A review of fishing vessel refrigeration systems driven by exhaust heat from engines

Applied Energy 203 (2017) 657–676

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Applied Energy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

A review of fishing vessel refrigeration systems driven by exhaust heat from engines Xu Xiangguo a,b, Li Yishu a,b, Yang ShenYin c, Chen Guangming a,b,⇑ a

Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China Key Laboratory of Refrigeration and Cryogenic Technology of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China c Beijing Institute of Aerospace Testing Technology, Beijing, China b

h i g h l i g h t s
Application of heat driven refrigeration systems to fishing vessel is reviewed.
Techniques for improving efficiency and stability for onboard application are detailed.
In addition to three basic types of systems, hybrid system is also introduced.
An overall table to summarize and compare the features of various systems is provided.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 29 December 2016 Received in revised form 28 May 2017 Accepted 11 June 2017 Available online 1 July 2017 Keywords: Fishing vessel Exhaust heat Adsorption Absorption Ejection Review

a b s t r a c t For a fishing vessel, its diesel engine’s energy efficiency is only at 35–40%, with more than half of the energy being wasted as exhaust heat taken away by jacket water, cooling air and exhaust gas. Fishing vessel refrigeration systems driven by the exhaust heat from engines can therefore help achieve energy saving. However, to improve the COP/EER of these heat driven refrigeration systems and to ensure their operational stability under severe conditions on ocean are of challenges. In this paper, the progress and prospect of utilizing three different kinds of heat driven fishing vessel refrigeration systems, i.e., adsorption refrigeration system, absorption refrigeration system and ejection refrigeration system, are reviewed with a special focus on the techniques for improving system efficiency and stability. A hybrid heat driven refrigeration system, which combines merits of different types of systems, is then introduced. A summary table is provided to summarize and compare the features of adsorption refrigeration systems, absorption refrigeration systems and ejection refrigeration systems used in fishing vessels, followed by conclusions and suggestions for future works. Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2.

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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adsorption refrigeration systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Principles and related research works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Applications of adsorption refrigeration system to fishing vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Absorption refrigeration systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Principles and related research works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Applications of absorption refrigeration systems to fishing vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ejector refrigeration systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Principles and related research works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Applications of ejector refrigeration systems to fishing vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hybrid refrigeration system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Related research works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

⇑ Corresponding author at: Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Chen). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.06.019 0306-2619/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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5.2. Applications of hybrid refrigeration systems to fishing vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussions and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction According to the data from 2011 Statistical Yearbook of Ocean and Fishery of China [1], the number of fishing vessels in China was 1.06 million, and a total of 7.9 million tons of diesel oil per year was consumed, taking 70% of the total fishery cost [2]. In addition to powering vessel engines, much energy was also used to drive vapor compression refrigeration systems for ice making and air conditioning. Ice is extensively used for preserving fishery harvested [3–6] because an ambient temperature from 1 °C to 0 °C is the best for preventing both bacteria growth and low temperature damage to the freshness of fishery harvested. Generally one ton of fish would require 1.5–2.0 tons of ice, leading to a huge demand for ice during a fishing trip. In a traditional way, ice was made in ice-making factories beforehand and loaded into the vessels. It was then chipped using a machine when there was a requirement for preserving. A large space would be required by ice storage and the preserving of ice itself was also a problem. Therefore, on-board ice making machines driven by electricity produced by vessel engine were invented and became a standard piece of equipment for large-scale fishing vessels [6,7]. Equipping an ice making machine could save some vessel space, reduce the cost for buying ice and, more importantly, extend cruising period which was dependent on the preservation time of ice. However, the use of an ice-making machine also increased energy consumption and the load for a fishing vessel engine. On the other hand, also illustrated by the data from 2011 Statistical Yearbook of Ocean and Fishery of China [1], among all the fishing vessels, 0.297 million of them were motor fishing vessels and more than 85% of all were small scale wooden fishing boats. 90% of fishing vessels were more than 5 years old and 40% of all than 10 years old. The aging of a fishing vessel certainly led to a low energy efficiency of its engine and thus a high fuel consumption, which is becoming the biggest obstacle in the modernization of fishery industry [8–10]. Researches suggested that a diesel engine’s energy efficiency was normally at 35–40% [11–15], with more than half of the energy being wasted as exhaust heat taken away by jacket water, cooling air and exhaust gas. Therefore, recovering the energy from the exhaust heat can be effective for reducing energy use in fishing vessels. It has been proposed to use the exhaust heat from a fishing vessel engine for direct heating [16–18], producing electricity [19,20], desalinating sea water [21,22], charging turbos [23–25] and operating refrigeration systems [26–28]. As pointed out by Shu et al. [29], due to their unique characteristics and application temperature ranges, different waste heat recovery techniques may be selected based on both the requirements of normal daily routines and the availability of heat sources aboard a fishing ship. A heat driven refrigeration system normally require a medium temperature heat source at as low as 70 °C, thus having a high potential to be combined with other techniques for the maximization of energy recovery efficiency. For example, after being applied to a turbocharger, the temperature of exhaust gas is still high enough to operate a refrigerating system, then the exhaust heat from the refrigeration system can be used for heating water for daily use [16,18]. Due to the facts mentioned earlier, the use of refrigeration systems driven by exhaust heat from engines for ice making,

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refrigerating and air conditioning in fishing vessels can help achieve energy saving. Currently available heat driven refrigeration systems could be classified into three types, i.e., an adsorption refrigeration system, an absorption refrigeration system and an ejection refrigeration system. All of them could utilize low-grade heat energy. The consumption of electricity, which is normally regarded as a type of high-grade energy for operating vapor compression refrigeration systems, can be reduced. Furthermore, the working fluid used in a heat driven refrigeration system is more environmentally friendly than that used in a vapor compression refrigeration system, such as CFCs and HCFCs. In order to promote the use of heat driven refrigeration systems, lots of studies related to applying heat driven refrigeration systems have been carried out. However, due to the severe operating conditions that various heat driven refrigeration systems have to face on ocean and their different operational principles and system characteristics, applications of these heat driven refrigeration systems to fishing vessels would result in different challenges. In this paper, for each of the three types of heat driven refrigeration systems, its fundamentals are firstly presented. Related researches, where heat sources other than exhaust heat from fishing vessel engines were used to operate refrigeration systems, are then reviewed to provide references for the research trends and possible further improvements of heat driven refrigeration systems applied to fishing vessels. Thirdly, applications of heat driven refrigeration systems to fishing vessels are extensively reviewed, focusing on the techniques for improving the operational efficiency and ensuring their operational stability under severe conditions on ocean. Finally, hybrid heat driven refrigeration systems which combine merits of different types refrigeration systems are introduced, followed by conclusions and suggestions for future works. 2. Adsorption refrigeration systems 2.1. Principles and related research works An adsorption refrigeration cycle is a power conversion system driven by heat. It uses adsorption couples, one acting as adsorbent and the other as adsorbate and also refrigerant, as its working media. A basic adsorption cooling system mainly consists of a sorption chamber (ad- and desorber) as a thermal compressor, a condenser, an evaporator and a throttle value, as shown in Fig. 1 [30]. Initially, the refrigerant is adsorbed by the adsorbent inside the sorption chamber, which is alternately heated and cooled during the operation of an adsorption refrigeration system. When the sorption chamber is heated, the desorption procedure occurs. The input heat separates refrigerant from adsorbent and refrigerant vapor flows into the condenser. The refrigerant vapor aggregation in the condenser leads to a high pressure and the refrigerant is condensed after releasing its heat to the coolant in the condenser. Then the high pressure liquid expands to low temperature and low pressure two-phase flow through the throttle valve and provides cooling in the evaporator through evaporation. When the sorption chamber is cooled, the pressure drops down and refrigerant vapor at a low temperature and low pressure coming from the evaporator flows into the sorption chamber and would be adsorbed by the adsorbent. Cooling water removes the heat of adsorption through a heat exchanger in the sorption chamber. By

