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A qualitative inquiry of women managers’ competence acquisition
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 40 (2012) 395 – 403
The 2012 International (Spring) Conference on Asia Pacific Business Innovation and Technology Management
A qualitative inquiry of women managers’ competence acquisition Norhalimah Idrisa*, Tan Sui Honga, Nur Naha Abu Mansora a
Faculty of Management and Human Resource Development,Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Abstract
The aim of this research is to gain further understanding of women managers’ workplace learning experiences in the context of competence acquisition. Through qualitative research design, selected numbers of women managers from three sectors such as public service, private corporations and government-linked corporations (GLCs) would be chosen for in-depth interviews followed by solicited research diaries writings. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the literature on competence, gender in management, workplace learning and the use of solicited diary as a research method to provide access into the women’s experiences which tend to be embedded within the complex social and cultural realities. The paper also attempts to propose a theoretical framework for the study. © Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of theofAsia © 2012 2011Published PublishedbybyElsevier ElsevierLtd. Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility the Pacific Asia Pacific Business Management Society BusinessInnovation Innovationand andTechnology Technology Management Society (APBITM).” Keywords: Women managers; Concept of Competence; Workplace learning; Solicited research diaries
1. Introduction Despite an almost equal percentage of men and women in the labour force, the number of women advancing to senior management roles is still relatively small and moves at a slow rate (Catalyst, 2010). A wide gender gap at the top management level is a ‘persistent reality’ around the globe as revealed by most recent surveys [1-5]. It is not a new phenomenon; see [6-13]. Is it a cause for concern in the 21st century and beyond? A resounding yes! Why? That is because women in management do matter. McKinsey & Co’s Women Matter 2010 survey has established a positive correlation of the presence of women in top management to a higher financial performance and better governance. Moreover, almost 80 percent of consumer purchasing decision-makers are women [3]. In addition, there are about 30 percent of firm owners around the world are women according to the Global Summit of Women 2010 report based on the World Bank Enterprise Survey, 2003-2009. In Malaysia, the government had introduced a policy in June 2011 to increase the participation of women at the decision-making level in the corporate sector to 30 percent from the current 7.6 percent within the five-year time frame [14]. However, the experience from the West shows that quotas undermines meritocracy. Hence, it is accused as another form of gender-stereotyping which potentially _________ * Corresponding author. Tel.: +607-5532090; Fax: +607-5566911 E-mail address: [email protected]
1877-0428 © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the Asia Pacific Business Innovation and Technology Management Society doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.03.206
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lead to a double-bind situation and subject them to double standards because it singles out women as the candidates for top positions based on gender [6]. The need to gain deeper insights into how women managers who have proven their mettle in the traditionally male-dominated environment acquire and develop their managerial competencies is undeniable [71]. Ely, Ibarra and Kolb [15] argue for the reinterpretation of the standard women leadership development through the lens of ‘second generation bias’ which originated from the invisible barriers created and strengthened by the social and cultural realities. The dynamics of gender is to be acknowledged instead of spending resources on teaching women to learn the rules established by men. Researching women’s lives situated within the complex layers of social and cultural realities shall require innovative methods of data collection and analysis in order to gain access into the inaccessible or sensitive information. The emphasis of this study is to interpret and represent in the most faithful way the narratives and meanings these women constructed for their experiences. Therefore, the use of solicited research diaries to collect contemporaneous data after conducting in-depth interviews and the application of constructivist grounded theory in the data analysis is presented and discussed. In this article, the first part will provide an overview of the literature on competence, gender in management, workplace learning and solicited diary as a research method. Next, drawing from the literature, the research framework for women managers’ competence acquisition is discussed. The paper then moves on to the research methodology and finally concludes that the study will contribute into the further understanding of women in management from the Asian perspectives. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Concept of competence Boyatzis defines competency as the capability or ability of the person. It can be the aspect of “motive, trait, aspect of one’s self-image or social role, or a body of knowledge which he or she uses” [16]. The concept of competence according to the author also includes the ability of the organization to perform well [17]. However, the focus of this study is not on the organizational competence but rather on the concept of individual competence. In an attempt of understanding the meaning of competence, the terms provided by Tate [18] would be adopted (refer Table 1). Table 1: Competences versus Competencies (Adapted from Tate, 1995, p. 82)
