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Adaptation to river bank erosion induced displacement in Koyra Upazila of Bangladesh
Progress in Disaster Science 5 (2020) 100055
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Progress in Disaster Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pdisas
Regular article
Adaptation to river bank erosion induced displacement in Koyra Upazila of Bangladesh ⁎
Md. Sadequr Rahman a, , Animesh Gain b a b
Department of Sociology, University of Barishal, Barishal, Bangladesh Sociology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh
A R T I C L E
I N F O
Available online 05 November 2019 Keywords: Adaptation River bank erosion Displacement Vulnerability
Keywords: Adaptation River bank erosion Displacement Vulnerability
A B S T R A C T
River bank erosion negatively affects on people and their livelihood with their economic, social and psychological distress increasing over the time. Most of the people are vulnerable and their economic condition are fragile for internally displaced in Dakshin Bedkashi, Choramukha and Ghorilal villages of Koyra riverine area of Khulna district. Mixed research methods including quantitative and qualitative approach was applied by survey method, Key Informant Interview (KII), and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) to collect information. Most of the people do not exists sustainable livelihood framework (SLF) due to the acute poverty for river erosion. About 82.49% respondents' house were fully damaged and 26.27% respondents live besides the roads and embankments due to erosion. About 85.02% respondents were internally displaced/migrated or becoming homeless due to Kapothaksma and Shakbaria river erosion. About 76.27% respondents' occupational status were affected severely, 48.39% changed their livelihood and engaged with catching fish, 28.34% households suffer tremendous food crisis, 36.18% respondents' income is decreasing, 32.02% loss their land, and 91.94% respondents suffer psychological stress like anxiety, depression, dizziness, insomnia, unsteady gait, post traumatic stress disorder, somatoform etc. due to river erosion. About 94.24% and 34.10% respondents cope up, adjusted or adapted by reducing meals and extra workload. 75.58% respondents borrowed money from GO, NGOs, Mahajon, Co-operatives, and Relatives with high interest. 81.11% and 33.64% respondents adjusted or adapted by decreasing rate of school going children and adjusted through drop out their child from formal education due to river erosion. In this paper, it is observed as risk that river bank erosion is causal factors of migration, vulnerability and hindrances of rural socio-economic, cultural, psychological and environmental development. The people who affected by river bank erosion immediately migrate for safe shelter and later permanently for survival.
1. Introduction 1.1. Background of the study Bangladesh is recognized as one of the most disaster prone countries of the world and is extremely vulnerable to climate change. Due to the climate change, river erosion are becoming increasingly frequent and intense, resulting in significant human and economic losses. It focused on the issues of the process of marginalization for a group of river bank erosion displaced currently. Bangladesh has complex rivers and channels most of which are shifting in nature and thus riverbank erosion is more common [5]. River bank erosion is a natural disaster and takes place round the year [31]. River bank erosion is an endemic and recurrent natural hazard, which create enormous amount of land loss, population displacement and landlessness [11,15,43]. A large number of people become homeless in ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected]. (M.S. Rahman).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2019.100055 2590-0617/©2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Bangladesh due to river bank erosion [32]. It is revealed that the victims in Bangladesh have been suffering from the sheer lack of institutional response in formulating and undertaking adjustment strategies. The overall disaster scenario in Bangladesh is gradually changing for the worse. River bank erosion has become a common phenomenon along with the major and minor rivers in Bangladesh mainly due to deltaic topography and it has forced people to migrate or resettle in more vulnerable areas. It is difficult to forecast whether there will be net accretion or erosion. But it is estimated that thousands of families migrated from one to other regions due to natural calamities. Every year, millions of people are affected by erosion that destroys standing crops, farmland and homestead land. It is estimated that about 5% of the total floodplain area of Bangladesh is directly affected by erosion. Out of 489 upazilas of Bangladesh, 94 upazilas were affected by river erosion in 2013, of which 35 (including Koyra upazila of Khulna) were severe in nature [30,43]. High population density, a large section of population, high population density and poor economic condition of the population is bound to stay in high risk or more devastating zones like banks of meandering rivers. This is a common scenario in almost all countries in
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Progress in Disaster Science 5 (2020) 100055
Asia. In Bangladesh, River bank erosion tends to the poor and small landowners people more severe and more vulnerable. River erosion affects their well-being in terms of safety and shelter, as well as their sources of livelihood [34]. River bank erosion is bringing about unemployment, landlessness and poverty in every year, and is increasing over time. It has been supposed to be responsible for the unstable condition in the country [10, 33].
systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects’. For example, river bank erosion induced displacement. 1.4.3. Coping strategies It is very much related with capacity (Fig. 1). Strategies can be defined as a set of activities or mechanism by which people try to survive in disasters, recover their situation and develop their conditions after disaster [27]. Turner outlined a framework of the components of vulnerability that interact and influence each other, where effective actions can be reduced overall vulnerability as exposure, resistance and resilience [41] or exposure, coping capacity and recovery potential [36,42].
1.2. Objectives of the study The main objective of the study is to better understanding of the impact of river bank erosion on population displacement and resettlement. Specific objectives of the study are following:
2. Review of literature
1. To identify the nature of relationship between river bank erosion and population displacement. 2. To delineate underlying economic, social, and cultural relationships and respond to river erosion. 3. To determine the psychological distress associated with displacement. 4. To find out coping mechanism, adaptation, mitigation and resilience to river erosion.