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Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of an adsorption cooling system [30].

such a two-step adsorption and desorption process, the refrigerant could be circulated inside an adsorption refrigeration system, continuously providing cooling. An adsorption refrigeration system does not require high-grade energy. Therefore, low-grade energy sources such as industrial exhaust heat, solar energy, exhaust heat from vehicle engines or geothermal energy, could be utilized for driving an adsorption refrigeration system. However, an adsorption refrigeration system’s energy efficiency is relatively low. Its COP normally ranges from 0.1 to 0.6 [31–33]. The effectiveness of the Ad-/Desorption process is responsible for the operating performances of the entire system. To improve its energy efficiency, efforts have been put into finding effective working couples [34–36]. The prevalent working couples are: zeolite-water, silicone-water, activated carbonmethanol, metal hydride-hydrogen and chloride salts-ammonia [37]. Analysis and modeling on the Ad-/Desorption process of different working couples, such as water and ethanol with zeolite [38], methane and carbon dioxide with activated carbon [39], water with CaCl2-in-silica gel [40], water with activated carbon based composite adsorbent [41] and water with composite material (zeolite 13X/CaCl2) [42], were carried out to better understand their heat and mass transfer characteristics. Studies were also conducted to enhance adsorption beds’ heat transfer performances [31,43–46]. Among these studies, Eun et al. [43] proposed to use composite blocks with silica-expanded graphite to improve the heat and mass transfer for a cylindrical adsorption bed. It was pointed out that the radial distribution of temperature and the axial profile of temperature were affected by heat and mass transfer, respectively. By utilizing the composite blocks, the heat and mass transfer and the performance of the adsorption system were enhanced compared to that of a pure silica gel packed bed. Wang et al. [44] focused on improving both heat transfer and mass transfer by utilizing expanded graphite in the chemisorption beds to make a better use of low-grade thermal energy at 60–150 °C. They also proposed a novel design of rising film evaporation coupled with gravity heat pipe for high cooling output. In addition to experimental investigations, Yang [45] numerically investigated the heat and mass transfer process considering the actual non-equilibrium adsorption processes in an adsorbent bed. The relationships among various operational parameters, such as coefficient of performance (COP), specific cooling power (SCP), adsorption temperature, adsorption velocity, adsorption quantity,

desorption temperature, desorption velocity, desorption quantity, and time were discussed for both cooling and heating absorbent beds. Moreover, a peak value for adsorption and desorption velocity and a peak value for SCP in the adsorption processes were found. By utilizing the local volume averaging method, Solmus et al. [46] numerically investigated the influence of certain design parameters, for example, adsorbent particle diameter, adsorbent bed thickness, absorbent bed total porosity and solid phase thermal conductivity on the transient distribution of temperature, pressure and adsorbed mass in an adsorbent bed. A nonequilibrium thermal model was developed and the simulation results indicated that reducing the transfer resistances of heat and intra-particle (interior) mass transfer would be more effective than reducing the resistances of inter-particle (exterior) mass transfer for improving the performance of adsorbent beds. Furthermore, since an Ad-/Desorption process is intermittent, continuous operation of an absorption system requires multiple adsorbent beds. Therefore, in addition to the common one-staged two-bed systems, new system cycles were developed, such as a two-staged four-bed cycle [47], to improve the COP of system or utilize very low driving temperatures.

2.2. Applications of adsorption refrigeration system to fishing vessels Applying an adsorption refrigeration system to fishing vessels to utilize exhaust heat from engines for energy saving not only faces the challenge of improving energy efficiency to make it economically viable, but also has to ensure its operational stability under the severe condition of ocean. A medium-size prototype of an adsorption chiller utilizing zeolite-water as working pairs was made by Zhu et al. in 1992 [48]. The proto type was an early attempt of utilizing the exhaust heat from engine, for preserving aquatic products in a fishing vessel. Preliminary operating performances of the prototype with an associated diesel engine were obtained through laboratory tests. In 1997, a laboratory prototype of an adsorption refrigeration system powered by waste heat was made using new working pairs of activated monolithic carbon-ammonia [49]. Both simulation and experimental results were provided with an evaporating temperature varying from 20 °C to 0 °C and condensing temperature varying from 20 °C to 45 °C, respectively, corresponding to an ice maker operating conditions for tropical use, and a COP of 0.12 was achieved. With the evolution of techniques of adopting an

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adsorption refrigerator to produce ice [50–52], the use of adsorption ice-makers driven by exhaust heat for fish vessels became commercially available [53]. Ongoing studies have been carried out to enhance the energy performance of adsorption ice-making machines. In 2003, Wang et al. [54] used activated carbon-methanol as working pairs for a prototype of an adsorption ice-making machine and obtained a mean COP of 0.18, as shown in Fig. 2. The design was focused on its adsorber containing adsorbent blocks which were made of activated carbon mixed by a binder and copper finned tubes to improve heat transfer. Experimental results validated its applicability for ice making. Furthermore, a prototype of a two-bed adsorptive ice-making machine, was also developed for onboard adsorption refrigeration in fishing boats with the ability of producing 18–20 kg h1 of flake ice at a mean temperature of 7 °C. Wang et al. carried out research studies [55–57] to optimize the working pair and adsorber for fishing vessels’ adsorption ice makers. There were three kinds of adsorption ice makers, with different adsorption pairs, activated carbon–methanol, CaCl2–NH3 and compound adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)-NH3, respectively. The energy performances, advantages and disadvantages of the three types of ice makers were compared [55]. Using ammonia as refrigerant, the operating performances of an ice maker using three different adsorbents, CaCl2 with different expansion space, simple compound adsorbent and solidified compound adsorbent made of CaCl2 and activated carbon, respectively, were also tested [56]. Among these adsorbents, the solidified compound adsorbent was found to have the smallest size and stabilize without deterioration. And a new type of heat pipe adsorber was developed to avoid the direct contact and corresponding incompatibility between seawater, steel, ammonia and copper [57]. Similarly, utilizing ammonia as adsorbate, the adsorption performances and thermal conductivity of three kinds of adsorbents,

Fig. 2. Adsorption ice-maker developed by SJTU [54].