An adjective A noun A noun
Singular
Plural
competent (demonstrates) competence (has) competency
competent (demonstrates) competences (have) competencies
There are two different approaches to the concept of competence by the USA and the UK. The American conceptualization of competence generally subscribes to a worker-oriented approach. Therefore, the argument for cognitive perspective of learning is at the forefront of competence development agenda. On the other hand, the British approach to competence is largely work-oriented as it focuses on the meeting of performance requirements of the jobs by the worker. Hence the British advocates for a constructivistic perspective of learning. In another approach, Cheetham and Chivers developed a new model which they described as the holistic approach to competence as they deemed the British and the American approaches are limited in their conceptualization of competence [19]. They argued that the different approaches were actually the “different facets of the same gemstone”. These “facets” include
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personal competence, functional competence, reflective practitioner [20] technical-rational, capability and knowledge. 2.2. Managerial competence The behaviourist definition of competence suggests that there are different levels of competencies which distinguish superior performers from the average ones. Boyatzis implied that there are the visible components which can be assessed and observed such as skills and knowledge [16]. At the same time, there are also the non-visible ones which he described as the “underlying” elements consisting of the social role, self-image, traits and motives. In his introductory essays for the two special issues of the Journal of Management Development (JMD) on competencies over the last 30 years in 2008 (see Volume 27, Number 1) and 2009 (see Volume 28, Number 9), Boyatzis [21] highlighted several points. Firstly, competencies are behavioral manifestation of the person’s talent as they are constructed from actions and the underlying intent. Secondly, competencies drive effective performance. Thirdly, every outstanding performer appears to possess two levels of competencies, firstly, the threshold competencies and secondly, the differentiating competencies which differentiate outstanding performers from the average ones. Both categories require three clusters of behavioral habits [21 p.7, 22 p.753-754]. Under the threshold competencies, the three clusters are: (1) expertise and experience, (2) knowledge and (3) basic cognitive abilities like memory and deductive reasoning. As for the other three clusters under the differentiating competencies, they are: (1) cognitive competencies which include pattern recognition and systems thinking, (2) emotional intelligence competencies which include self-awareness and self-management and (3) social intelligence competencies which include social awareness and relationship management. Finally, these competencies can be developed in adulthood. Boyatzis (ibid.) argues that discussions by various authors in the field of competence essentially point to these very same points about effective management, leadership and professionalism as evidenced by the updates in the 2008 Special Issue of the JMD [see 23-30] and the 2009 Special Issue of the JMD for the comparable studies from Europe [see 31-35]. Researchers suggest that managerial competencies development mostly occurs informally at the workplace [36-37]. Most of learning activities for early career professionals and new managers are taking place at the workplace, see [38, 19, 39-41]. Hill [38] pointed out that managerial role presents a very complex and demanding expectations on a person. Therefore, Mintzberg [42] deems formal learning of management in the absence of management experiences as demeaning. Hence, the next section will discuss the theory of learning at the workplace with specific reference to informal learning. 2.3. Workplace learning Workplace learning is a site of ‘intersecting interests’ [43] where ‘shared meaning, ideas, behaviours and attitudes’ define the working environment. Boud and Garrick [44] describe workplace learning as the site for development of enterprise and individuals. Stern and Somerland [45] argue that workplace also refers to the site of learning or learning environment depending on whether the principle object is working or learning. Another defining factor is the types of learning that take place at the workplace which can be ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ or ‘non-formal’, see [46]. Watkins and Marsick [47] define informal learning as the learning that occurs in the presence of both action and reflection. They further added that learning will take place when the ‘need, motivation and opportunity’ for informal learning to exist. Cheetham and Chivers [48] identify several informal learning strategies which include, among others, self-directed learning, social learning, networking, coaching as well as mentoring. Social learning theory stems from the behavioural aspect of human nature which contends that individual tend to model his or her behaviour based on the behaviour of others that produce the valued outcomes [49]. As the social learning theory deals with the reciprocal relationship of behavioural, cognitive and environmental factors, it can be said to be closely related to the work of Lave in situated learning theory. Lave and Wenger [50] showed that the beginners who were initially on the periphery of
