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A data based classroom for the moderately and severely handicapped
Behav Res 6rTherapy. 1977, Vol.15,pp.445450.PergamonPress. Printed inGreatBntain
BOOK
REVIEWS
H. D. B. FREDERICKS, V. L. BALDWIN and NINE OTHERS. A Data Based Classroom far the Moderately and Sewre/~ Handicupped. Instructional Development Corporation, Monmouth, Oregon (1975). v + 204 pp. No price stated. This multiple-authored text succeeds in doing three things-firstly, it describes a particular approach to organizing classrooms for handicapped children; secondly, it provides a detailed description of the training given to staff in that setting; and thirdly, it provides data comparing the results in such classrooms with those organized on more traditional models. This is definitely not just another behaviour modification text which promises but does not deliver the data. The authors are to be congratulated for following the logic of their own approach through to providing results in the last chapter. The administration of the classroom is based on the concept that all children can learn, however slowly and inefficiently. The role of the classroom teacher becomes chiefly that of manager-managing sufficient volunteers to allow a ratio of one aide to every child. In addition, the parents are involved in teaching their own children as much as possible. The teacher-manager has to train the aides. and monitor their progress and results. Since there is inevitably a high turnover of volunteers the skills they are taught have to be the simplest compatible with teaching the children in the four main subject areas of self-help, language, motor and cognitive skills. The training given to the aides is essentially behaviour modification, but pared to its essentials. Most emphasis is placed on the importance of data collection, since it is through the daily review of data that the teacher can give feedback to the aide and can simultaneously monitor the pupil’s progress. Trained teachers can monitor up to 80 programmes by spending 14 hours daily in reviewing the data gathered by the aides on prepared forms. The actual curriculum content of each programme has been field tested by ovt’i- 200 teachers. The results are presented in three levels. Firstly, all special education classrooms in Oregon were routinely evaluated. At the pre-school level, the classroom following the system described above was clearly better than SIX others which had equally stable staff. The experimental chil,dren had much greater gains over seven developmental areas which were measured. At second level of evaluation, data on the progress of individual children are presented. The sheer amount of data presented is staggering, and testifies to the value of the data based model. Finally, the parents provided feedback which shows that they were well pleased with the results. It is indeed a pleasure to read a text which not only presents interesting ideas, but makes an honest attempt to evaluate them in practice. This text deserves to be studied seriously by all those who are engaged in providing educational services for mentally handicapped children. WILLIAM
A. E. KAZDIY. Behuviour Modification in Applied Settings, Dorsey
Press, Homewood,
YULE
IL (1975). xii + 279 pp.
In this paperback, Kazdin has given us an excellent review of the applications of operant conditioning. His style is clinically precise, thorough and logical, and the book is enhanced by his obvious depth of experience in the area. The emphasis is more on the technological and practical aspects of applied work than the theoretical and his advice is always supported by extensive references to literature sources. The expected chapter headings are to be found on different operant principles, and the applications are discussed as examples of these principles (positive reinforcement, extinction, etc). In addition there are chapters on self-control. evaluation, transfer of training, misconceptions of behaviour modification, and ethics. The presentation will not excite the casual reader who wants an entertaining introduction to the subject. Even a seasoned modifier might find it a little dry and orthodox. But undoubtedly it will be useful to students whose reinforcement is extrinsic, as well as to behaviour modifiers who have already been shaped to near perfection by the Skinnerian model. In other words this book does not ‘sell’ behaviour modification and in some instances it may even be off-putting to the unconverted who have no real experience of chronic behavioural problems. The sentence ‘A shock delivered to the buttocks was terminated when the children hugged or kissed the experimenter’, even though taken out of context, sounds bizarre without an adequate background description of the general level of performance of institutionalized autistic children. Also one cannot suppress a sneaky cheer for the adolescent girls who demanded that the operant programme be generalized (money for appropriate behaviour), rather than generalizing their behaviour. Whether behaviour modification is thought of as manipulative depends on the context and the evaluator, and not on any inherent characteristic of the method. Kazdin does not shy away from these ethical issues, and he also faces, fairly and squarely, one of the main objections to the use of operant programmes, i.e. that behaviour maintained by programmed contingencies usually extinguishes when the programme is withdrawn (p. 214). In his chapter on response maintenance and transfer of training, he offers seven procedures for overcoming this difficulty. All in all this paperback is good value for money. R. S. HALLAM