i.e., pure CaCl2 powder, simple composite adsorbent and consolidated composite adsorbent, were compared by Wang et al. [58]. In 2006, Wang et al. [59] experimentally examined the performance of another working pair – methanol and solidified activated carbon, which could be properly deployed in both a refrigeration system and an ice maker powered by exhaust heat from the engine onboard. Recently, among a number of studies [60–65] of developing novel sorbents, an adsorbent of ammonia working with BaCl2 + BaBr2 binary salt system inside vermiculite pores was proposed for an adsorption ice-making cooling cycle [64]. Theoretical results implied that the maximum cooling power realized at a short sorption cycle using this adsorbent was assessed at 1.2 kW/kg with 2 kg/(kg h) (2 kg ice per kg adsorbent per hour) rate of ice production. Such promising estimated outputs demonstrated encouraging opportunities of a target-oriented design of adsorbent with predetermined properties matching the particular conditions of an adsorptive cooling cycle [64]. In addition to the optimization of working pairs, it was demonstrated innovation of heat management was an effective way to save energy, by enhancing an adsorption refrigeration system’s COP (coefficient of performance) and SCP (specific cooling power). Researches showed that the utilization of split heat pipes could both benefit the performances of an adsorption system, by enhancing the efficiency of the heat transfer between heat source and an adsorber, and avoid the direct contact between them to prevent corrosion, especially when the heat source was sea water or exhaust gas [31,66–70]. For example, a multifunctional adsorption ice maker of heat pipe type was proposed by Li et al. [66]. Experimental results showed a 68.7% improvement in COP, when compared to that of a traditional adsorption cycle [66]. Wang et al. [69] developed three kinds of heat pipe type adsorption systems with heat and mass recovery, one thermosiphon adsorber and the other two split heat pipe adsorption systems. Fig. 3 shows the working process of one of the two split heat pipe adsorption systems. In this system, compound sorbent CaCl2/activated carbon-ammonia pair was employed. Between two adsorbent beds, multifunctional heat pipes performed cooling, heating and heat recovery. During a desorption process, an exhaust heat device served as an evaporator and the adsorber as a condenser, while the adsorber worked as an evaporator and the cooler worked as a condenser in the adsorption part, and the high temperature bed as an evaporator and the low temperature bed as a condenser during heat recovery process. Wang et al. [70] further investigated the same system previously studied in [69], and its working process is shown in Fig. 4. Similarly, it was proposed by Wang et al. [71] to use compound sorbent CaCl2/activated carbon-ammonia pair in an adsorption chiller, which had a novel design of double heat pipe adsorber. One heat pipe was used to heat the adsorber at desorption phase and the other to cool the adsorber at adsorption phase. It is worth mentioning that a review on adsorption ice producting systems driven by low-grade heat was recently published by Sah et al. [72]. One section of the review focused on the technologies of adsorption ice making systems powered by waste heat. However, all the eight papers reviewed in that section were published prior to 2008. What could enrich current review is that a reviewed on a spilt heat pipe type ice maker powered by exhaust heat from engine onboard to produce 1032 kg ice per day with low power consumption was included. Methanol, acetone and water worked as heat pipe media were compared under unsteady heating source. It was also pointed out that a further advantage of using spilt heat pipe was to enhance volume cooling density to reduce the volume of system. Although lots of research work have been conducted on improving the laboratory based adsorption refrigeration systems’

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Fig. 3. Working process of a split heat pipe type adsorber [69].

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of a multifunction heat pipe adsorption ice maker [70].

Fig. 6. Ice-maker installed on the fishing boat [73]. Fig. 5. Experimental rigs of an adsorption ice-maker on the coast [73].

performance, only a few field tests to examine the long term operational stability of adsorption refrigeration systems under the severe condition of ocean were carried out. Zhou [73] developed an adsorption ice-maker which used exhaust heat from engine, as shown in Fig. 5, and installed it in a fishing boat, as shown in

Fig. 6, for a 6-month long field test to examine its operational stability. The sloshing and vibration caused by ocean waves may influence the circulation of refrigerant and the interaction between adsorbent and adsorbate. However, the deterioration in system performance could be limited by using both a compact structure of adsorber and a solid adsorbent. Field test results showed that both the mechanical and electrical components in the ice-maker

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could function normally during the test, ensuring a stable performance. During the field tests, the average cooling capacity of was 79.6% of its theoretical cooling capacity. It was suggested that further researches should be carried out to investigate how the system performance and utilization efficiency of exhaust heat were influenced by the adsorption temperature, pressure and the adsorption rate, when the ice-maker is actually applied to fishing vessels. In 2016, Lu et al. [74] built and tested three generations of fishing vessels sorption refrigerators. They managed to solve the problems of corrosion caused by seawater cooling and that of performance degradation due to fishing boats’ shaking by using small-channel heat exchanger. The first and second generations were of adsorption type, and the third generation was designed as an absorption system, having the highest COP and refrigeration capacity per unit volume among three generations. 3. Absorption refrigeration systems Apart from adsorption refrigeration systems, absorption refrigeration systems may also be applied to fishing vessels and the review of their applications to fishing vessels are reported in this section. 3.1. Principles and related research works A basic absorption refrigeration cycle consists of a refrigerant loop and a solution loop as shown in Fig. 7 [75]. The solution cycle loop, which includes an absorber, a generator, a solution pump and a solution throttle valve, acts as a thermal compressor. The absorbent used in the solution loop has a strong absorbability to the refrigerant and could absorb the refrigerant vapor coming from the evaporator, which is characterized by a low temperature and a low pressure. After absorbing the refrigerant vapor in absorber and dissipating absorption’s heat to a cooling medium, the absorbent becomes a weak solution and is then pumped to the generator. Inside the generator, the solution is heated and the refrigerant with a lower boiling point is boiled, thus a high temperature and high pressure refrigerant vapor will be separated from the absorbent, and supplied to the condenser. On the other hand, after releasing the refrigerant, the absorbent becomes a strong solution again and is sent back to the absorber through throttle valve by the difference between the pressures in generator and in absorber. By

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of an absorption refrigeration cycle [75].

the solution loop, the refrigerant vapor could be continuously compressed, thus cooling capacity could be continuously provided in the refrigerant loop. Furthermore, the basic absorption refrigeration loop provides flexibility for modification to enhance the system performance. The simplest way is to add a heat exchanger of solution between the absorber and generator, thus strong solution’s heat could be recovered to preheat the weak solution. Researches on enhancing the performance of an absorption refrigeration system focus on two aspects. One is to find a proper pair of working fluid (absorbent and refrigerant). According to a survey on absorption fluids carried out in 1988, there were 200 absorbent compounds and 40 refrigerant compounds available [75]. The works for finding new absorption refrigeration working pairs are ongoing [76–78]. The other is to design a novel structure of an absorption refrigeration cycle that has higher COP or a lower requirement on heat source grade. As previously mentioned, installing a heat exchanger of solution between absorber and generator could reduce the amount of heat required by the generator, therefor, the COP could be increased. However, the direct heat exchange between hot strong solution and cold weak solution across a large temperature difference would have a large irreversibility. To minimize the temperature difference between strong solution and weak solution, a GAX (Generator-absorberexchanger) absorption refrigeration cycle was developed in 1911 [79] by utilizing the hot absorbent solution leaving the generator to pre-heat generator’s colder section, and the cold solution leaving the absorber to pre-cool absorber’s hotter section. Such a system was further modified by others. For example, a GAX-R (Genera tor-absorber-exchanger-Resorption) absorption cycle was analyzed in 2004 [80]. The cycle was theoretically proved to be more beneficial than a single effect vapor absorption and vapor resorption cycle, as reflected by an increased in COP. However, the heat source needed shall be at a higher grade. The COP of single-effect absorption refrigeration systems are less than unity because energy added in the generator is normally larger than the cooling capacity provided in evaporation at all times. This evoked the development of multi-effect absorption refrigeration system. The prototype of double-effect unit was firstly introduced in 1956–58 by Southwest Research Institute [81]. The schematic diagram of a double-effect absorption system is shown in Fig. 8 [82]. After leaving the first generator, the superheated refrigerant was used to produce additional refrigerant as a heat source in the second generator whose pressure was lower than that in the first generator. A higher COP could be achieved since more refrigerant vapor was produced. However, the disadvantages were still the requirement for higher heat source temperature and more complex system structure. To utilize low grade heat, which could be more easily provided by solar energy or exhaust gas, absorption refrigeration system was configured in stages. In 1982, Alefeld presented the principles of multistage absorption machines’ design [83]. The flowchart of a double-stage absorption refrigeration system is shown in Fig. 9 [84]. It is divided into two stages, i.e., a high and a low pressure stage. Both stages contain an absorber, a generator and a heat exchanger. Test results have suggested that such a double-stage absorption system could be powered by hot water varying from 60 to 75 °C, which was relatively at a low temperature [84]. However, the COP of a double-stage system would be lower than a conventional single-stage system [85]. Based on these early efforts for absorption cycle design, novel system structures and cycles have been emerging with the development of absorption refrigeration technology. Multi-effect systems, from half to triple effect, have been developed to suit various heat sources and operating conditions [86,87]. A novel EAX (Evaporator-Absorber-Exchanger) absorption refrigeration cycle was designed in 2010 [88] to utilize heat sources of median

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Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of a double-effect absorption refrigeration system [82].