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the community moved towards the centre of the community of practitioners as their competences increased. The progression of the learners within that particular community must make sense to the community as a whole. The researcher believes that the women managers gradually acquire their competencies in the context of daily activities in the same manner. A transformation of identity takes place slowly beginning with the novice acting as a “specialist and doer”. He or she is very task-oriented, performs most of the task directly and relatively independent [38]. Hill (ibid.) argues that as he or she becomes the manager, that person is moving towards the centre of the community and finally becomes the expert. 2.4. Acquiring and developing competencies Dreyfus’s skill acquisition model which captures the upward progression of a practitioner has often been used to explain the individual’s competence development. According to Dreyfus and Dreyfus [51], there are five stages in skill acquisition where one starts as a novice and finally becomes an expert. In ascending order, they are: novice, advance beginner, competent, proficient and finally an expert. The influence of Dreyfus’s model can be found in Idris [39] model of competence acquisition of graduate accounting trainees in the UK. The continuous nature of competence development is illustrated by the upward moving of spiral-cone shape which best captures the progressing nature of continuous learning. The model shows the process of competence acquisition of an individual who is at the point of entering the workforce or at the post-qualifying levels. The strength of this study lies in its ability to capture the delicate process of competence development of an adult in the working world. It shows the interaction of the employees, employers and also the training personnel i.e. the professional bodies. The model however is an attempt of the author in describing the process of competence acquisition of prospective professionals in a workplace setting regardless of gender issue. 2.5. Gender in management ‘Gender’ is a product of socio-cultural construction, see [52-53]. The construction of differences revolves around male-female dichotomy can be found in many aspects of practices and processes in life. So much so, it becomes the ‘cultural arrangement’ well accepted and entrenched within the society [53]. This arrangement eventually dictates the gender roles, which in turn, influence individuals to behave themselves and make conscious choices according to the prescribed norms [54]. It is widely known as gender stereotyping which assign individual’s ‘membership’ into a particular group based on male-female attributes and psychological traits [55]. The term “management” has been largely associated with men and masculinity. Bartram [56] illustrated this point by taking an example from Mintzberg’s work in 1975 where “a manager” had been systematically referred to as a “he” in his book [57]. This prompted scholars like Victoria Schein to come up with the famous quote, “think manager-think male” [58]. As Batram [56] put it, “women did not figure” in the universally accepted management framework. Despite the gendered nature of management, there is still a dearth of research on management and organization that takes into account the gender issue, or if any, they are “simple and crude” [11] (p. S38). (i)
Gender-Organisation-System (GOS) Framework In studying women managers, Fagenson’s [59] Gender-Organisation-System (GOS) framework which is summarized in Omar and Davidson [60] captures the experiences of women in management by incorporating the personal, organizational and societal context in the study of women managers. The GOS framework acknowledges that the complex interaction of the person, the organization and the society which is unique to each woman that may explain for the non-linear career progression for women and the persistence of the glass ceiling phenomena.
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(ii)
Women’s Talent Realization Model In a study on women’s talent realization, Reis [61] argues that there is no one formula that can explain the success and the paths taken by talented women. Reis (ibid.) listed four factors that influence women’s talent development. They are abilities, personality, environment and perceptions of relationships that help women to believe in themselves and drive the desire to develop and eventually realize their talents in order to excel in various fields (ibid., p. 223). In addition, self-concept, self-esteem and sense of destiny and purpose drive the desire for one to develop one’s talent. 2.6. Solicited Research Diaries: Chronicling contemporaneous events McCulloch [62] categorizes diaries, together with letters and autobiographies, as one of the three general types of documents used as data sources for social science research. The main advantages of solicited diaries used as a sociological research method are, firstly, the ability of diaries to access the inaccessible or sensitive information and secondly, their ability to provide contemporaneous records which help to minimize the vagaries of memories and retrospective censorship [63-65]. The other advantages of solicited diaries within sociological research are as the followings; they provide means of understanding what is ‘taken for granted’ by the informants and researchers alike, facilitate ‘record’ and ‘reflection’ on the experience, accommodate different responses mode, and capture informants’ priorities [63]. Apart from that, the diaries provide primary data source and also complement other data [64-65] which is highly desirable in overcoming ‘intrinsic bias that comes from single-methods, single observer, and single-theory studies’ [66].