It is an important and essential part to find out the knowledge gap. To endorse the rationality of the proposed study, the researchers tried to find out knowledge gap through reviewed the study of relevant literatures, which includes the books, journals, reports and internet resources. Some relevant literatures of the proposed study are discussed below: Islam, M. Zahurul et al., [14] conducted case study to observe the Meghna river bank erosion, population displacement and socio-economic impacts in Bangladesh in their article ‘Bank Erosion of the River Meghna: Population displacement and socio-economic impacts’. Data showed that the river bank erosion affects the people to such an extent that the people lose all of their belongings. As a result, socio-economic problems and displacement were occurred significantly like the condition of the household size, educational attainment, labour force participation and occupational status, land holding and income were negatively affected at both individual and households levels. Keya and Harun [16] examined the psychological stress of riverbank erosion on women in Bangladesh in their study entitled ‘Riverbank Erosion induced Stress and Coping of Displaced Women in Bangladesh’. This study attempted to assess the psychic stress level and coping mechanisms of river erosion affected women who had lost their shelter and property and were compelled to migrate to government khas land. Displaced women used different coping mechanisms like more positive reappraisal and seeking social support. They used less confrontive, less aggressive coping mechanism which is a sign of constructive adaptation strategy. The displaced women were also found to use less self-control, accepting responsibility, escapeavoidance and planned problem solving strategies of coping compared to their non-displaced counterparts [7]. Udomratn, Pichet [28] presents an overview of natural disasters in Asia, as well as mental disorders and psycho-social interventions related to disasters in his article named ‘Mental health and the psychosocial consequences of natural disasters in Asia’. This study reveals that the prevalence rate of post-traumatic stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms vary from 8.6% to 57.3% among Asian survivors in the aftermath of natural disaster. The prevalence of major depressive disorder related to disasters is less frequent when compared with post-traumatic stress disorder. Data from Thailand showing that the prevalence rate of tsunami-related posttraumatic stress disorder in children (diagnosed by child psychiatrists) and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults (using a questionnaire) decreased over time while major depressive disorder in children did not, but depressive symptoms in adults showed a modest decrease at nine months of follow up. In the developing countries of Asia the limitations of mental health professionals and inadequate knowledge and practices concerning the mental health of disaster victims among the medical and paramedic staff may lead to delays in the psychosocial interventions and rehabilitation of the survivors. Rahman, M.R. [24] wrote a paper named ‘Impact of Riverbank Erosion Hazard in the Jamuna Flood plain Areas in Bangladesh’ where he focuses the socio-demographic profile of the victims and population displacement by river erosion. Due to riverbank erosion a significant portion of the victims are compelled to leave the original homestead plot and take shelter by the road side embankment, neighbors land and relative land.
1.3. Research questions To meet the research objectives, the present study will focus on the basis of following questions: 1. What is the nature of displacement people due to riverbank erosion? 2. What are the impacts on economic condition of displacement people? 3. What types of socio-cultural sufferings and psychological distress impacts on displacement people due to river erosion? 4. How the displaced people cope up, adapted or mitigated with river erosion? 1.4. Operational definition of the concepts 1.4.1. Vulnerability Vulnerability is the condition determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or process, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards. Vulnerability is; insecurity, the reverse of security,: it reflects the characteristics of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipated, cope with, resist, and recover from the impact of a natural hazard' [16]. It involves a combination of factors that determine the degree to which someone's life and livelihood is part at risk by a discrete and identifiable event in nature or in society [35]. It refers to exposure to contingencies and stress and difficulty in coping with them. Disaster may attributes by considering the many social, physical, environmental, economic and political components that interact to influence vulnerability [36]. Just as people's livelihoods opportunities and their pattern of assets and incomes are determined by wider political and economic pressures, vulnerability to the impact of hazards is also a function of this wider environment. All the vulnerability variables are inherently connected with people's livelihoods and with poverty [6]. It is not exception about river bank erosion areas people of Bangladesh. 1.4.2. Adaptation Adaptation is a process, by which strategies to moderate, cope with, and take advantage of the consequences of climate events are enhanced, developed and implemented. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby a population becomes better suited to its habitat. This process takes place over many generations. It is basic phenomena of biology [9]. According to the IPCC [40]), adaptation is a response to environmental stimuli that affect given entities, subjects or systems. Adaptations are processes within entities and systems, or adjustments made by human systems. Linda Hutcheon is the called the pioneer of ‘adaptation theory’. According to O'Brien et al. [37]), adaptation is an adjustment of ‘natural or human 2
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Change in Perception Pattern
Climate Change
Abnormal Flooding
River bank Erosion
Loss of Homestead Land
Loss of Agricultural Land
Loss of Production
Income Decreased
Forced Displacement
Low Expenditure in Food Consumption
Marginal Expenditure in Education
Poor Expenditure in Health Care
Livelihood Status becomes More Vulnerable
Fig. 1. Conceptual framework. (Source: [27] and Authors Complications, 2017 & 2019)