Fig. 9. Flowchart of a two-stage absorption refrigeration system [84].

temperature, which was between the limited generation temperature of traditional single effect cycle and that of double effect cycle. In 2012, Yan et al. [89] developed a highly efficient absorption refrigeration cycle to increase the thermal energy utilization efficiency from engines’ exhaust gas or water. Such a novel design was regarded as an enhanced single-effect or double-lift configuration.

3.2. Applications of absorption refrigeration systems to fishing vessels As the COP (coefficient of performance) of an absorption refrigeration system could be greater than 0.5, which is normally higher than that of an adsorption refrigeration system, applications of absorption systems to fishing vessels may be regarded as more economic. However, unlike a solid adsorbent bed used in an

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adsorption system, all the components in an absorption system were normally filled with liquid or gas, which were more susceptible to the influence of the sloshing and vibration caused by ocean waves. Therefore, it would be more challengeable to maintain the operational stability of an absorption refrigeration system installed in fishing vessels. Fernández-Seara et al. [90] developed an absorption refrigeration plant using ammonia-water for producing cooling in a trawler chiller fishing vessel in 1998, using engine exhausts. It was concluded that due to the high and constant engine load during fishing periods, adequate heat from exhausts of engine was available to drive the absorption refrigeration system. 2–4% of fuel consumption could be saved compared to that when using a traditional vapor compression system. However, the initial cost was also increased by 50%. In 2013, a thermodynamic analysis on the feasibility of an ammonia-water absorption cooling system powered by waste heat from marine diesel engines was presented by Ahmed and Youcef [91]. In this investigation, a thermodynamic model was built up on the basis of the first thermodynamic law, and the analysis carried out under different operating conditions by varying temperatures within absorber, evaporator, generator and condenser. It was found that a higher generator and evaporator temperature or a lower condenser and absorber temperature can result in a better performance of absorption refrigeration system while its COP could also be improved by increasing the effectiveness of solution heat exchanger without effect on the circulation ratio. More importantly, the waste heat provided for driving absorption system was proved to be sufficient by the energy balance evaluation for the diesel engine. This was also proven by a study investigating the feasibility of utilizing waster heat from a RoRo ship engine to drive an absorption cooling system and an ice slurry refrigeration storage system [92]. It was indicated that the ship engine can provide exhaust heat with a relatively high temperature at 300 °C at a sufficient quantity to drive the absorption system. Practically, if using ammonia-water working pair in an absorption refrigeration system, there should be a distillation column at the top of its generator, otherwise the water vapors would leave the generator and enter the condenser. However, the distillation column operation can be affected by the inclination of the ship, and as Fernández-Seara et al. [90] pointed out, ammonia with a significant water content would reach the evaporator where the water tended to accumulate, deteriorating the efficiency of whole system. Therefore, in 2014, Táboas et al. [93] eliminated the requirement for a distillation column by changing the working pair into NH3/LiNO3 mixture or the ternary mixture NH3/(LiNO3 + H2O). In addition, at a higher generator temperature above 90 °C, the use of both NH3/(LiNO3 + H2O) and NH3/LiNO3 working pairs would result in similar COP, which were higher than that when using NH3/H2O working mixture. By solving the mathematical model, they concluded that at the same activation temperature of 85 °C and a condensing temperature of 25 °C, the cycle with NH3/LiNO3 or NH3/(LiNO3 + H2O) could reach lower evaporation temperatures compared to that with NH3/H2O. Mao [94] investigated another working pair of TFE/TEGDME for an absorption refrigeration system powered by the exhaust heat from engine on board. TFE/ TEGDME working pairs could also work effectively without distillation equipment, at also a high level of COP. At 2015, Cao et al. [95] modeled the whole structure of a ship which included two exhaust heat recovery systems using TRNSYS. The first was an engine cooling system and the other an exhaust economizer. It was concluded that applying absorption cooling cycle system driven by exhaust heat from the engine to cruise vessels would help save the energy consumption by 8.23%. In 2016, Cao et al. [96] analyzed container ship modeling in more details also using TRNSYS. It was revealed that the proposed waste heat

powered systems could reduce fuel consumption of diesel generator by 38%. In 2017, Salmi et al. [97] carried out a study for an absorption system, using water/LiBr and ammonia/water as absorption working fluids, for providing cooling from the thermal energy of exhaust gas, jacket water and scavenge air under both ISO and tropical conditions in a bulk carrier ship. The simulation results showed that using absorption refrigeration system powered by waste energy from ship engine had a potential to save electricity use by up to 70%. As previously mentioned, the vibration and sloshing motion caused by the roughness of ocean could significantly influence the operation of absorption systems. The successful application of absorption refrigeration systems to fish vessels depends on not only the quantity and quality of waste heat from the engine but also their operational stability during a sea cruising period. A simulation and experimental investigation of ammonia/water absorption ice producing system for fishing vessels [98] addressed the effect of vibration on its performance. A shaking device was applied to simulating the navigating condition of fishing vessels. Test results showed that although the heat exchange between liquid and other media may be slightly enhanced under mild vibration condition, severe vibration could have serious impact on the capacity, reliability and safety of an onboard absorption icemaking system. Moreover, the period of vibration simulated in this study was 15 s. As indicated by Faltinsen [99], the mean period of sea wave was usually between 4 s and 20 s [99]. The increased vibration frequency with a shorter period may lead different influence on the operation of an onboard absorption refrigeration system, which was expected to be further investigated. On the other hand, in 2008, Maleki and Ziyaeifar [100] established a theoretical sloshing damping model to assess the hydrodynamic damping ratio of liquid sloshing caused by horizontal movement in baffled tanks. Simulation results at two kinds of baffles indicated that in sloshing mode the damping ratio depended on the location and geometric structure of baffle, dimensions of tank and sloshing amplitude [94]. In 2009, Panigrahy et al. [101] experimentally investigated the sloshing behavior of liquids in baffled tanks, as shown in Fig. 10. The primary objective of this research was to explore the pressure distribution at different locations on the tank walls and three-dimensional effects on liquid sloshing. It was found that baffles installed to the internal of tank can considerably reduce the influence of sloshing. Furthermore, it was more efficient to use ring baffles than traditional horizontal baffles in decreasing sloshing effect. In 2010, a theoretical and experimental investigation on the sloshing phenomena carried out by Abbaspour and GhodsiHassanabad [102]. The experimental rig used in this study are shown in Fig. 11. A parabolic plane was initially placed on the water surface and then taken away quickly to create sloshing phenomenon. The observation of water surface behavior showed that in a rectangular container utilizing porous media was an effective way to rapidly damp the sloshing phenomenon. Although these studies were not directly related to absorption refrigeration systems, their results provided references for minimizing the impact of sloshing motion on absorption system performance.

4. Ejector refrigeration systems 4.1. Principles and related research works A steam ejector refrigeration system contains an ejector, a generator (or a boiler), a condenser, a throttle valve, an evaporator and a circulation pump. To increase system efficiency, as shown in Fig. 12, a precooler and a regenerator are usually added to the sys-

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Fig. 10. Experimental facilities of investigating sloshing behavior in baffled tanks [101].

Fig. 11. Image of experimental devices for investigating the sloshing phenomena in a rectangular container [102].