BOOK
REVIEWS
H. D. B. FREDERICKS, V. L. BALDWIN and NINE OTHERS. A Data Based Classroom far the Moderately and Sewre/~ Handicupped. Instructional Development Corporation, Monmouth, Oregon (1975). v + 204 pp. No price stated. This multiple-authored text succeeds in doing three things-firstly, it describes a particular approach to organizing classrooms for handicapped children; secondly, it provides a detailed description of the training given to staff in that setting; and thirdly, it provides data comparing the results in such classrooms with those organized on more traditional models. This is definitely not just another behaviour modification text which promises but does not deliver the data. The authors are to be congratulated for following the logic of their own approach through to providing results in the last chapter. The administration of the classroom is based on the concept that all children can learn, however slowly and inefficiently. The role of the classroom teacher becomes chiefly that of manager-managing sufficient volunteers to allow a ratio of one aide to every child. In addition, the parents are involved in teaching their own children as much as possible. The teacher-manager has to train the aides. and monitor their progress and results. Since there is inevitably a high turnover of volunteers the skills they are taught have to be the simplest compatible with teaching the children in the four main subject areas of self-help, language, motor and cognitive skills. The training given to the aides is essentially behaviour modification, but pared to its essentials. Most emphasis is placed on the importance of data collection, since it is through the daily review of data that the teacher can give feedback to the aide and can simultaneously monitor the pupil’s progress. Trained teachers can monitor up to 80 programmes by spending 14 hours daily in reviewing the data gathered by the aides on prepared forms. The actual curriculum content of each programme has been field tested by ovt’i- 200 teachers. The results are presented in three levels. Firstly, all special education classrooms in Oregon were routinely evaluated. At the pre-school level, the classroom following the system described above was clearly better than SIX others which had equally stable staff. The experimental chil,dren had much greater gains over seven developmental areas which were measured. At second level of evaluation, data on the progress of individual children are presented. The sheer amount of data presented is staggering, and testifies to the value of the data based model. Finally, the parents provided feedback which shows that they were well pleased with the results. It is indeed a pleasure to read a text which not only presents interesting ideas, but makes an honest attempt to evaluate them in practice. This text deserves to be studied seriously by all those who are engaged in providing educational services for mentally handicapped children. WILLIAM
A. E. KAZDIY. Behuviour Modification in Applied Settings, Dorsey
Press, Homewood,
YULE
IL (1975). xii + 279 pp.
In this paperback, Kazdin has given us an excellent review of the applications of operant conditioning. His style is clinically precise, thorough and logical, and the book is enhanced by his obvious depth of experience in the area. The emphasis is more on the technological and practical aspects of applied work than the theoretical and his advice is always supported by extensive references to literature sources. The expected chapter headings are to be found on different operant principles, and the applications are discussed as examples of these principles (positive reinforcement, extinction, etc). In addition there are chapters on self-control. evaluation, transfer of training, misconceptions of behaviour modification, and ethics. The presentation will not excite the casual reader who wants an entertaining introduction to the subject. Even a seasoned modifier might find it a little dry and orthodox. But undoubtedly it will be useful to students whose reinforcement is extrinsic, as well as to behaviour modifiers who have already been shaped to near perfection by the Skinnerian model. In other words this book does not ‘sell’ behaviour modification and in some instances it may even be off-putting to the unconverted who have no real experience of chronic behavioural problems. The sentence ‘A shock delivered to the buttocks was terminated when the children hugged or kissed the experimenter’, even though taken out of context, sounds bizarre without an adequate background description of the general level of performance of institutionalized autistic children. Also one cannot suppress a sneaky cheer for the adolescent girls who demanded that the operant programme be generalized (money for appropriate behaviour), rather than generalizing their behaviour. Whether behaviour modification is thought of as manipulative depends on the context and the evaluator, and not on any inherent characteristic of the method. Kazdin does not shy away from these ethical issues, and he also faces, fairly and squarely, one of the main objections to the use of operant programmes, i.e. that behaviour maintained by programmed contingencies usually extinguishes when the programme is withdrawn (p. 214). In his chapter on response maintenance and transfer of training, he offers seven procedures for overcoming this difficulty. All in all this paperback is good value for money. R. S. HALLAM