is valued this can reinforce the concept of “good neighbor buildings.” Open
11
space, as an effective means of connecting residents with the environment, is stressed
12
in LEED and ASGB. A certain percentage of land should be provided as open space in
13
new constructions, such as lawns that are convenient for physical activity, outdoor
14
social activity, or other forms of human interaction. To reduce energy use and
15
pollution, LEED and BEAM Plus both consider the item green vehicles, suggesting
16
that parking spaces and charging facilities for green vehicles is provided. In BEAM
17
Plus and Green Mark, comprehensive environmental management practices are also
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13
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT proposed, to encourage higher standards of environmental management during
2
construction. The comparison of GBRTs also identifies certain limitations. Neither
3
economic and intensive land use, nor taking advantage of neighborhood amenities are
4
stressed in Green Mark, for example. Though efficient water use equipment and water
5
recycle are identified in BREEAM, there is no consideration of appropriate plants that
6
requiring minimal irrigation, or using recycled materials for hard landscaped areas. To
7
conduct an effective SPD in green buildings, the 15 items above need to be taken into
8
consideration when conducting SPD. The relationships among the 15 variables are
9
summarized to develop a theoretical framework for SPD in green buildings, as shown
10
in Figure 1. Each of the fifteen variables are summarized according to how they
11
influence the SPD process. SPD in green buildings can be classified according to
12
which of three sustainable principles they are based on: an efficient use of resources,
13
the surrounding conditions, and the natural environment.
14 15
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Figure 1. Theoretical framework for SPD in green buildings
16
In Figure 1, the process of SPD in green building contains two stages, i.e. site
17
planning stage and site design stage. Based on the process of SPD developed by
18
LaGro (2011), the SPD process in green buildings is shown in Figure 1. In the stage
19
of site planning, after briefing/programming and site selection, site assessment is a 14
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT vital step, which can provide references for decisions about site design. In the stage of
2
site design, conceptual design and detailed design concerns the key elements and
3
spatial organizations on site under the sustainable principles. In green assessment, the
4
SPD scheme should be assessed combining with economic feasibility, local policies,
5
and the level of local green building development. In construction documentation, the
6
site design can be translated into technical language for contractors, then the project
7
can be implemented.
8
(1) Based on efficient resource use
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The first principle in green SPD is sustainable resource using, which means
10
improving resource using efficiency, and reducing energy and other resource
11
consumption.
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Land use. In the theoretical framework, land use should be the primary concern
13
in SPD, as it involves interdependencies among individuals and communities that
14
have significant effects on economic and social wellbeing (Bergstrom et al. 2013).
15
Development of environmentally sensitive land should be avoided, to reduce the
16
environmental impact on construction sites. Selecting previously occupied or
17
contaminated land should be encouraged for site development, with proper
18
investigations and remediation for any redevelopment. Based on the principle of
19
sustainable development, underground construction aims to minimize environmental
20
hazards, saving energy, increasing the functional diversity of the urban structure, and
21
reducing local transportation needs (Rönkä et al. 1998). Underground developments
22
on site are isolated from all types of climates, and underground structures are
23
naturally protected from severe weather (Godard 2004).
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Passive building design. A passive design approach involves using natural
25
elements, such as sunlight, to heat, cool, or light a building (Su 2008). Passive design
26
is the most economically effective and widely accepted strategy for reducing the
27
thermal load of residential buildings. Through the use of passive solutions, the use of
28
mechanical systems, energy demand, and CO2 emissions can be reduced or even
29
eliminated.
30
15
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Green vehicles parking. Green vehicles refer to road motor vehicles that are less
2
harmful to the environment than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles
3
running on gasoline or diesel, or those using alternative fuels. Promoting green
4
vehicles helps to reduce air pollution by encouraging alternatives to conventionally
5
fueled vehicles. In green SPD, a certain percentage of parking space for green
6
vehicles should be reserved, within electrical vehicle supply equipment, or liquid or
7
gas alternative fuel refueling facilities.
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Reduced parking footprint. The total area of paved surfaces should be reduced,
9
allowing for rainwater and snowmelt to travel more naturally across the landscape,
10
and for surface water to naturally filter down to groundwater aquifers. Minimizing the
11
site development footprint can help preserve existing natural areas, and allow for
12
more to be restored. In practice, reducing the parking footprint limits the amount of
13
land area dedicated to surface parking.
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Landscaping and irrigation. Landscaping refers to activities that modify visible
15
land features, and can include preserving or expanding urban greenery and mitigating
16
damage to ecology on site. Suitable landscape irrigation systems that utilize rainwater
17
or recycled water should be provided, and plants that require minimal irrigation
18
should be selected to reduce potable water consumption.
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Storm water management. Storm water, or surface runoff, management is
20
essential to prevent agricultural land erosion and flooding in inhabited urban or rural
21
areas. Storm water management includes detaining, retaining, or providing a
22
discharge point for storm water to be reused or infiltrated into the groundwater. Storm
23
water management should preserve or mimic the natural hydrologic cycle as far as
24
possible, within the capacity of the existing infrastructure.
25
(2) Based on surrounding conditions
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The second principle is to consider surrounding conditions, including making use
27
of the existing construction resources around the construction site, continuing the
28
sustainable development of urban humanities history, and maximizing the use of site
29
resources.