3. Research framework The proposed theoretical model is an attempt to incorporate the previous research on women managers and competencies development in order to illuminate the understanding of women’s competence acquisition and competencies development. The proposed framework is distinctive by taking into account contextual factors including the subtle interaction of cultural beliefs and organizational practices about gender that may inadvertently impact women managers in unfavourable ways. The framework shall indicate that: 1) Competence acquisition and development is a continuous, gradual and non-linear in nature [39, 51]. 2) Women’s lives are embedded within family, organizational and societal context [60, 59]. 3) Personal factors such as personality traits, abilities and skills are the most critical individual elements in influencing women’s competence development process [60, 61, 16]. 4) Self-belief, self esteem and sense of purpose and destiny are important [61] to ensure the success and continuity of women’s competence development. 4. Research Methodology This is an exploratory study with the aim to understand how women acquire their managerial competence and therefore guided by five feminist epistemological principles [67]: 1. Acknowledgement of the pervasive influence of gender 2. Focus on consciousness-raising 3. Challenge the object-subject separation 4. Ethical concern in research 5. Empowerment and transformation . According to Griffin [68], one important characteristic of feminist research is its special focus on women’s experience as the basis for research. In addition, the constructivist grounded theory put
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forward by Charmaz [69] would help in the collection of personal account as the method advocates for the study of people in their natural setting and give voice to their experiences. Finally, through qualitative research design, selected numbers of women managers from the public sectors, the private corporations and the government-linked corporations (GLCs) in Malaysia would be purposely selected for in-depth interviews followed by solicited research diaries writings. 5. Conclusion Since the effectiveness of the organization hinges upon managers’ competencies, the continuous development of managerial competence is crucial for the survival of the organizations [70]. While a number of studies have been done on women in management in Malaysia, there is still a gap in the literature that investigate women managers who have defied the challenges, acquired the necessary competencies, shattered the glass ceilings and occupied the top management posts. The literature review also indicate that more in depth work is needed to understand other components of managerial competencies such as traits and motives which are deeply rooted within the individuals. Empirical work within Asian context on women managers are still lacking because traditionally women are not expected to assume leadership or management roles. When they do assume such roles, they experience prejudices in their career advancement [12]. Within the above context, this study is initiated to contribute to the further understanding of women in management by investigating the experiences of women managers in a fast developing economy. This study helps to illuminate the Eastern women perspectives which are culturally diverse. Acknowledgements This research has been supported by the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Research Management Centre under grant Vot No. Q.J130000.7129.04J28. References [1] Catalyst. Catalyst Census: Fortune 500 Women Board Directors, Catalyst, USA; 2010. [2] McKinsey & Company. Women Matter: Women at the top of corporations: Making it happen, McKinsey & Company, USA; 2010. [3] Institute of Leadership & Management. Ambition and Gender at Work, ILM, London; 2010. [4] Governance Metrics International. Women on Boards Report, GMI, USA; 2011. [5] Grant Thornton International Business Report. Corporate social responsibility: power of perception, Grant Thornton IBR; 2011. [6] Oakley, J.G. Gender-based Barriers to Senior Management Positions: Understanding the Scarcity of Female CEOS, Journal of Business Ethic; 2000, 27: 321-334. [7] Davidson, M.J. and Burke, R.J. Women in Management Worldwide: Facts, Figures and Analysis – An Overview, UK: Ashgate; 2004. [8] ILO. Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Women in Management, Update, 2004, International Labour Organization, Geneva; 2004 [9] Schein, V.E. Women in management: reflections and projections, Women in Management Review, 2007, Vol. 22, No. 1; pp. 6-18. [10] Ismail, M. and Ibrahim, M. Barriers to career progression faced by women: Evidence from a Malaysian multinational oil company, Gender in Management: An International Journal, 2008, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 51-66. [11] Broadbridge, A and Hearn, J. Gender and Management: New Directions in Research and Continuing Patterns in Practice, British Journal of Management, 2008, Vol. 19, S39-S49. [12] Rowley, C. and Yukongdi, V. (eds.) The Changing Face of Women Managers in Asia. Oxford: Routledge, 2009. [13] Vinnicombe, S. and Singh, V. Locks and keys to the boardroom, Gender in Management: An International Journal, 2011, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 200-211. [14] Nik Anis, M. Power to Women, [online] Available at: http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2011/6/28/nation/8986483&sec=nation [Accessed 16 September 2011]; 2011.