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of an ejector refrigeration system [103].

tem [103]. The ejector is made of three sections, namely a nozzle whose inlet is connected to the outlet of the generator, a suction chamber which is connected to the outlet of evaporator, and a mixing chamber which is connected to the inlet of condenser. The ejector and generator jointly act as a thermal compressor [103]. The refrigerant vapor generated is at a fairly high temperature and pressure due to the heat added to the generator. This is called primary or actuating vapor, which then enters the ejector. Inside the ejector there is a nozzle, where the refrigerant vapor expand

through, and at the exit of the nozzle forms low pressure supersonic flow, having the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator, called secondary vapor, sucked into the suction chamber. Then, the primary and the secondary vapors at the mixing chamber mix with each other. An aerodynamic shock would be induced, when the mixed vapors enter a constant-area section, causing a major compression effect. Further compression of vapor to the back pressure of the ejector can be achieved when the mixed vapors pass through the subsonic diffuser section. By this process in the ejector, the refrigerant vapor which acts as the secondary vapor is compressed aerodynamically from the lower pressure in evaporator to the higher pressure in condenser. The inflow of the internal energy associated with the primary vapor serves as the energy input required for the compression operation. To obtain a cooling effect, part of the refrigerant condensate in the condenser is allowed to expand in evaporator to absorb heat from environment. The rest is recirculated by a liquid circulation pump to generator to complete the cycle. The fundamental principle of an ejector refrigeration cycle is similar to that of other heat driven refrigeration cycles. The thermal compressor, i.e. ejector, is the most essential component of the whole system. Pioneer research work for the performance characteristics of ejectors was carried out by Keenan et al. [104,105]. They first introduced one dimensional ejector theory according to fluid dynamics of ideal gas as well as the laws of mass, momentum and energy conservation, with friction and heat losses ignored [104] and proposed two feasible theoretical models to deal with the momentum conservation equation during mixing. One was a constant-pressure mixing model and the other a constantarea mixing model [105]. Since then, this theory has been used as a theoretical foundation in designing an ejector. However,

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experimental studies by Khoury et al. [106], Emanuel [107] and Chen [108] showed that the calculation results did not match very well with experimental results. Therefore, the Keenan’s theory was further modified by others, including Munday and Bagster [109], Eames et al. [110] and Aly et al. [111]. In addition to above mentioned single-phase flow models, which assumed superheated primary gas and compressible single-phase flow in an ejector, two-phase flow models were later also developed [112–115], by considering that phase change could occur in many real applications and might cause a condensation shock. With the development of CFD (computational fluid dynamics) modeling techniques, dynamic models of ejectors attracted research attention to reveal the local interactions between boundary layers and shock waves, bringing about a better understanding of ejector’s hydrodynamics [116–120]. Working fluid also plays an important role in ejector refrigeration systems. The very early ejector systems used steam as the working fluid, which may cause rusting and corrosion. In 1954, Martynowsky proposed using R11 and R12 as the working fluid to avoid these problems [121]. Earlier experimental analyses for ejectors’ operation showed that the performances of a fixed ejector were very similar with different working fluids at different operating temperatures [122–124]. However, the results of later researches [125–127] indicated that system efficiency depended heavily on the choice of refrigerants. A large number of working fluids, such as R11, R12, R113, or R114 have been previously suggested for use in ejector refrigeration systems. However, now these have been banned because of their environmental impacts. New refrigerants are therefore developed, for example, carbon dioxide (R744), hydrocarbon compounds (R290, R600 and R600a), ammonia and halocarbon compounds (R134a, R152a, R245fa, etc.) [128–130]. To investigate the performance of ejector refrigeration system, Dahmani studied the optimal heat transfer temperature difference and the corresponding optimal working pressure of different refrigerants in an ejector refrigeration system [131]. His work can help select the appropriate refrigerant and confirm their parameters at different operational conditions. In addition, there have also been studies on the optimization of the cycle loop and the structure of an ejector [132–141]. 4.2. Applications of ejector refrigeration systems to fishing vessels The concern on the stability of a refrigeration system onboard led also to the application of ejector refrigeration systems, which have the advantages of stability and simple structure, for harvesting the exhaust heat from fishing vessel engine. Dong et al. [142] built a model of an ejector system to evaluate its performance when driven by exhaust heat from jacket water and exhaust gas in fishing boats. It was suggested that an ejector refrigeration system using the waste energy of engine had a great potential for energy recovery and environmental protection. However, the COP of this system may be further improved. Shao [143] carried out a study on an ejector refrigeration system for fishing vessel application with several different refrigerants, and pointed out that compared with R134a, R123, R11 and R12, R600a led to the best performance. Tian [144] provided a special design for an ejector using waste heat of marine engine. In this design, part of refrigerants was bypassed from the condenser, and two ejectors were cascaded in order to reduce the load on the generator by 28%. Hua [145] used a ship as an example to investigate an ejector refrigeration system utilizing ship waste energy. It was revealed that for this specific application, an ejector having a diameter of 90 mm constant section was better than that of 150 mm for both a higher COP and higher critical condensing pressure. Kang [146] found that the entrainment ratio of a steam ejector driven

by marine waste heat reached a maximum value when the length of constant section was from 25 mm to 75 mm for the best performance. He et al. [147] investigated how cooling temperature of sea water affected the performance of an ejector refrigerator. A quantitative evaluation on the cooling capacity of the ejector refrigerator at different cooling temperatures was carried out. It was found that the condensing pressure was increased by 10% when the temperature of cooling water was increased by 1 °C, and the suction capability of the ejector and the pressure ratio of diffuser would be decreased at the same time, leading to a reduced cooling capacity. When compared to the applications of both adsorption and absorption refrigeration systems to fishing vessels, the application of an ejector refrigeration system to fishing vessels is still not popular. More future research effort should be put on the application of such a simple and relatively stable system to fishing vessels.

5. Hybrid refrigeration system 5.1. Related research works Apart from the optimization of the system structure or refrigerant flow cycle for each type of heat driven on-board refrigeration systems, integration of various type heat driven refrigeration systems [148–150], or working with a vapor compression refrigeration system [151–155] or a power generator [156–158] to establish a hybrid heat driven on-board refrigeration system is possible. Generally, there are two ways to establish a hybrid heat driven refrigeration system. One is to integrate different kinds of heat driven cycle into one. Hong et al. [148] presented a novel integrated ejector-adsorption refrigeration cycle, as shown in Fig. 13, to improve energy utilization efficiency for high temperature heat source. The basic structure of this novel cycle is a parallel flow double-effect adsorption cycle. When the temperature of the heat source is not high enough to drive a double-effect cycle but still much higher than that required for driving a conventional singleeffect cycle, the ejector was used to reduce the energy requirement for the low pressure generator, allowing the system to run at a double-effect mode. Simulation results showed that the COP of the novel cycle could be as much as 30% higher than that of the conventional single-effect absorption refrigeration cycle. The other is to create a cascade system, where two cycles normally have separated circulating loops for working fluid but exchange heat through a shared heat exchanger. Yang et al. [149] proposed a cascade refrigeration process that integrated a LiBr absorption

Fig. 13. Schematic diagram of a new ejector-absorption combined refrigeration cycle [148].