30
Local transport. According to the European Union Council of Ministers of 16
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Transport, sustainable transportation systems can meet the basic access and
2
development needs of individuals, companies, and societies in a manner that fits
3
human and ecosystem health safely, and promotes equity within and between
4
generations. To limit private vehicle use, the car parking capacity on a sustainable
5
building project site environment should be restricted. To tackle air pollution,
6
convenient public transport should be promoted around the project site, and the
7
occupants in the building should also be encouraged to make use of public transport
8
instead of using private vehicles and taxis.
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Open space. An open space can refer to any undeveloped and public accessible
10
land where has no buildings or other built structures. In land use planning, open space
11
can include parks, community gardens, public seating areas, public squares, and
12
playgrounds. Open space encourages interaction with the environment and the society,
13
provides areas for passive recreation and physical activities, and helps to enhance
14
environmental quality of the communities and neighborhoods.
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Neighborhood amenities. Integrating building development with the immediate
16
neighborhood should be encouraged. Neighborhood amenities should be provided for
17
local residents and building users, which will be beneficial to the neighborhood,
18
including the supply of basic services and the recreational facilities.
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Neighborhood daylight access. Buildings receive light from the sun and the sky
20
and from the spaces between and around them. A neighborhood of light can configure
21
the urban fabric in response to the climate, providing access to daylight for all
22
buildings and the spaces between. The extent to which building development will
23
affect sensitive neighboring buildings, in terms of access to daylight, should be
24
comprehensively analyzed in green SPD.
25
(3) Based on natural environment
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In the third principle of SPD in green buildings, the natural environment within
27
and surrounding the project site should be maintained properly, to achieve
28
coordination and harmonization between project site and surrounding environment.
29
Microclimates around buildings. Commonly and frequently accessed areas such
30
as entrances and exits to buildings, pedestrian routes, opening spaces, streets, podium 17
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 1
gardens, walkways, sitting-out areas, and playground areas constitute microclimates
2
around buildings. When designing microclimate conditions for a site, the wind,
3
sunlight, temperature, and air quality should be thoroughly and equally considered. Cultural heritage. Cultural heritage gives a method of understanding and
5
interpreting the past, and the social, cultural, and economic changes. Cultural heritage
6
resource preservation is indispensable for sustainable development because it
7
demonstrates the significance of cultural continuity and humanity history in the
8
promotion of social cohesion and sense of belonging. Maintaining local and regional
9
cultural heritage requires the conservation of archaeological remains, historic
10
buildings, and monuments on site, to protect and retain cultural heritage features in
11
the surrounding areas properly.
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Ecological value and protection. To promote green land use, developing green
13
buildings on land that has limited ecological value is encouraged, which aiming at
14
protecting existing ecological features from substantial damage from site planning to
15
construction completion. Habitat conservation is the most effective means of
16
minimizing the impact of new development on the natural environment. At site level,
17
to maintain and increase local ecological diversity, the creation or preservation of
18
habitats of native species is encouraged in green buildings.
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Environmental management plan. Construction sites are the main working
20
surfaces on which projects take place, so poor site management can be a source of
21
serious environmental nuisance and associated pollution, which can affect adjoining
22
occupants and the general public in addition to workers on site. During construction
23
process, appropriate actions should be taken to minimize the environmental impacts
24
of construction and demolition activities on site. Higher environmental management
25
standards should be encouraged by implementing plans that include environmental
26
monitoring and auditing, and effective environmental management should minimize
27
noise pollution, air pollution, water use and construction waste, and improve human
28
health on construction sites.
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The theoretical framework (Figure 1) for sustainable site development should be
30
considered when SPD is applied to green buildings. According to the five selected
31
GBRTs, the variables involved can significantly influence green SPD, and help to
32
identify any potential determinants of and barriers to SPD in green buildings. The 18
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 1
theoretical framework presented here is derived from five major GBRTs, so no
2
limitations of local climates or other specific regional features are involved, allowing
3
for a broader exploration of strategies for SPD in green buildings in future research.
4
6. Conclusions In green building development, qualified professionals conduct site planning and
6
design to ensure that a site is functionally efficient, aesthetically pleasing, and
7
environmentally sustainable. Site planners and designers must consider how to
8
minimize disturbance on a construction site. In this study, a comparative analysis of
9
site aspects in five selected GBRTs was conducted, to explore the relative importance
10
of SPD. By applying content analysis, SPD-relevant items in GBRTs were recorded
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and analyzed. Of these, BEAM Plus allocates the highest weights to SPD with 25%.
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LEED and ASGB assigns 23.4% and 23% of weightings to SPD aspects respectively,
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followed by BREEAM, which assigns 13.3%. GM allocates about 7.44% of credits to
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SPD items, which is the lowest weight. Especially, in BEAM Plus, the importance of
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cultural heritage and neighborhood daylight access are addressed. In LEED and
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ASGB, maintaining enough open space is also paid attention to. And in LEED and
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BEAM Plus, green vehicles parking is also referred to. The SPD theoretical
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framework for green buildings includes summaries of fifteen major variables and is
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developed according to the comparison and analysis of these variables, laying a
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theoretical foundation for promoting comprehensive SPD in green buildings.
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Strategies for SPD in green buildings can be further explored in future research, based
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on the proposed theoretical framework.
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