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The 2012 International (Spring) Conference on Asia Pacific Business Innovation and Technology Management
A qualitative inquiry of women managers’ competence acquisition Norhalimah Idrisa*, Tan Sui Honga, Nur Naha Abu Mansora a
Faculty of Management and Human Resource Development,Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Abstract
The aim of this research is to gain further understanding of women managers’ workplace learning experiences in the context of competence acquisition. Through qualitative research design, selected numbers of women managers from three sectors such as public service, private corporations and government-linked corporations (GLCs) would be chosen for in-depth interviews followed by solicited research diaries writings. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the literature on competence, gender in management, workplace learning and the use of solicited diary as a research method to provide access into the women’s experiences which tend to be embedded within the complex social and cultural realities. The paper also attempts to propose a theoretical framework for the study. © Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of theofAsia © 2012 2011Published PublishedbybyElsevier ElsevierLtd. Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility the Pacific Asia Pacific Business Management Society BusinessInnovation Innovationand andTechnology Technology Management Society (APBITM).” Keywords: Women managers; Concept of Competence; Workplace learning; Solicited research diaries
1. Introduction Despite an almost equal percentage of men and women in the labour force, the number of women advancing to senior management roles is still relatively small and moves at a slow rate (Catalyst, 2010). A wide gender gap at the top management level is a ‘persistent reality’ around the globe as revealed by most recent surveys [1-5]. It is not a new phenomenon; see [6-13]. Is it a cause for concern in the 21st century and beyond? A resounding yes! Why? That is because women in management do matter. McKinsey & Co’s Women Matter 2010 survey has established a positive correlation of the presence of women in top management to a higher financial performance and better governance. Moreover, almost 80 percent of consumer purchasing decision-makers are women [3]. In addition, there are about 30 percent of firm owners around the world are women according to the Global Summit of Women 2010 report based on the World Bank Enterprise Survey, 2003-2009. In Malaysia, the government had introduced a policy in June 2011 to increase the participation of women at the decision-making level in the corporate sector to 30 percent from the current 7.6 percent within the five-year time frame [14]. However, the experience from the West shows that quotas undermines meritocracy. Hence, it is accused as another form of gender-stereotyping which potentially _________ * Corresponding author. Tel.: +607-5532090; Fax: +607-5566911 E-mail address: [email protected]
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lead to a double-bind situation and subject them to double standards because it singles out women as the candidates for top positions based on gender [6]. The need to gain deeper insights into how women managers who have proven their mettle in the traditionally male-dominated environment acquire and develop their managerial competencies is undeniable [71]. Ely, Ibarra and Kolb [15] argue for the reinterpretation of the standard women leadership development through the lens of ‘second generation bias’ which originated from the invisible barriers created and strengthened by the social and cultural realities. The dynamics of gender is to be acknowledged instead of spending resources on teaching women to learn the rules established by men. Researching women’s lives situated within the complex layers of social and cultural realities shall require innovative methods of data collection and analysis in order to gain access into the inaccessible or sensitive information. The emphasis of this study is to interpret and represent in the most faithful way the narratives and meanings these women constructed for their experiences. Therefore, the use of solicited research diaries to collect contemporaneous data after conducting in-depth interviews and the application of constructivist grounded theory in the data analysis is presented and discussed. In this article, the first part will provide an overview of the literature on competence, gender in management, workplace learning and solicited diary as a research method. Next, drawing from the literature, the research framework for women managers’ competence acquisition is discussed. The paper then moves on to the research methodology and finally concludes that the study will contribute into the further understanding of women in management from the Asian perspectives. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Concept of competence Boyatzis defines competency as the capability or ability of the person. It can be the aspect of “motive, trait, aspect of one’s self-image or social role, or a body of knowledge which he or she uses” [16]. The concept of competence according to the author also includes the ability of the organization to perform well [17]. However, the focus of this study is not on the organizational competence but rather on the concept of individual competence. In an attempt of understanding the meaning of competence, the terms provided by Tate [18] would be adopted (refer Table 1). Table 1: Competences versus Competencies (Adapted from Tate, 1995, p. 82)
An adjective A noun A noun