The degree of economic loss and vulnerability of population due to bank erosion has dramatically increased in recent years. The impact of land loss involves primarily the loss of homestead land, housing structures, crops, cattle, trees and household utensils. Loss of homesteads forces people to move to new places without any option and puts them in disastrous situations. About one million people are directly affected each year by bank erosion in the country. Most households earned their income through daily wages. A very few (6 people) ran small businesses like selling tea and sundries. Very few people living on the bank line depended directly on farming as a source of income, as virtually all villagers had been rendered landless by river erosion. Over 70% of households had an income below the official poverty line in Bangladesh and over 50% were living below the extreme poverty line, with on average households earning less than US$ 1 dollar per day. Uddin and Basak [27] wrote the report entitled ‘Effects of Riverbank Erosion on Livelihood’ in where they depict the overall impacts of riverbank erosion on the livelihood status of the people who resides on the bank of rivers. The study was conducted in the most vulnerable regions of Bangladesh (i.e., Kapasia Union of Gaibandha District, and Kazipur and Khasrajbari Union of Sirajganj District) due to riverbank erosion where the authors tried to find out the coping mechanism and effects of riverbank erosion on livelihood and its associated displacement. Haque [9] discussed the general impacts of hazards in the Lower Brahmaputra (Jamuna) floodplain of Bangladesh. The vulnerability of river bank eroded people have been assessed in terms of loss of land, occupational change, and their kinship, social ties and relationships. The survey was conducted on 547 randomly selected displaced households. A large number of household whose primary occupation was agricultural labourer for dislocation by the river bank erosion. The paper concluded that the Bengal Alluvion and Diluvion Regulation (1825) was enacted and implemented, but the regulation was not intended to introduce any new rule of law and it declared the supremacy and applicability of the rules of usage. According to the regulation, claims and disputes over emerged char lands
were decided upon by considering the local use of payasty (alluvion) and sikosty (diluvion). The Act of 1950 by the government of Pakistan abolished the permanent settlement with the proprietors and emphasised on de-facto possession of land mainly occupied by Muslim peasants and tried to establish legal rights for the marginalized, smaller landowners. In reality, even today, larger landowning class (jotdar) dominates the power structure and they determine the possession of re-emerged land from the riverbeds. However, it is important to remember that newly accreted land may take up to 15 years to develop full production potential, whereas the land that was lost into erosion is in most cases, valuable agricultural land. A.T.M. Abdullahel Baki [3] conducted both qualitative and quantitative research in his article entitled ‘Socio-Economic Impacts of Gorai Riverbank Erosion on People: A Case Study of Kumarkhali, Kushtia’. The findings of the study reveal that affected people have experienced substantial socioeconomic impoverishment. Among them 93% are negatively and 2% are positively impacted. The socio-economic impacts of Gorai riverbank erosion on the people of Kumarkhali were crucial and still it is a nightmare for their successors. Mahmood [17] defined migration as an act of people's movement to a foreign country for a particular period of time, and with a definite purpose in mind. The concept of migration, however, should be clearly understood. Meyer [21] has distinguished between mobility, represent movement within boundaries, and migration, in which persons cross their boundaries. Such boundaries may be geographical, structural, ethnic or some other divisions, which is recognized by the actor as setting him apart to it. When a person migrates to the city he is facing a challenge of mobility within the new setting and new environment. This mobility may require a new life style, new attitudes, and new behavioral forms. Most of the writers who define migration tend to speak only of the physical transition from one geographical area to another. But it is observed differently between migrations which are based on choice and those which are involuntary. Tanjinul Hoque Mollah and Jannatual Ferdaush [19] identify the number of climate included migrants in kazipur upazila under Sirajgonj district. 3
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They considered observed risk such as river bank erosion as casual factors of rural vulnerability. IPCC [13] declared that the greatest single consequence of climate change could be migration, ‘with millions of people displaced by shoreline erosion, coastal flooding and severe drought’. In the mid 1990s, Norman Myers became the most prominent proponent of this ‘maximalist’ school stating that there were 25 million environmental refugees in the mid 1990s, and claiming that this number could double by last decade, with an upper limit of two hundred million by 2050 due to desertification, lack of water, sanitation of irrigated lands and the depletion of biodiversity [4,21]. It also has been hypothesized that displacement would amount to 30 million in China, 30 million in India, 15 million in Bangladesh, 14 million in Egypt, 10 million in other delta areas and coastal zones, 1 million in island states, and with otherwise agriculturally displaced people totaling 50 million by 2050 the figure might be as high as 200–250 million [20,26].
Table 2 Educational qualification of respondents. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 Frequency
Percent
185 132 92 19 6 434
42.63 30.41 21.20 4.38 1.38 100.00