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Fig. 14. Flow diagram of the cascade refrigeration technology [150].

refrigeration with a NH3 absorption refrigeration for applications to a coal-to-SNG plant. As shown in Fig. 14 [150], LiBr producer was heated by the waste heat from the NH3 producer and generated water stream, which finally became chilled water (lowgrade cold energy) and cooled NH3 stream in an NH3 condenser. The liquid NH3 was then fed into the Rectisol and evaporated into NH3 gas to produce cold energy. In this way, low-grade waste heat was recovered to produce high-grade cold energy. It was evaluated that the operational cost of this cascade system was only 14% of that of a conventional compression refrigeration. Integrating a compressor into a heat driven refrigeration system could change its operational condition and improve its performance. Fukuta et al. [151] evaluated the performance of an absorption-compression hybrid system. The compressor was located between the evaporator and the absorber to adjust the adsorption pressure, thus the working temperature range of the waste heat could be extended and COP theatrically improved. However, the experimental results from its prototype did not show an improvement in COP, suggesting the necessity for carefully designing the absorber and selecting an appropriate compressor. To analyze the energy saving performance of an absorptioncompression hybrid refrigeration cycle with a working pair of R134a and DMF, Meng et al. [152] proposed two criteria, i.e., the heat powered coefficient of performance and electricity saving rate. Based on the two criteria, the behavior of the sub-cycles in the hybrid system could be evaluated. Zhao et al. [154] carried out a thermodynamic investigation into a booster-assisted ejector refrigeration system, where a booster was added prior to an ejector to increase secondary flow pressure. Its system performance was compared with that of a conventional ejector refrigeration system and vapor compression refrigeration system. Results showed that the effect of booster on system COP depended on its outlet pressure. An exergy destruction analysis indicated that about a half of the exergy destruction occurred in the ejector. Zhu and Jiang [155] developed a refrigeration system which combined a basic vapor compression refrigeration cycle with an ejector cooling cycle. The ejector cycle was used to recover the waste heat from the condenser of the basic vapor compression refrigeration cycle, i.e., taking its condenser as a generator and providing additional cooling capacity. With a refrigerant of high discharge temperature, the ejector cycle would be more effective in improving the overall COP comparing with that of a traditional compression refrigeration system. Zheng and Weng [156] developed a novel cycle combining an organic Rankine power cycle with an ejector refrigeration cycle

using R245fa as working fluid. Fig. 15 shows its schematic diagram [156]. As it can be seen, compared to the structure of a conventional ejector refrigeration cycle, a turbine was installed between

Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of a combined power and ejector refrigeration cycle [156].

Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of a combined power and refrigeration cycle [157].

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a generator and an ejector. To simultaneously produce power in the power sub-cycle 1-2-3-40 -40 -50 -5-1 and cooling capacity in the refrigeration sub-cycle 1-6-7-50 -5-1, the heat input to the vapor generator should be able to generate vapor at a higher pressure than that of a conventional ejector refrigeration system. This cycle’s performance was numerically analyzed. Simulation results showed a thermal efficiency of 34.1%, an effective efficiency of 18.7% and an exergy efficiency of 56.8% could be obtained. Habibzadeh et al. [157] also proposed a similar combination of a power cycle and an ejector refrigeration cycle for utilizing low temperature heat, but with different working fluids. As shown in Fig. 16, instead of using the fully expanded stream leaving the turbine at state 6, the partially expanded extracted vapor at state 5 at a higher pressure was used to drive the ejector. Several working fluids (R141b, R123, R245fa, R600a and R601a) were considered in this study based on their performance in both ORC cycle and ejector refrigeration cycle, and their environmental impacts. By varying the pressures of working fluid at the turbine and pump inlet through numerical simulation, their optimum values were obtained to minimize the total system thermal conductance.

A hybrid system could even be a combination of three different kinds of cycles. As shown in Fig. 17, to produce different amount of refrigeration capacity simultaneously at different temperature, a triple cycle which combined a low temperature N2O refrigerant based vapor compression cycle with an absorption refrigeration cycle and an ejector refrigeration cycle was presented by Agrawal and Karimi [159]. System performance and exergy destruction were evaluated using the parametric, energetic and exergetic analysis methods. It was concluded that the triple cycle’s thermal efficiency and refrigeration outputs were significantly affected by the temperature of exhaust gases, inlet pressure and outlet pressure of turbine, temperature of ejector evaporator and discharge pressure of compressor. Although the triple cycle may be structurally complex for real application, the performance and exergy destruction analysis carried out provided a reference for optimizing a hybrid refrigeration system. A similar triple cycle combining a power system, a LiBr/H2O absorption refrigeration system and an R141b ejector refrigeration system, was also investigated by Khaliq et al. [160] using the first and second laws to identify causes of energy loss throughout the cycle for achieving the optimization.

Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of a triple effect refrigeration cycle [159].

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Fig. 18. Schematic diagram of a cascade absorption/vapor compression cycle [161].

5.2. Applications of hybrid refrigeration systems to fishing vessels For naval ships, a novel application of a cascaded absorption and vapor-compression cycle was proposed by Garimella et al., through theoretical simulation and analysis [161]. Fig. 18 [161] shows the schematic diagram of the cascade absorption/vapor compression cycle, which integrated a single-effect absorption cycle using LiBr/H2O as work pair with a subcritical CO2 vaporcompression cycle. The absorption cycle not only generated medium-temperature refrigerant (5 °C) at a relatively low heat flux for air conditioning but also served as heat sink for the subcritical CO2 vapor compression system for electronics cooling applications with high heat flux by providing low-temperature refrigerant at 40 °C. In addition, the heat rejected from condenser and absorber, together with combustion waste heat, could also be used for water heating and running a desiccant system. A thermodynamic model was developed, where the absorption cycle was powered by the exhaust heat from the turbine on board, and parametric analyses were conducted to estimate the performance of the system over a range of operating conditions. Through comparison, this novel cycle proved to have higher COPs and reduce up to 31% electricity demand compared to an equivalent two stage vapor compression system over a wide range of operating conditions. Furthermore, refrigerants used in this cycle were environmentally friendly and such a system could also be extended to using other exhaust heat recovery. However, field test was still required to validate the feasibility of this hybrid system when used under ocean wave conditions. There were two further investigations [94,96], related to the application of hybrid refrigeration systems to fishing vessels, as previously mentioned. In addition to the simulation and experimental investigation of an adsorption system, Mao [94] also simulated the performance of a combined absorption and compression refrigeration system driven by marine diesel engine exhaust gas, using TFE/TEGDME as working pair. According to Mao [94], by

adding a compressor between evaporator and absorber, both COP and the availability of primary energy could be promoted, and by adding a compressor between condenser and generator, generation pressure and temperature could be reduced. In 2016, Cao et al. [96] proposed a cascade absorption and compression configuration to provide air-conditioning and refrigeration simultaneously for container ships. A TRANSYS model was carefully designed to minimize duct and pipe work. By integrating these refrigeration systems together, not only fuel consumption but also CO2 emission may be reduced. Fewer researches were conducted on the application of hybrid refrigeration systems to fishing vessels. All the researches mentioned above were recently carried out, i.e., [161] was published in 2011, [94] in 2013 and [96] in 2016, suggesting that it was a newly emerged research area and much more future efforts are required.

6. Discussions and conclusions Due to its low energy efficiency for fishing vessels engines, recovering the exhaust heat from the engines provided an effective way for energy saving in fishing vessels, making the application of refrigeration systems powered by exhaust heat from engines for ice making, refrigeration and air conditioning on fishing vessels a promising technology. However, the serve operating condition that heat driven refrigeration systems have to face on ocean would create new challenges for their real applications. Table 1 summarizes and compares the features of adsorption refrigeration systems, absorption refrigeration systems and ejection refrigeration systems used in fishing vessels. It should be noted that each study summarized in Table 1 included series of experiments or simulations, which are impossible to be comprehensively listed. Only operational working conditions, which were typical or could lead to maximum COP, are selected and shown in

System type

Adsorption system

Literature

Ice-maker

Wang et al. [54]

Wang et al. [55]

Year

2003

2004

Research method

Working fluids

Experiment

Experiment

2004

Experiment

Wang et al. [57]

2005

Wang et al. [59]

2006

Simulation and experiment Experiment

Wang et al. [70]

2006

2006

Simulation

Experiment

Lu et al. [67]

2007

Experiment

Chen et al. [68]

2007

Experiment

System/component size

Ice production rate (kg/h) or cooling capacity (kW)

SCP (W/kg adsorbent)

7

0.071

–

11

18–20 kg/h at 7 °C

30

27 (environmental)

11

0.1831 (when Te reached 1 °C) 0.1253

15.43 kg/h

36.5

140 (Max.)