Singular
Plural
competent (demonstrates) competence (has) competency
competent (demonstrates) competences (have) competencies
There are two different approaches to the concept of competence by the USA and the UK. The American conceptualization of competence generally subscribes to a worker-oriented approach. Therefore, the argument for cognitive perspective of learning is at the forefront of competence development agenda. On the other hand, the British approach to competence is largely work-oriented as it focuses on the meeting of performance requirements of the jobs by the worker. Hence the British advocates for a constructivistic perspective of learning. In another approach, Cheetham and Chivers developed a new model which they described as the holistic approach to competence as they deemed the British and the American approaches are limited in their conceptualization of competence [19]. They argued that the different approaches were actually the “different facets of the same gemstone”. These “facets” include
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personal competence, functional competence, reflective practitioner [20] technical-rational, capability and knowledge. 2.2. Managerial competence The behaviourist definition of competence suggests that there are different levels of competencies which distinguish superior performers from the average ones. Boyatzis implied that there are the visible components which can be assessed and observed such as skills and knowledge [16]. At the same time, there are also the non-visible ones which he described as the “underlying” elements consisting of the social role, self-image, traits and motives. In his introductory essays for the two special issues of the Journal of Management Development (JMD) on competencies over the last 30 years in 2008 (see Volume 27, Number 1) and 2009 (see Volume 28, Number 9), Boyatzis [21] highlighted several points. Firstly, competencies are behavioral manifestation of the person’s talent as they are constructed from actions and the underlying intent. Secondly, competencies drive effective performance. Thirdly, every outstanding performer appears to possess two levels of competencies, firstly, the threshold competencies and secondly, the differentiating competencies which differentiate outstanding performers from the average ones. Both categories require three clusters of behavioral habits [21 p.7, 22 p.753-754]. Under the threshold competencies, the three clusters are: (1) expertise and experience, (2) knowledge and (3) basic cognitive abilities like memory and deductive reasoning. As for the other three clusters under the differentiating competencies, they are: (1) cognitive competencies which include pattern recognition and systems thinking, (2) emotional intelligence competencies which include self-awareness and self-management and (3) social intelligence competencies which include social awareness and relationship management. Finally, these competencies can be developed in adulthood. Boyatzis (ibid.) argues that discussions by various authors in the field of competence essentially point to these very same points about effective management, leadership and professionalism as evidenced by the updates in the 2008 Special Issue of the JMD [see 23-30] and the 2009 Special Issue of the JMD for the comparable studies from Europe [see 31-35]. Researchers suggest that managerial competencies development mostly occurs informally at the workplace [36-37]. Most of learning activities for early career professionals and new managers are taking place at the workplace, see [38, 19, 39-41]. Hill [38] pointed out that managerial role presents a very complex and demanding expectations on a person. Therefore, Mintzberg [42] deems formal learning of management in the absence of management experiences as demeaning. Hence, the next section will discuss the theory of learning at the workplace with specific reference to informal learning. 2.3. Workplace learning Workplace learning is a site of ‘intersecting interests’ [43] where ‘shared meaning, ideas, behaviours and attitudes’ define the working environment. Boud and Garrick [44] describe workplace learning as the site for development of enterprise and individuals. Stern and Somerland [45] argue that workplace also refers to the site of learning or learning environment depending on whether the principle object is working or learning. Another defining factor is the types of learning that take place at the workplace which can be ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ or ‘non-formal’, see [46]. Watkins and Marsick [47] define informal learning as the learning that occurs in the presence of both action and reflection. They further added that learning will take place when the ‘need, motivation and opportunity’ for informal learning to exist. Cheetham and Chivers [48] identify several informal learning strategies which include, among others, self-directed learning, social learning, networking, coaching as well as mentoring. Social learning theory stems from the behavioural aspect of human nature which contends that individual tend to model his or her behaviour based on the behaviour of others that produce the valued outcomes [49]. As the social learning theory deals with the reciprocal relationship of behavioural, cognitive and environmental factors, it can be said to be closely related to the work of Lave in situated learning theory. Lave and Wenger [50] showed that the beginners who were initially on the periphery of