of female respondents like 10.83% exists in 25–35 years age range. Almost 28.80% respondent's age belongs to 25–35 years; 46–55 years age group belong to 24.88% in general, while female respondent is 5.53% only; 56–65 years of age belong to 7.84%. And the lowest 4.61% respondent belongs to 66 and above years in general and 4.38% in male and 0.23% in female. Data also indicate that among the respondents almost 72.35% are male and 27.65% are female. Education is the backbone of a nation (Table 2). Moreover, education represents the awareness and social status of the people in the society. The table represents the cranky situation of their education where only 1.38% respondents were completed graduate and 4.38% completed higher secondary due to financial crisis. A major portion of respondents 42.63% were below primary, 30.41% were primary and 21.2% were secondary level. As a result, they were more vulnerable. Among the 3 FGD where each group consists of seven members, most of the respondents are illiterate; some of them can only write his name. Very few of them are literate because most people lives under poverty line and they have no enough opportunity to education. The table expounds that occupation of respondents before river erosion and after river erosion (Table 3). The table shows that most of the people of the study area are illiterate and they were engaged with catching fish. About half of the respondents or 50% engaged in the occupation of fishing before erosion. On the contrary, due to river erosion two-thirds or 67.97% respondent engage with catching fish because they have no enough educational background or opportunities. As a result, they are going to river early for livelihood. About 37.1% belonged to agriculture, about 9.68% engaged in business, and rest of them, 3.23%, belonged to services sector before river erosion. On the other hand, due to river erosion about 19.82% are involved as farmer in which most land is merging with gher (shrimp cultivation); only 2.07% and 1.15% are engaged in teaching profession and development sector respectively, and 8.99% are doing petty business. Agricultural related employment is very low because the arable land is limited for gher or shrimp cultivation. Showkot Sheikh (47) said, I am an independent old person. I have passed my days through fisherman. Now, I am living with my son. Also, I had lost his land as a result of riverbank erosion though I have a few amount of cultivating land now. The above figure represents the impact of river erosion on their occupational statu (Fig. 2). A significant portion or 76.27% respondents affected severe negatively of river erosion on occupational status. About 10.83% respondents were affected moderately regarding occupational status due to river erosion. On the other hand, about 5.76% respondents were slightly affected on their occupational status by dint of river erosion. Another, 7.14%
3. Materials and methods This study was exploratory in nature. Data were systematically well arranged. To conduct this study, survey method was used to collect data and mixed method (qualitative and quantitative) research design was used. Data was collected purposively from the selected three villages named Chromukha, Dakshin Bedkashi, and Ghorilal of riverine Koyra upazila in south-western coastal belt of Khulna district in Bangladesh from August 20 to August 30, 2017 of 91 sample size in the first phase and the September 07 to September 14, 2019 of 343 sample size in the second phase consecutively. There are 442 households in Choramukha, 450 households in Dakshin Bedkashi, 670 households in Ghorilal and in total 1562 households in the study area (source: 7 no. Dakshin Bedkashi union office). By using confidence level 95% and confidence interval 4, the sample size is calculated as 434 based on following formula: SS ¼
Education Below primary Primary Secondary Higher secondary Graduate/B.A. Total
Z2 ðPÞ ð1−PÞ where : C2
Z = Z value (e.g. 1.96 for 95% confidence level) P = percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal (0.5 used for sample size needed) C = confidence interval, expressed as decimal (e.g., 0.04 = ±4). So, 434 Samples, 3 FGD and 3 KII were chosen purposively from the total population of the three different villages for performing this research. Moreover, project documents and report about the concern organizations, newspaper (local and national) articles, magazines, journal, books, research reports etc. were used. Data were computerized, processed and analyzed by using various statistical techniques and software like SPSS and Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word etc. and presented in text form with necessary images, figures etc. 4. Findings and discussion of the study 4.1. Socio-economic status of the respondents Data in the Table 1 represent that majority of the respondents 33.87% belongs to the age group 36–45 years while in that range the male and female respondent is 23.96% and 9.91% respectively, but the large number
Table 3 Occupational status of respondents. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Table 1 Age and gender distribution of respondents. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Previous occupational status
Present occupational status
Age (in year)
Frequency
Percent
Male
Percent
Female
Percent
Occupation
Frequency
Percent
Occupation
Frequency
Percent
25–35 36–45 46–55 56–65 66 and above Total
125 147 108 34 20 434
28.80 33.87 24.88 7.84 4.61 100.0
78 104 84 29 19 314
17.98 23.96 19.36 6.68 4.38 72.35
47 43 24 5 1 120
10.83 9.91 5.53 1.15 0.23 27.65
Agriculture Service
161 14
37.10 3.23
Business Fisherman Total
42 217 434
9.68 50.00 100.00
Farmer Teacher NGO worker Business Fisherman Total
86 9 5 39 295 434
19.82 2.07 1.15 8.99 67.97 100.00
4
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Table 5 River erosion changes in social normal life. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
76.27% 80 60 40 10.83%
20
5.76%
7.14%
River erosion changes their social normal life
Frequency
Percent
Yes No Total
432 2 434
99.54 0.46 100.00
0 Severely
Moderate
Slightly
No Effect
Fig. 2. River erosion impact on occupational status. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019.
17.51% Fully Damage
respondents expressed that they were not affected on their occupational status because they were engaged with service and NGOs related work. The table represents that income of respondents before and after erosion (Table 4). The table expounds that only 1.38% and 4.15% respondents earn 500–1000 and 1000–1500 taka at present, but about 0.92% and 1.15% of respondents earned 500–1000 and 1000–1500 taka respectively before the river erosion. About 20.05% respondent earns 1500–3000 Tk at present, on the other hand there were 4.15% respondents belonged to this. And 35.25% respondents earn 3000–5000 Tk at present, whereas 17.97% respondents earned 3000–5000 Tk earlier. About 36.64% respondents earn 5000–10,000 Tk at present whereas 39.17% respondents were belonged to that range of income in before erosion. Only 2.53% respondents earn 10,000 and above taka at present, but about 36.64% of respondents earned the range of income before the river erosion. Due to river erosion the earning income of the respondents are decreased right now for lack of employment opportunities, lack of boat who was engaged with fisherman in comparison to earlier. Ayub Molla (48) said, Once a time I had income was twenty thousand taka. But after the erosion my income is five thousand taka I mean the shortage of work, changing place and changing occupation are main reason for reducing income.