25

15

– –

Adsorber (experiment): net volume is 0.116 m3 Adsorber (prototype): 0.148 m3 Prototype: length of 2.5 m width of 1.5 m height of 2 m Adsorber: 0.288 m3 Adsorber: 0.288 m3

14.72 kW 20.32 kW

247 –

140

25

15

–

Adsorber: about 0.0773 m3

40 kg/h at 10 °C 5.2 kW

–

130

25

15

–

–

17.1–17.8 kW

–

80–100

30 (environmental) 25 (cooling water) 40

15

0.141

20 kg/h

10

Around 0.281 0.421

Each adsorber contains 48 kg active carbon

25 kg/h

35

Absorbent volume of 0.023 m3 –

Assuming 40 kg/h at 5 °C

140

Generating temperature (°C) Tg

Condensing temperature (°C) Tc

Evaporating temperature (°C) Te

Activated carbon-methanol (single bed) Activated carbon-methanol (two bed)

105–120

22

Activated carbon–methanol (two bed)

–

CaCl2–NH3 (two bed) Composite adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)-NH3 (two bed) Solidified compound adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)-NH3 (two bed) Compound adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)-NH3 (two bed with heat pipe) Activated carbon–methanol (two bed)

Simulation Wang et al. [58]

Max. COP

Operational conditions

110 Pure CaCl2 powder-NH3 (single bed) Simple composite adsorbent-NH3 (single bed) Consolidated composite adsorbentNH3 (single bed) Consolidated composite adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)-NH3 (heat pipe type1) Consolidated composite adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)-NH3 (heat pipe type2)

Compound adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)- NH3 (two bed with heat pipe and threedimensional fins) Solidified compound adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)- NH3 (spilt heat pipe filled with acetone) Solidified compound adsorbentNH3 (spilt heat pipe filled with water)

150

10

0.44

1

0.41

1

130

25–30

12

0.061

–

28 (cooling water)

15

0.411

–

–

15

0.31

126

22 (cooling water)

7.5

0.3

140 (Max.)

15 (cooling water)

19

0.172

140 (Max.)

17 (cooling water)

17

0.352

Absorbent volume of 0.0154 m3 –

Test unit: width of 0.6 m length of 1.2 m height of 1.9 m Ice-maker width of 1.3 m length of 1 m height of 1.6 m Tube diameter of 25 mm

Adsorbent and the expansion space of 4.37103 m3

180 640

97.4 W

62.8

1.37 kW

728.7

24 kg/h 3 kW

458.5

17.6 kg/h

494.5

0.58 kW

308.5

1.19 kW

633

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Wang et al. [56]

670

Table 1 Features of adsorption refrigeration systems, absorption refrigeration systems and ejection refrigeration systems on fishing vessels.

Table 1 (continued) System type

Literature

Refrigerator

Year

Research method

Working fluids

Wang et al. [69]

2008

Experiment

Li et al. [66]

2008

Experiment

Zhu et al. [48] Zhou [73]

1990

Experiment

Compound adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)-NH3 (spilt heat pipe with mass recovery) Compound adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)-NH3 (single bed) Zeolite 13X-H2O (single bed)

2005

Design

CaCl2–NH3

Experiment

Compound adsorbent (made by CaCl2, SrCl2 and activated carbon)NH3 (two-bed)

Absorption system

System/component size

Ice production rate (kg/h) or cooling capacity (kW)

SCP (W/kg adsorbent)

15

0.411

Boiler of 7.5103 m3

1.37 kW

731

10 (cooling water)

18.9

0.273

–

24.81 kg/h

486.5

200

About 20

<2

–

38

15

–

92 kJ per cycle (1 cycle of 3 h) 23.33 kW

–

120–450 (exhaust gas) 133–332 (exhaust gas) –

Zeolite bed thickness of 12 mm Two adsorber beds of 98.4 m2 totally

25–30 (cooling water)

15

–

24 (cooling water) 25 (cooling water)

–

–

Lower than 15.6

0.38

–

Condensing temperature (°C) Tc

Evaporating temperature (°C) Te

–

23–27 (cooling water)

145

9–12 kW

1

Practically 18.57 kW 5.1 kW

Wang et al. [71]

2008

Simulation

Compound adsorbent (made by CaCl2 and activated carbon)-NH3 (double heat pipe of spilt type and thermosiphon)

–550 (exhaust gas)

Ice-maker

Ni et al. [98]

2011

Simulation and experiment

398 (exhaust gas)

35

15

0.3411 0.3121 0.3461 0.3391

–

93.1 kg/h 85.2 kg/h 94.5 kg/h 95.3 kg/h

Airconditioner

Cao et al. [95]

2015

Simulation

NH3/H2O (steady) NH3/H2O (mild horizontal shake) NH3/H2O (mild vertical shake) NH3/H2O (mild horizontal and vertical shake) H2O/LiBr

Using sea water for cooling

Lower than 6.7

0.642

–

–

Refrigerator

FernándezSeara et al. [90]

1998

Design

NH3/H2O

250–350 (exhaust gas) 140

–

10

0.53 (Design Parameter)

8.33 kW (Design Parameter)

Ahmed and Youcef [91]

2013

Simulation

NH3/H2O (with100% solution heat exchanger effectiveness) NH3/H2O (with80% solution heat exchanger effectiveness)

90

25

5

0.69372

Detailed structure was described at Tables 2 and 3 of [85] –

60–120

25

10

5

Around 0.752 Around 0.652 Around 0.62 0.3752

0.5 kW

5

0.1732

Generator of £159 mm with liquid height of 0.163 m

0 10

80–120 Mao [94]

2013

Design Experiment

TFE/TEGDME

110 104

32 (cooling water) 26.5 (cooling water)

/

/

–

/

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Field test

Max. COP

Operational conditions Generating temperature (°C) Tg

–

90.2 W (continued on next page)

671

672

Table 1 (continued) System type

Literature

Táboas et al. [93]

Year

2014

Research method

Working fluids

Simulation

NH3/H2O

Operational conditions

Ice production rate (kg/h) or cooling capacity (kW)

–

–

16

Around 0.38/0.45/ 0.493 Around 0.47/0.51/ 0.533 Around 0.46/0.51/ 0.523 0.71

–

15.4 kW/m3

30 (sea water temperature in ISO condition)

10 2 5 10

0.51 0.791 0.811 0.851

–

330 kW 519 kW 530 kW 557 kW

35

15

0.1163

–

48.72 kW

Area of condenser:0.46m2 Area of evaporator:0.04m2 –

Designed 5 kW

/

–

/

–

–

–

–

–

348.9 kW

Evaporating temperature (°C) Te

85

25

15/10/5

Around 20

NH3/(LiNO3 + H2O)

1 2 3

Airconditioner Refrigerator

Lu et al. [74]

2016

Experiment

NH3/H2O (with four-step heat recovery processes)

Salmi et al. [97]

2017

Simulation

NH3/H2O H2O/LiBr H2O/LiBr H2O/LiBr

Around160 (exhaust gas:415) – 78 73 65.5

Dong et al. [142] Shao [143]

2011

Simulation

H2O

120

2012

Design

R600a

100

35

5

1.55

Tian [144]

2013

38

5

2014

R600a R123 R134a H2O

75

Hua [145]

Simulation (latent heat recovery) Experiment

100

Kang [146]

2016

Experiment

H2O

He et al. [147]

2007

Simulation

H2O

20.3 critical Tc 21.1 critical Tc 21.7 critical Tc 14 critical Tc 32 critical Tc 27.5 critical Tc 34 critical Tc 34.2

5 10 15 10 10 25 25 7.0

0.1651 0.91 0.91 0.41 0.651 1.121 0.811 0.091 1.01 0.591 –

The power consumption was not taken into account when calculating the COP. The power consumption was taken into account when calculating the COP. The calculating method of COP was not indicated in the published paper.