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the community moved towards the centre of the community of practitioners as their competences increased. The progression of the learners within that particular community must make sense to the community as a whole. The researcher believes that the women managers gradually acquire their competencies in the context of daily activities in the same manner. A transformation of identity takes place slowly beginning with the novice acting as a “specialist and doer”. He or she is very task-oriented, performs most of the task directly and relatively independent [38]. Hill (ibid.) argues that as he or she becomes the manager, that person is moving towards the centre of the community and finally becomes the expert. 2.4. Acquiring and developing competencies Dreyfus’s skill acquisition model which captures the upward progression of a practitioner has often been used to explain the individual’s competence development. According to Dreyfus and Dreyfus [51], there are five stages in skill acquisition where one starts as a novice and finally becomes an expert. In ascending order, they are: novice, advance beginner, competent, proficient and finally an expert. The influence of Dreyfus’s model can be found in Idris [39] model of competence acquisition of graduate accounting trainees in the UK. The continuous nature of competence development is illustrated by the upward moving of spiral-cone shape which best captures the progressing nature of continuous learning. The model shows the process of competence acquisition of an individual who is at the point of entering the workforce or at the post-qualifying levels. The strength of this study lies in its ability to capture the delicate process of competence development of an adult in the working world. It shows the interaction of the employees, employers and also the training personnel i.e. the professional bodies. The model however is an attempt of the author in describing the process of competence acquisition of prospective professionals in a workplace setting regardless of gender issue. 2.5. Gender in management ‘Gender’ is a product of socio-cultural construction, see [52-53]. The construction of differences revolves around male-female dichotomy can be found in many aspects of practices and processes in life. So much so, it becomes the ‘cultural arrangement’ well accepted and entrenched within the society [53]. This arrangement eventually dictates the gender roles, which in turn, influence individuals to behave themselves and make conscious choices according to the prescribed norms [54]. It is widely known as gender stereotyping which assign individual’s ‘membership’ into a particular group based on male-female attributes and psychological traits [55]. The term “management” has been largely associated with men and masculinity. Bartram [56] illustrated this point by taking an example from Mintzberg’s work in 1975 where “a manager” had been systematically referred to as a “he” in his book [57]. This prompted scholars like Victoria Schein to come up with the famous quote, “think manager-think male” [58]. As Batram [56] put it, “women did not figure” in the universally accepted management framework. Despite the gendered nature of management, there is still a dearth of research on management and organization that takes into account the gender issue, or if any, they are “simple and crude” [11] (p. S38). (i)
Gender-Organisation-System (GOS) Framework In studying women managers, Fagenson’s [59] Gender-Organisation-System (GOS) framework which is summarized in Omar and Davidson [60] captures the experiences of women in management by incorporating the personal, organizational and societal context in the study of women managers. The GOS framework acknowledges that the complex interaction of the person, the organization and the society which is unique to each woman that may explain for the non-linear career progression for women and the persistence of the glass ceiling phenomena.
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(ii)
Women’s Talent Realization Model In a study on women’s talent realization, Reis [61] argues that there is no one formula that can explain the success and the paths taken by talented women. Reis (ibid.) listed four factors that influence women’s talent development. They are abilities, personality, environment and perceptions of relationships that help women to believe in themselves and drive the desire to develop and eventually realize their talents in order to excel in various fields (ibid., p. 223). In addition, self-concept, self-esteem and sense of destiny and purpose drive the desire for one to develop one’s talent. 2.6. Solicited Research Diaries: Chronicling contemporaneous events McCulloch [62] categorizes diaries, together with letters and autobiographies, as one of the three general types of documents used as data sources for social science research. The main advantages of solicited diaries used as a sociological research method are, firstly, the ability of diaries to access the inaccessible or sensitive information and secondly, their ability to provide contemporaneous records which help to minimize the vagaries of memories and retrospective censorship [63-65]. The other advantages of solicited diaries within sociological research are as the followings; they provide means of understanding what is ‘taken for granted’ by the informants and researchers alike, facilitate ‘record’ and ‘reflection’ on the experience, accommodate different responses mode, and capture informants’ priorities [63]. Apart from that, the diaries provide primary data source and also complement other data [64-65] which is highly desirable in overcoming ‘intrinsic bias that comes from single-methods, single observer, and single-theory studies’ [66].