Paral damage
82.49%
Fig. 3. Types of house damage due to river erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
embankments at present. Besides, at present 6.91% and 9.45% have to stay on shelter house and their relative houses respectively due to river erosion. Sripodo Mondal (60) expressed, My family is extended family. I have nine members of my family. I had four rooms before erosion, but due to erosion in a single room we have four to five members' lives at present. The table presents that most of the respondents earn less income due to river bank erosion (Table 6). A large portion of respondents or 36.18% found decreasing income due to river erosion. About 28.34% of respondents opine that their food crisis were tremendously increases. One-third portion of respondents or 32.02% loss their agricultural land and about 3.46% respondents face habitat problems tremendously. The table shows that the majority of respondents (Table 7) or 57.14% were severely negatively affected by food crisis and drinking water in their social conditions due to river erosion. One-third or 30.42% were severely affected habitat or residential problems in their social life and 6.91% were facing educational problems due to erosion. Besides some portion of the respondents were careless for their health and sanitation. About 1.15% and 4.38% respondents think that their social status or conditions were severely affected regarding their health and sanitation respectively due to erosion. Expressing the words of Ranojit Thandar (52), I am a poor old farmer. I had lost my cultivating land during the erosion of Shakbaria River. Now, I have only a few amount of cultivating land. I cultivate my own land along with my son and monthly income is almost 10,000 tk. Bank erosion of Shakbaria River has brought significant losses (about 1.2 lac taka-1.6 lac taka) in my life. River erosion affects the cultural aspect or programme (Fig. 5). About 90.09% respondents opine that river erosion affects the cultural program
4.2. Challenges, vulnerability and effects of river bank erosion Everyone expect a well and healthy social and economic life (Table 5). But in the above table mention that 99.54% respondents were fragile situation and changes in social normal life due to river erosion of Kapothaksma and Shakbaria river. Other 0.46% respondents think that they have no changes or affect social normal life because of wellbeing economic circumstances. Housing is the main shelter of a family where the members are closely related to each other. The Fig. 3 claimed that majority of the respondents' or about 82.49% respondents' house were fully damaged due to river erosion. Other 17.51% respondents' house were partial damaged due to river erosion. The Fig. 4 shows that about 56.91% respondents live at present their own house though 82.49% were fully damaged due to erosion. Most of the respondents built their traditional house with the help of polythene and tent. About 26.27% respondents live besides the roads and Table 4 Income of respondents before and after erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 Present income
100
Previous income
Income (in Tk)
Frequency
Percent
Income (in Tk)
Frequency
Percent
500–1000 1000–1500 1500–3000 3000–5000 5000–10,000 10,000 and above Total
6 18 87 153 159 11 434
1.38 4.15 20.05 35.25 36.64 2.53 100.00
500–1000 1000–1500 1500–3000 3000–5000 5000–10,000 10,000 and above Total
4 5 18 78 170 159 434
0.92 1.15 4.15 17.97 39.17 36.64 100.00
56.91% 6.91%
9.45%
On Shelter house
Relative house
26.27% 0.46%
0 Own house
On the roads
Others
Fig. 4. Live at present. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 5
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Table 6 Modes of challenges due to river erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
8.06%
Modes of challenges
Frequency
Percent
Increases food crisis Decrease income Loss of land Habitat problems Total
123 157 139 15 434
28.34 36.18 32.02 3.46 100.00
Yes
Table 7 Severely negatively affected social status/conditions. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Fig. 6. Suffering from psychological problem due to erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Social condition
Frequency
Percent
Education Food and drinking Sanitation Residential facility Health Total
30 248 19 132 5 434
6.91 57.14 4.38 30.42 1.15 100.00
Table 8 Feeling remember that incident. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
adversely. Only 9.91% respondents point out that river erosion could not affect the cultural programs. Mosiur Molla (36) told, Once I well played Ha-du-du in this region and I was also hired by other regions. But it is matter of sorrow that it is now stopped for lack of money, lack of manpower and lack of happiness due to river erosion. Now, the boat race is also absent which was commonly regular. The figure represents that how much river erosion influences on their psychological stress (Fig. 6). About 91.94% respondents suffered psychological stress due to river erosion. About 8.06% respondents opine that they could not suffer any psychological problem due to river erosion. Data in the Table 8 represent the various types of incident feeling remember after erosion. Among the data 36.87% were belonged to flash back due to erosion. One-fourth or about 24.65% respondents felt dizziness due to river erosion. About 16.36% respondents felt altering sleep wake cycle causing for river erosion, 7.14% respondents felt insomnia and 8.07% respondents felt unsteady gait due to erosion. And the rest of 6.91% respondents were belonged to others due to erosion. Grendronath Sardar (62) said, Psychologically I am not well, now. I believe that riverbank erosion is the main cause of my physical illness. Even I became the victim of unstable angina during the disaster period. Now, I have been suffering from whooping cough, scabies and other skin diseases due to river erosion. The table represent the different types of psychological problem that suffered by river erosion (Table 9). Regarding psychological problem, almost two-thirds or 63.59% respondents suffered to post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to river erosion. About 26.96% respondents felt major depressive disorder (MDD) due to river erosion. About 7.14% respondents seemed to somatoform disorder and 2.31% respondents felt mixed anxiety depressive disorder (MADD) respectively due to river bank erosion.
