A general formula for the quantitative treatment of human motivation and its application

Y AN

SS.)

If we are concerne with levels of motivation rather than with any special or acute case of it or, in other words, if we treat it in terms of a period of time, say, a month or a r, rather than a historic moment, and if we not in a single motive, but in several or all of them at once, t from the fo~~owin

n words :

the

sum of intensity increments of motives that can be dis-

tinguished from

other within a given person is equal to K. ~~u~~tions underly this formula : 1) motives tend to increase in intensity from the moment they have just been

~tis~~d to the mom hen any further delay of satisfaction would panic (under ordinary co tions, however, man tnanages to that intense); guishable from each other within rson tends to increase with development; ty increments of ruotives (8) tend, in the long run, to decrease on’s development. Consequently, since the increments decline, n may grow with development and .K still a constant. Assuming K a co ant for a given person is, if nothing else, the simplest assumption about In the above formula sI stands for intensity increment of motive 1, 357

358 say eating, e8 for that of motive 2, These increments can be estimated from the successi~ve satisfactions of each motive as observed, or even subjects himself, for a given period of time (8 = I/a i). even better from the differences between maximal and minimal i~~~~l$ tter n stands for the 5etween successive satisfactions (8 = I/& otives 1, 2, 3, . . . . of motives that are distinguishable from each other. m-2, m-1, are those that have a eady been satisfied, motives in the ivesm,m+- I, state of recurrence, such 8s eating, drinking, talking, etc. been satisfied, m-+-2!, I*.* n-2, n-l, n, are motives that have not mot?ves in the process of formation, such as graduating from high~hool or college, owning a house, marrying a certain person, becoming co electronics, etc. They represent the “free energy portion” of This portion will be the larger, the smaller the other. Since n turns impractically large even early in a person’s developmen% this formula can be applied in practice only by means of appropriate sampling or in approximz,tions. That, however, is possible an demonstrated. l

EFFETS DES VARIATIONS DE LA CONTRAINTE ATION SUR LES VARIATIONS DE E CONTROLE ANS L’EX&XJTION DUNE PAR itocsR PERRON

(Cerrtre Nationalde la Recherche Seienti$qw, Paris) Lkffort de contrdle exercC par un individu sur le d&oulement de sa propre activitk lest un facteur important de l’efficience, & la fois en ce qui concerne le niveau et le style de rendement. Les facteurs de cet effort de contrijle sent nombreux. II faut considerer notamment l’attitude du sujet vis-fa-vis de la t&he qu’il execute : son dt%ir de la mener & bien, le degr6 de difficultli qu’il lui attrabue, et Becaracttre plus au moins contraignant de la situation d&insson ensemble. On a tent6 d”a.gk sur ce dernier aspect par la prockiure s&ante. Trois groupes d’enfant; c!e 8 ans son5 pries d’exkuter une t&he psychomotrice simpie (activite cle tra.wge). Le groupe A est place dans une situation tr&s contraignante (l’enfant est mis au trp.vail d&sson entrk daas la salle d’exs-

sent ~~~ilIis

av

exp~r~me~teur souriam,, ente Ia tiche B executer e contrBIe maximum pour he est nettement confirm&epar ision comme indice de

rvenant clans I’effort b) sur le plan de la m~~odo~o~e et de Ia pratique psychotechniques (infiuence sur Ie niveau et le style du rendement de certaines caracteristiques du test et de l’attitude du testeur) dagogiques les plus efficaces selon

BY RIG0 bONARD0

(University cf Stio Pauio, Brazil)

This paper relates a research made in razil about the recent method of studying human motivation carried out by achievement motive with this m in the U.S.A. by the initials va.luation)-in a culture different from Projective M those where it has already been administered, we tried to evaluate it for both sexes. Three groups of University students were employed for each sex: one group was submitted to the method under neutral condition, the other under successful condition and the third one under failure condition. The last