40 70 60 70 –

1

X. Xu et al. / Applied Energy 203 (2017) 657–676

System/component size

Condensing temperature (°C) Tc

NH3/LiNO3

Ejector system

SCP (W/kg adsorbent)

Max. COP

Generating temperature (°C) Tg

X. Xu et al. / Applied Energy 203 (2017) 657–676

Table 1. Furthermore, energy efficiency ratio (EER) is more accurate/meaningful to evaluate the energy performance of heat driven refrigeration systems since it takes not only the heat energy input to a generator but also the power consumption of pumps into account. However, there are different definitions for COP among literatures cited in current paper. Some COPs included the power consumption of pumps, making themselves similar to EER, while some other did not. This is clearly indicated by symbols at the column of COP in Table 1. It is recommended that in the future the evaluation method of system energy performance should be carefully selected and clearly indicated. As it can be seen, the application of adsorption systems to fishing vessel currently attracts the most attention due to its stable operational performance under shaky conditions by using solid adsorbent. However, their COPs were relatively low, especially for those single bed systems. By optimizing the system structure and enhancing the heat transfer between adsorbent and refrigerant, such as using a two-bed system or a heat pipe type adsorber, the COP of an adsorption system could reach 0.4. The application of heat pipe to an adsorption systems is also a good solution for preventing erosion caused by sea water. For the application to fishing vessels where the space is limited, a viable refrigeration system must be compact, requiring an adsorbent bed with high cooling power per volume [69]. Therefore, Table 1 also includes columns for System/Component size and SCP, although in many published paper, detailed information about system dimension is not available. As pointed out by Choudhury et al. [162], recent application of nanotechnology in adsorbent material development is a very promising for increasing the specific cooling power of an adsorption system. Absorption systems generally have a higher COP, which could reach 0.7 in experiment [74] and 0.8 in simulation [97]. However, absorption systems require a stable free liquid surface in both generator and absorber, therefore being sensitive to boats’ swing. It is necessary to utilize small channel heat exchangers as well as baffles to minimize the impact of sloshing motion on the performance of absorption refrigeration systems. However, reducing channel size or installing additional baffles may also deteriorate the heat transfer performance, and this should be further investigated by both experiments and field tests. An ejector refrigeration system has simple structure. An ejector has no moving parts and would not be impacted by vibration. However, an ejector system still has a generator which could not endure severe vibration. There were not too much research being conducted on the application of ejector systems to fishing vessels. This is partially due to the complexity of choked flow inside an ejector. According to Table 1, ejector systems are capable of utilizing low temperature heat source (as low as 40 °C) and its COP could theoretically reach 1.0 or even higher. However, its critical condensing temperature, which is a unique characteristics of an ejector system, reduces with the generating temperature. When the real condensing temperature is higher than the critical condensing temperature, the COP of an ejector system would dramatically reduce to approach zero. According to Table 1, in most cases, condensing temperatures were restricted at 20–40 °C by sea water temperature, and this also limited the utilization of low temperature heat source. Furthermore, ejector systems worked better at an evaporating temperature above 0 °C, and they are suitable for air-conditioning or refrigerating but not ice-making. The stability of refrigeration systems powered by exhaust heat from fishing vessels would be influenced not only by the vibration of the fishing vessels, but also the continuity and quantity of the heat of exhaust gas from the engines, which depended on the engine load [26,72]. Due to the fundamental characteristics of internal combustion engines, its maximum system efficiency can only reach 45–50% [163,164]. In addition to the exhaust gas from

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engine, the jacket water, scavenge air and lubricant oil also possessed a large amount of energy and could act as a heat source for a heat driven refrigeration system. Commonly the temperature of exhaust gas is at 180 °C [145] to 550 °C [71], but no lower than 120 °C [73]. The jacket water temperature ranged from 70 °C to 120 °C [91,93,95,97,145]. Utilizing multiple heat sources is an effective way to reduce the impact of the variation in engine load. This however required the ability of adapting deferent generating temperatures. Furthermore, there may exit time mismatch between the generation of waste heat and its recovery demand. Thermal energy storage (TES) is a technology, which can solve the existing mismatch by recovering the waste heat and storing it for a later use [165]. Future researches should be conducted to explore more alternatives of applying various hybrid systems to meet different requirements. More field tests are also required to ensure the real performance of these heat driven refrigeration systems on ocean. Acknowledgement The authors thank the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grand No. 2016YFB0901404), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grand No. 2015QNA4012) and Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. Y17E060002) for financially supporting the work reported in this paper. References [1] National Fishery Bureau. The 2011 statistical yearbook of ocean and fishery of China. Beijing (China): Agriculture Press; 2011 [in Chinese]. [2] Xu H, Zhang ZL, Zhang JH, Liu H, Zhao P, Shi R, Wang J, He YP. The research and development proposals on fishery energy saving and emission reduction in China. J Fish China 2011;35(3):472–80 [in Chinese]. [3] Buschardt Erik. Ice-makers and refrigeration for the fishing industry. Report of Turbo Refrigeration Company, Denton, Texas. [4] Liu LZ, Han YF. Discussion on the development and tendency in small and medium sized fishing vessel refrigeration. Mar Fish Res 2007;28(2):113–7 [in Chinese]. [5] Wang SG, Wang RZ. Progress on research and applications of refrigeration technology in fishing vessels. Refrig Air-cond 2002;2(3):16–20 [in Chinese]. [6] Wang SG, Wang RZ. Recent developments of refrigeration technology in fishing vessels. Renew Energy 2005;30(4):589–600. [7] Wang XH. Present situation and forecast of fishing boat refrigeration of our country. J Refrig 1994;2:28–34 [in Chinese]. [8] Oihane CB, Gorka G, Zigor U. Energy performance of fishing vessels and potential savings. J Clean Prod 2013;54:30–40. [9] Zhang JH, Ding JL. An overview of energy-saving and emission-reduction development in fisheries of China. Fish Modern 2010;37(4):66–70 [in Chinese]. [10] Xu H. Report on fishery industry energy conservation and emissions reduction research in China. Fish Moder 2008;35(4):1–7 [in Chinese]. [11] Ren XZ. Study on the waste gas heat regulation for diesel engine and its application. Master thesis. Northeast Agricultural University; 2000 [in Chinese]. [12] Zhang JB. Research of absorption ice-maker system utilizing diesel surplus energy. Master thesis. Dalian Maritime University; 2008 [in Chinese]. [13] Pan QY. Study of adsorption refrigeration on ship’s air conditioning system utilizing M/E jacket cooling water. Master thesis. Jimei University; 2010 [in Chinese]. [14] Tompkins BT, Song H, Bittle JA, Jacobs TJ. Efficiency considerations for the use of blended biofuel in diesel engines. Appl Energy 2012;98:209–18. [15] Liu ZM, Yu XL, Shen MY. Engine thermal balance test. J Zhejiang Univ (Eng Sci) 2008;7:1247–50 [in Chinese]. [16] Bidini G, Maria F, Generosi M. Micro-cogeneration system for a small passenger vessel operating in a nature reserve. Appl Therm Eng 2005;25(5– 6):851–65. [17] Tien WK, Yeh RH, Hong JM. Theoretical analysis of cogeneration system for ships. Energy Convers Manage 2007;48(7):1965–74. [18] Rigby GR, Hallegraeff GM, Sutton C. Novel ballast water heating technique offers cost-effective treatment to reduce the risk of global transport of harmful marine organisms. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 1999;191:289–93. [19] Dai D, Zhou Y, Liu J. Liquid metal based thermoelectric generation system for waste heat recovery. Renew Energy 2011;36(12):3530–6. [20] Hsu C, Huang G, Chu H, Ben Y, Yao D. Experiments and simulations on lowtemperature waste heat harvesting system by thermoelectric power generators. Appl Energy 2011;88(4):1291–7.

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