Incident
Frequency
Percent
Dizziness Unsteady gait Flash back Insomnia Altered sleep wake cycle Others Total
107 35 160 31 71 30 434
24.65 8.07 36.87 7.14 16.36 6.91 100.00
Ashin Mondal (48) told, I am very much conscious about my psychological condition. I got some amount of money during erosion, but it is not sufficient for me. When I remember that disaster attack, I feel panic, dizziness and unsteady gait. Besides, I have been suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and somatoform disorder since Shakbaria River erosion. But I did not get psychological treatment for lack of facilities there. 4.3. Adaptation strategies of river erosion affected people The adaptation strategies data show that majority of the respondents or 94.24% cope up, adjusted or adapted by reducing meals with food security (Table 10). A significant portion or 85.02% respondents adjusted the river erosion by internally displaced/migrated or becoming homeless. Threefourths portion or about 75.58% respondents adjusted their river bank erosion by borrowed money from GO, NGOs, Mahajon, Co-operatives, and Relatives with high interest. About 20.51% or one-fifth respondents mitigate their problems due to river erosion by lending money from Relatives, Neighbors and Donor agencies with low interest or free interest. Almost half of the respondents or 48.39% adopted their strategy to change their livelihood after river bank erosion, but mostly altered their livelihood and engaged with catching fish. One-third of the respondents or about 34.10% tried to earn extra money by extra workload. About 81.11% respondents opine that their family adjusted or adapted by decreasing rate of school going children and 33.64% respondents adjusted through drop out their child from formal education. Besides, about 14.75% respondents opined that they did not migrate due to erosion for partial damaged or losses of house by river erosion. Oliur Sheikh (45) said, I have four children's but, I cannot maintain my family by this limited income. I managed my family through low food taking; drop out children's and borrowing money from local NGOs and relatives. I have also some cultivable land where planting new types
9.91%
Table 9 Type of psychological problem that suffered by erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Yes 90.09%
No
91.94%
No
Fig. 5. River erosion affect cultural program. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 6
Types of psychological problem
Frequency
Percent
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Major depressive disorder (MDD) Somatoform disorder Mixed anxiety depressive disorder Total
276 117 31 10 434
63.59 26.96 7.14 2.31 100.00
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69.36%
Table 10 Adaptation strategies of river erosion affected people. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 Adaptation strategies
Frequency Percent
Homeless or internally displaced/migrated Borrowed money from GO, NGOs, Mahajon, Co-operatives, and Relatives with high interest Lend money from Relatives, Neighbors and Donor agencies with low interest or free interest Changed their livelihood Earning extra money by extra workload By reducing meal(s) Decrease rate of school going children Drop out child from formal education Do not migrate Total
369 328
85.02 75.58
89
20.51
210 148 409 352 146 64 434
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
12.67% 5.99% Repairs of Cyclone Dams shelter
48.39 34.10 94.24 81.11 33.64 14.75 100.00
River excavation
6.22%
Set up sluice gate
5.76%
Others
Fig. 7. Govt. infrastructural strategies for adaptation to river erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
seeds and managed by shrimp cultivations. Halim Molla (40), a fisherman from Ghorilal Village in the coastal region of Khulna also said, Once upon a time I had owned a fishing boat and net and employed 15 to 20 sailors. Life had its promises and goodness. But fate had something else in store for me. I have three children, wife and mother but had to forced migration due to river erosion of Shakbaria River. My house and land plunged into the river in May 2015. I faced bitter experience as unemployment and extreme poverty. Data shows the different adopted strategies to overcome damaged productivity of land (Table 11). About 37.79% respondents adopted their new strategies to cultivate new shrimp. About 28.57% respondents belong to planting new types of seeds to overcome damaged productivity of land. One-fifth of the respondents or 20.05% respondents improved their situation through adopting training by local NGOs. 6.6% respondents overcome their damaged productivity of land by using more fertilizers. And rests of them like 11.06% respondents adopted others or various strategies to overcome damaged productivity of land). Every citizen wants to adoption of governmental infrastructural strategies for adaptation to any disaster or hazards (Fig. 7). About 69.36% respondents opined that repairing of dams bearing the expenses of government is the requirement of adaptation to river erosion because most of the roads or dams or embankments of the area are very low qualities. About 12.67% respondents opine that cyclone shelter is the government infrastructural strategies for adaptation to river erosion. Only 6.22% respondents express their opinion about set up sluice gate regarding the strategies for adaptation to river erosion. About 5.99% respondents opined excavation of river is prerequisites for adaptation to river erosion. There are some other strategies for adaptation to river erosion that expressed 5.76% respondents). Forest is the main preventive strategies against river bank erosion (Fig. 8). Almost half of the respondents or about 48.85% respondents express that afforestation along the coastal belt is the preventive strategies against river bank erosion by recovering loss of forest. One-fourth or 25.57% respondents express their opinion for preventive strategies to recover the loss of forest by planting deep rooted trees in river erosion areas. About 14.29% respondents point out that planting in highlands is coping strategies to river erosion. About 11.29% respondents opine that some other preventive strategies may be adopted against river bank erosion.
5. Conclusion and recommendations Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world due to climate change, sea level rise, uneven distribution of rainfall, abnormal flooding, more frequent and intense tropical cyclones, drought, riverbank erosion, heat and cold waves that affect the lives and livelihoods recurrently. Koyra is one of the most vulnerable river erosion area. River erosion affects adversely the lives of survivors socially, economically, psychologically, and culturally that can influence the behaviour of these areas people. Every year, a large number of its population is displaced due to riverbank erosion. They lose their habitat, agricultural land, forest and tangible properties. They also face food insecurity, economic crisis, psychological stress, and migrate to another place to make new settlement. These lead them environmental and socially vulnerable as a whole in every sense. The marginalized and poor people not only lose their property but also experiences socio-economic vulnerability through river erosion. Before deteriorating situation to beyond control, it is high time to take necessary actions to stop river erosion and to ensure sustainable livelihood management of the victims. Besides, to minimize the loss of river erosion, some measures should be taken in different level: a) Sustainable embankment construction and its maintenance. b) Training on disaster preparedness involving local institution or local government. c) Massive afforestation with the experience of indigenous/local knowledge and its maintenance [25]. d) Action against deforestation. e) Engaged NGOs, local level civil society and the private sector for its maintenance. f) Draw a road map for river dressing to develop of management plans by various entities. g) Comprehensive management policy should be implemented against the siltation of the river bed losing its depth and eroding banks locally or nationally. h) The relief and rehabilitation programme for the displaced people should be taken immediately and properly.