3. Research framework The proposed theoretical model is an attempt to incorporate the previous research on women managers and competencies development in order to illuminate the understanding of women’s competence acquisition and competencies development. The proposed framework is distinctive by taking into account contextual factors including the subtle interaction of cultural beliefs and organizational practices about gender that may inadvertently impact women managers in unfavourable ways. The framework shall indicate that: 1) Competence acquisition and development is a continuous, gradual and non-linear in nature [39, 51]. 2) Women’s lives are embedded within family, organizational and societal context [60, 59]. 3) Personal factors such as personality traits, abilities and skills are the most critical individual elements in influencing women’s competence development process [60, 61, 16]. 4) Self-belief, self esteem and sense of purpose and destiny are important [61] to ensure the success and continuity of women’s competence development. 4. Research Methodology This is an exploratory study with the aim to understand how women acquire their managerial competence and therefore guided by five feminist epistemological principles [67]: 1. Acknowledgement of the pervasive influence of gender 2. Focus on consciousness-raising 3. Challenge the object-subject separation 4. Ethical concern in research 5. Empowerment and transformation . According to Griffin [68], one important characteristic of feminist research is its special focus on women’s experience as the basis for research. In addition, the constructivist grounded theory put
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forward by Charmaz [69] would help in the collection of personal account as the method advocates for the study of people in their natural setting and give voice to their experiences. Finally, through qualitative research design, selected numbers of women managers from the public sectors, the private corporations and the government-linked corporations (GLCs) in Malaysia would be purposely selected for in-depth interviews followed by solicited research diaries writings. 5. Conclusion Since the effectiveness of the organization hinges upon managers’ competencies, the continuous development of managerial competence is crucial for the survival of the organizations [70]. While a number of studies have been done on women in management in Malaysia, there is still a gap in the literature that investigate women managers who have defied the challenges, acquired the necessary competencies, shattered the glass ceilings and occupied the top management posts. The literature review also indicate that more in depth work is needed to understand other components of managerial competencies such as traits and motives which are deeply rooted within the individuals. Empirical work within Asian context on women managers are still lacking because traditionally women are not expected to assume leadership or management roles. When they do assume such roles, they experience prejudices in their career advancement [12]. Within the above context, this study is initiated to contribute to the further understanding of women in management by investigating the experiences of women managers in a fast developing economy. This study helps to illuminate the Eastern women perspectives which are culturally diverse. Acknowledgements This research has been supported by the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Research Management Centre under grant Vot No. Q.J130000.7129.04J28. References [1] Catalyst. Catalyst Census: Fortune 500 Women Board Directors, Catalyst, USA; 2010. [2] McKinsey & Company. Women Matter: Women at the top of corporations: Making it happen, McKinsey & Company, USA; 2010. [3] Institute of Leadership & Management. Ambition and Gender at Work, ILM, London; 2010. [4] Governance Metrics International. Women on Boards Report, GMI, USA; 2011. [5] Grant Thornton International Business Report. Corporate social responsibility: power of perception, Grant Thornton IBR; 2011. [6] Oakley, J.G. Gender-based Barriers to Senior Management Positions: Understanding the Scarcity of Female CEOS, Journal of Business Ethic; 2000, 27: 321-334. [7] Davidson, M.J. and Burke, R.J. Women in Management Worldwide: Facts, Figures and Analysis – An Overview, UK: Ashgate; 2004. [8] ILO. Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Women in Management, Update, 2004, International Labour Organization, Geneva; 2004 [9] Schein, V.E. Women in management: reflections and projections, Women in Management Review, 2007, Vol. 22, No. 1; pp. 6-18. [10] Ismail, M. and Ibrahim, M. Barriers to career progression faced by women: Evidence from a Malaysian multinational oil company, Gender in Management: An International Journal, 2008, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 51-66. [11] Broadbridge, A and Hearn, J. Gender and Management: New Directions in Research and Continuing Patterns in Practice, British Journal of Management, 2008, Vol. 19, S39-S49. [12] Rowley, C. and Yukongdi, V. (eds.) The Changing Face of Women Managers in Asia. Oxford: Routledge, 2009. [13] Vinnicombe, S. and Singh, V. Locks and keys to the boardroom, Gender in Management: An International Journal, 2011, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 200-211. [14] Nik Anis, M. Power to Women, [online] Available at: http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2011/6/28/nation/8986483&sec=nation [Accessed 16 September 2011]; 2011.
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