360 ~0 experiment& conditions were created technique. fn this study four pictures already employed by the

on task

of the method were UQedwith male subjects but four new pictures were devised fc)r the female subjects, including only feminine figures. The groups which worked under neutral condition were sub~tt~ administration, to three learning @ks ental results, statistically treated, showed: 1. The M.P.A.M., as a reliable and valid instrument of psychological measurement for Brazilian culture. 2. The results of the two sexes conkmed the basic hypothesis of the new method. Those referring to the female sex, different from the ones obtamed in the U.S.A. researches have demonstrated the po~jb~i~ of using the M.P.A.M. for both sexes. We admit two hypothesis to explain these suite new results in the feminine sex : a) the plates containing feminine figures only, which fav the identification of the subjects; b) on the other hand the differences in achievement motive between the American and the Brazilian female students could he explained by saying that the latter would have an achievement motive almost similar to the male type, as we suppose: that only the small proportion of ‘Ithosewho enter university courses are competing with the male students. We nevertheless warn that these are mere hypothesis for future researches. 3. Comparing the results obtained on identical experimental conditions by Atkinson with a group of American college students (male sex) and a Brazilian group, we found that the means were not significantly different. This fact has suggested the hypothesis that, considering them globally, the Brazilian and the American students do not differ in the achievement motive. This conclusion nevertheless has to be taken with certain reserve for it is possible that systematic differences between the scorers may annul the existing differences between the two groups of students. 4. A very high correlation coefficient between the M.P.A.M. and the leaming tasks was obtained with both sexes on neutral condition (26).

hat%been Very intensively Itresearch. Very little attenti pect sf the probl t on the ~omm~ni~ator himself. Some ncy” are pertinent to this e in a social situation tends ave in a manner consistent ation on the achievement unicator the method generally used in the investigation of the level of aspiration was employed. In such experiments, as we know, the subject is uird to inform the experimenter from trial to trial what score he intends to achieve in some simple learning activity. Since the investigators were not primarily concerned wilti the social psychological aspects involved in the problem the study of the effects o he communication of the subject on his achievement was completely n cted. Perhaps it was implicitly assumed that requiring the subject to c unicate his goals did not significantly af%ct the relevant psychological processes involved in the lesrning situation. Social psychological considerations, however, made us suspect that the act of communication may very well be capable of significantly altering the total situation and that this change may express itself in the objective achievements of the subject. We also suspected that goal-setting on the subject is not always a spontaneous act but perhaps an artefact uliar excremental situation. In order to investigate our problem two groups of university students were ch group consisted of 27 students, With one group the level of used. aspiration experiments were carried in the usual way. In the other group the subjects were not required to communicate about their goals. In all other respects, however, the experimental conditions were identical, The subjects had to react by pressing corresponding levers to 27 series of optical and acoustical stimuli which were presented to them automatical& Each series consisted of 20 stimuli. The speed of presentation Was so regulated that considerable latitude remained for :,arning. i” The results of this investigation are summarized in the following Curve.

14

362 It

will be seen that the average scores of the co

higher ia twenty-five trials and lower in only one non-communicatinggroup. In one trial they were equal. Interviewing the subjects of the non-communicatin experimentsrevealed that they seldom set themselvesdefi they admitted to having experienced a vague desire to have from trial to tP;al, The results of this experimentleave the question unanswe as to whether the superior scores of the communicating group were due to the social m of communication or due to the setting of defmite goals. Experiments are being conducted to clarify this point. Note: These experiments were kindly

carried out at my

Dr. R. ‘lbchow.

THE lM~JLTI44OTIVE APPROACH TO ‘WE PREDICTION OF BEHAVIOR DEE G. APPLEZWEIG, MQRTIF+ER H. APPLEZWEIG and GEORGE

(Connecticut College, New tindon, Corm.)