48.85% 50 40 30 20 10 0
Table 11 Strategies to overcome damage productivity of land. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 Strategies
Frequency
Percent
Planting new types seeds Using more fertilizers Trained by local NGOs New shrimp cultivation Others Total
124 11 87 164 48 434
28.57 2.53 20.05 37.79 11.06 100.00
25.57% 14.29%
Afforestation Planting deep Plantation in highlands rooted trees in along the river erosion coastal belt areas
11.29%
Others
Fig. 8. Preventive strategies against river erosion for recovering loss of forest. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 7
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Progress in Disaster Science 5 (2020) 100055 [16] Keya MK, Harun SMR. Riverbank erosion induced stress and coping of displaced women in Bangladesh. Empowerment 2007;14:17–30. [17] Mahmood R. Bangladeshi returned migrants from the Middle East: process, achievement; 1992. [19] Mollah TH, Ferdaush J. Riverbank erosion, population migration and rural vulnerability in Bangladesh (a case study on Kazipur Upazila at Sirajgonj District). Environ Ecol Res 2015;3(5):125–31. https://doi.org/10.13189/eer.2015.030502. http://www.hrpub. org. [20] Mutton D, Haque CE. Human vulnerability, dislocation and resettlement: adaptation processes of riverbank erosion induced displaces in Bangladesh. Disasters 2004;28(1): 41–62. [21] Myers N. Environmental refugees. Population Environ 1997;19(2):167–82. [24] Rahman MR. Impact of riverbank erosion hazard in the Jamuna floodplain areas in Bangladesh. J Sci Foundation 2010;8(1 & 2):55–65 (June-December). [25] Rogge J, Haque C. Riverbank erosion hazard, rural population displacement, and institutional responses and policies in Bangladesh, paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of American Geographers, April, Portland; 1987. [26] Stern N. The economics of climate change. UK: Cambridge University Press; 2006. [27] Uddin AFMA, Basak JK. Effects of riverbank erosion on livelihood. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Unnayan Onneshan-The Innovators; 2012 (January 2012). [28] Udomratn P. Mental health and the psychosocial consequences of natural disasters in Asia. Int Rev Psychiatry 2008;20(5):441–4 Published online 11 July 2009 https://doi. org/10.1080/09540260802397487. [30] Government of Bangladesh. 2014. Disaster Report 2013 [Retrieved by: http://reliefweb. int/report/ bangladesh/ disaster-report-2013, Access: 20.01.2015] [31] Baqee MA. Coping with floods and erosion in Bangladesh char-lands. Asia Pacific Journal of Development 1997;4(2):38–52. [32] Das, Bela. Stakeholders’ perception in identification of river bank erosion hazard: a case study. Natural Hazards 2011;58(3):905–28. [33] Rahman MR. Impact of Riverbank Erosion Hazard in the Jamuna Floodplain Areas in Bangladesh. Journal of Science Foundation 2013;8(1 & 2):55–65. https://doi.org/10. 3329/jsf.v8i1-2.14627. [34] Brouwer R, Akter S, Brander L, Haque E. Socio-economic Vulnerability and Adaptation to Environmental Risk: A Case Study of Climate Change and Flooding in Bangladesh. Risk Analysis 2007;27(2):313–26. [35] Islam SN. Char people, living with the Padma River and fragile environment: char study report March 2000. (Unpublished Report), Gono Unnayan Prochesta (GUP), A National NGO, Dhaka, Bangladesh 2000:1–53. [36] Turner BL, Kasperson RE, Matson PA, McCarthy JJ, Corell RW, Christensen L, et al. A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2003;100(14):8074–9. [37] O’Brien K, Sygna L, Haugen JE. Vulnerable or resilient? A multi-scale assessment of climate impacts and vulnerability in Norway. Climatic Change 2004;64(1–2):193–225. [40] IPCC. Climate change 2001: Imp[acts, adaptation and vulnerability. Summary for Policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Working Group II) 2001. [41] Pelling M. The Vulnerability of Cities. Earthscan Publication Ltd, London, UK 2003: 46–67. [42] Bohle HG, Downing TE, Watts MJ. Climate change and social vulnerability: toward a sociology and geography of food insecurity. Global Environmental Change 1994;4(1): 37–48. [43] Rahman MH, Rahman MS, Rahman MM. DISASTERS IN BANGLADESH: MITIGATION AND MANAGEMENT. Barisal University Journal Part 1, 4(1):139-163 (2017) 2017;4 (1):139–63.
i) Many river erosion affected people lives under poverty line and suffer for least income. So the affected people should be given loan with low interest rate. j) Illiteracy is increasing day by day in the area because of drop out children from formal education. So the local leader as well as the Government representatives should take good initiatives to manage it. k) Social/public awareness should be strengthened. Declaration of competing interests The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Acknowledgements We are grateful to some of students named Bibekananda Bala, Pabittra Kumar Raha of department of Sociology of Khulna University including the authors for their participation of data collection process. We remain also grateful to all of the respondents those who consent to share their experiences for valuable suggestions of our study. The authors analyzed data, and found the results and discussion by the fieldwork. References [3] Baki ATM. Socio-economic impacts of Gorai riverbank erosion on people: a case study of Kumarkhali, Kushtia. BRAC University: Doctoral dissertation; 2014. [4] Boano C, Zetter R, Morris T. Environmentally displaced people: understanding the linkages between environmental change, livelihoods and forced migration. Refugee Studies Centre. Oxford Department of International Development. University of Oxford; 2012. [5] Bristow CS, Best JL. Braided rivers: perspectives and problems. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 1993;75(1):1–11. [6] Cannon T, Twigg J, Rowell J. Social vulnerability, sustainable livelihoods and disasters. London: DFID; 2003. [7] Elahi KM, Ahmed QS, Mafizuddin M, editors. Riverbank erosion, flood and population displacement in Bangladesh. Riverbank erosion impact study. Savar, Dhaka: Jahangirnagar University; 1991. [9] Haque CE. Impact of riverbank erosion in Kazipur: an application of Landsat imagery. REIS Newsletters: Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh; 1987. [10] Haque CE. Impacts of riverbank erosion hazard in Brahmaputra Jamuna floodplain: a study of population displacement and response strategies. PhD Thesis Canada: Department of Geography, University of Manitoba; 1988. [11] Hossain MZ. Riverbank erosion and population displacement: a case of Kazipur in Pabna. Unpublished thesis Savar, Dhaka: Jahangirnagar University; 1984. [13] IPCC. Climate change: the IPCC scientific assessment; 1990 (Mass, Cambridge). [14] Islam MZ, Najmul Islam M, Akter ST. Bank Erosion of the River Meghna: population displacement and socio-economic impacts. Indian Journal of Power River Valley Development 2007;57(10 & 11). [15] Islam F, Rashid ANM. Riverbank erosion displacees in Bangladesh: need for institutional response and policy intervention. Bangladesh J Bioethic 2011;2(2) (Dhaka, Bangladesh).