It is suggested that psychology deal more with complex meaningful phenomena, and not continue to refer to its youth in explaining away its failure tot grapple with such phenomena. Although it seems self apparent, it is perhaps important to point out anew that organisms exist and function in an environment, and an understanding of their behavior must take into account organismic and environmental variables in complex relationships. Some studies at Connecticut College are presented wherein a multimotive approach to behavior has been attempted. The four motives dealt with ore: escape from present pain or fear, avoidance of future pain or discomfort; social approval or belongingness; and self realization. A distinction is drawn between motivatiort and the particular mode of behavior chosen to satisfy a motive. Behavior modes are defined as observable wrlysof behaving, such as achieving, afliliating, etc. which serve as avenues of expression for the more general motives or needs. The distinction is important b=use a single mode of behavior, e.g. achievement behavior, may serve

otive can be serve

by

more than

mode Qisplaye situatiou for whit the subject as unrelate havior word not lead to the this mode had been observed e

in one situation

sent; in combination with the rno~vation~~ profiIe 0 e individual, and the habitual ratification would Kermit more precise prediction. n one study, it is t over or under achievement (as defined by the correlation between s earned in college) could be predicted better iation factors are taken into account. In another dgments of length of lines) it is rsons with high need for social approval and low need for animous but erring (“planted”) majority than those persons with the reverse pattern. he effects of conflict of motives are also explored. Other evidence is also presented in support of this position, and the implications of this position are explored.

E OREiTIC DETER INANTS OF SUCCESS IN COGNITIVE TESTS AND THE USE OF COGNITIVE T STS FOR PREDICTING MOTIVATION,

DRIVE, ETC., IN ‘“REAL-LlFE” SITUATlQNS BY

W. D. FURNEAUX (Nu$iekkl Research Chit, London) Recent experimental work has made possible the linking of previously separate aspects of psychological theory, bringing into relation such desrarcriptive categories as “extraversion”, “neuroticism”, etc., the several dynamic concepts embodied in learning--theory systems such as that of Hull, 1 and the phenomena of (Pavlovian) co:lditioning. In the present paper it is pointed out that a subject -working th..-ough a cognitive test is in the same sort of continuous-work r;ituation as has been used in learning-theory experiments. One would therefore expect that performance during such a

14

364

&t m&j be andysed ia terms of r.hcCOnwtS since these concepts can now be related to the ex&awmion and neuroticism it should thus be p0 g into amount only his within this ore&c dimensional fiamevtwk by ~rfo~rma~1ce while taking cognitive %eStss. Experiments carried out by t5e writer have s possible. Wroverted subjects become condition ded k-ytheir training in school, to respond to ing anxie@ This acts as a “drive”, in learnin leads to enhanced performance in some types cognitive test. a test, moreover, reactive-inhibition develops more slowly for introverts than for extraver s, and this again leads to a different scoring the former than for the latter. In very difficult tists persistence can to be an important determinant of success, and when workin with material of this kind neurotic subjects are at a disadvanta thus exists a complex system of positive and negative drives whose sum at auy moment may be equs.te#dwith the subjects motivation, and whose interaction helps to determine the score achieved. Futher experiments have shown that by taking into account the strength of the drives exhibited by a subject while working at cognitive tests it is possible to improve the accuracy with which his performance in various real-life situation (e.g. university examinations) can be predicted.

of

LA MOTIVACI6N

HUMANA A LA LUZ DEL DINA PSfQUICO PAR

J&JS Mtioz,

T S. a.

(Univur:;idadPortt. de Comilh, ELI&)

El psiquismo humans es un todo cuyas partes se influyen con interdependencia din&mica y cuyo :modo de ser se revela por la conducts.. bien, de un mismo potential psiquico pueden proceder conductas habitualmente opuestas : el despilfarro de ese potential o su elevado rendimiento. Xlave de esa divers&d? La diversa motivacibn, que nace de1conocimiento. Al conocer 10 atrayente, el valor, se excita el inter& por in&a al sujeto a apetecerle, a preferirie, a ajustar su co exigencias de1 valor: el valor convertido en motivo regula la ol>nduct;a.

r el conocimiento

lo profundo de la te human0 lo que ~610 nd~ri~s de1 hombre, sino lo que sea bue,ro

sici6n exrerna sin0 propulsion anteed, que tien o, coma sucede en la

e mediante la conasimilacion de 10s asimilaci6n es eI conocimiento humano, la refiexibn prolongada y madura sobre esos valores, sobre la verdad humana en su plenitud y jerarquia objetiva. Para crear esa motivation, o actuarla y arraigarla, sera capital dedkar eal seria anualmente) algunos dias a de tiempo en tiempo (lo mantenerla habitualmente alerta y eficaz refiexion sobre esos valores. a el recuerdo de 10svalores ya arraigados ; sex4indispensable reavivar c y aun para actos de m&strascendencia y dificultad, la evocation deberia haterse varias veces al dia. mente, para contrarrestar el itiujo pernicioso de1 psiquismo inferior desorientado, que mediante la “16gica de 10s sentimientos” tiende a desvirtuar 10s rectos criterios, base de la motivation humana, deberan investigarse y examinarse frecuentemente 10s efectos de ese daiioso influjo para, coaocidos, remediarlos y eriminar su causa.

Bei Durchfuhrung ei,nes Vergleiches der Witienueigexschaften von te Eigenschaften, wie Hang zu wichtignehmen, u.a. tiufiger un waren, als bei Geschwisterkindefn. Bei der Frage nach der Eqtstehung dieser Eigenschaften mutung nahe, daa in der Verschiedenheit der Bedi Einzelkinder und Geschwisterki er aufwachsen, die Ursa&e verschiedenheit der Eigenschaften, die sie in dieser ist. Dies ist nicht der Fall; denn wir stellten fBt : 1) Die betr. Willenseigenschaften waren nur bei 63 % suchten Einzelkinder erkennbar, wghrend wir sie Einzelkindem nicht nachweisen konnten. Woraus hervo sich dabei nicht urn einen notwendigen Causalzusammen Famihenstand und Einzelkindeigenschaften handelt, nicht ftir den Einzelfall geltende statistische Feststellung. 2) Die Eigenschaften, die wir beim Einzelkind feststellten, fand.en sich (allerdings zunehmend weniger hlufig) such bei der Mehrkindfamilie, ngmlich bei 40 % der Z kind=Familie, bei 23 % der Dreikind-Familie, hei 12 % der Vier- und hrkind-Familie. Woraus hervo (dieseEigenschaften such unter anderen als den bei der hestehenden Bedingungen entwickeln kiinnen. So ergibt sich : Wenn such der Familienstand der Einkind-Familie und die dadurch bedingte Familiensituation die Entstehun Willenseigenschaften des verziirtelten Einzelkindes b so liegt doch hier nicht die eigentliche Ursache dafiir. Vielmehr liegt die eigentliche Ursache der Entstehun der !Nillenseigenschaften in der Verhaltmsweise des Erziehers gegeniib dem IJugendlichen und in der Art, wie der Jugendliche darauf reagiert. Die hier folgende schematische Darstellung sucht dies an 3 besonders ausgeprfgtenVerhaltensweisen der Erzieher und den an Jugendlichen dabei beobachteten Reaktionsweisen deutlich zu machen. ’ Abdmck des voMiim!igen Vortragesin Problmkin&r, Beihefi mm des Instituts fiir JugendlkundeumdJugendbildung e.V., &men, 1957, S. 60 f.).

Trieb

uf fiie Dauer: selbstherrlic uem, ei~w~~~ selbs~di

itswillig, sich in die Cie:meinschaft ein ist

unfrei

Am Sckluss seine

PersCinlichkeit.

mutios, arurbeitsunwillig, stiirrisch (Sicherungen!)

usf~hrungen sucht der %x-t zu zeigen, dass nseigenschaften ntwick~u~g de nstellung des Erziehers auf Trieb u en und d.ass in der L6sung dieser Frage der Schltissel en zur freien ntwicklung des Jugen