8
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Progress in Disaster Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pdisas
Regular article
Adaptation to river bank erosion induced displacement in Koyra Upazila of Bangladesh ⁎
Md. Sadequr Rahman a, , Animesh Gain b a b
Department of Sociology, University of Barishal, Barishal, Bangladesh Sociology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh
A R T I C L E
I N F O
Available online 05 November 2019 Keywords: Adaptation River bank erosion Displacement Vulnerability
Keywords: Adaptation River bank erosion Displacement Vulnerability
A B S T R A C T
River bank erosion negatively affects on people and their livelihood with their economic, social and psychological distress increasing over the time. Most of the people are vulnerable and their economic condition are fragile for internally displaced in Dakshin Bedkashi, Choramukha and Ghorilal villages of Koyra riverine area of Khulna district. Mixed research methods including quantitative and qualitative approach was applied by survey method, Key Informant Interview (KII), and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) to collect information. Most of the people do not exists sustainable livelihood framework (SLF) due to the acute poverty for river erosion. About 82.49% respondents' house were fully damaged and 26.27% respondents live besides the roads and embankments due to erosion. About 85.02% respondents were internally displaced/migrated or becoming homeless due to Kapothaksma and Shakbaria river erosion. About 76.27% respondents' occupational status were affected severely, 48.39% changed their livelihood and engaged with catching fish, 28.34% households suffer tremendous food crisis, 36.18% respondents' income is decreasing, 32.02% loss their land, and 91.94% respondents suffer psychological stress like anxiety, depression, dizziness, insomnia, unsteady gait, post traumatic stress disorder, somatoform etc. due to river erosion. About 94.24% and 34.10% respondents cope up, adjusted or adapted by reducing meals and extra workload. 75.58% respondents borrowed money from GO, NGOs, Mahajon, Co-operatives, and Relatives with high interest. 81.11% and 33.64% respondents adjusted or adapted by decreasing rate of school going children and adjusted through drop out their child from formal education due to river erosion. In this paper, it is observed as risk that river bank erosion is causal factors of migration, vulnerability and hindrances of rural socio-economic, cultural, psychological and environmental development. The people who affected by river bank erosion immediately migrate for safe shelter and later permanently for survival.
1. Introduction 1.1. Background of the study Bangladesh is recognized as one of the most disaster prone countries of the world and is extremely vulnerable to climate change. Due to the climate change, river erosion are becoming increasingly frequent and intense, resulting in significant human and economic losses. It focused on the issues of the process of marginalization for a group of river bank erosion displaced currently. Bangladesh has complex rivers and channels most of which are shifting in nature and thus riverbank erosion is more common [5]. River bank erosion is a natural disaster and takes place round the year [31]. River bank erosion is an endemic and recurrent natural hazard, which create enormous amount of land loss, population displacement and landlessness [11,15,43]. A large number of people become homeless in ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected]. (M.S. Rahman).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2019.100055 2590-0617/©2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Bangladesh due to river bank erosion [32]. It is revealed that the victims in Bangladesh have been suffering from the sheer lack of institutional response in formulating and undertaking adjustment strategies. The overall disaster scenario in Bangladesh is gradually changing for the worse. River bank erosion has become a common phenomenon along with the major and minor rivers in Bangladesh mainly due to deltaic topography and it has forced people to migrate or resettle in more vulnerable areas. It is difficult to forecast whether there will be net accretion or erosion. But it is estimated that thousands of families migrated from one to other regions due to natural calamities. Every year, millions of people are affected by erosion that destroys standing crops, farmland and homestead land. It is estimated that about 5% of the total floodplain area of Bangladesh is directly affected by erosion. Out of 489 upazilas of Bangladesh, 94 upazilas were affected by river erosion in 2013, of which 35 (including Koyra upazila of Khulna) were severe in nature [30,43]. High population density, a large section of population, high population density and poor economic condition of the population is bound to stay in high risk or more devastating zones like banks of meandering rivers. This is a common scenario in almost all countries in
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Progress in Disaster Science 5 (2020) 100055
Asia. In Bangladesh, River bank erosion tends to the poor and small landowners people more severe and more vulnerable. River erosion affects their well-being in terms of safety and shelter, as well as their sources of livelihood [34]. River bank erosion is bringing about unemployment, landlessness and poverty in every year, and is increasing over time. It has been supposed to be responsible for the unstable condition in the country [10, 33].
systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects’. For example, river bank erosion induced displacement. 1.4.3. Coping strategies It is very much related with capacity (Fig. 1). Strategies can be defined as a set of activities or mechanism by which people try to survive in disasters, recover their situation and develop their conditions after disaster [27]. Turner outlined a framework of the components of vulnerability that interact and influence each other, where effective actions can be reduced overall vulnerability as exposure, resistance and resilience [41] or exposure, coping capacity and recovery potential [36,42].
1.2. Objectives of the study The main objective of the study is to better understanding of the impact of river bank erosion on population displacement and resettlement. Specific objectives of the study are following:
2. Review of literature
1. To identify the nature of relationship between river bank erosion and population displacement. 2. To delineate underlying economic, social, and cultural relationships and respond to river erosion. 3. To determine the psychological distress associated with displacement. 4. To find out coping mechanism, adaptation, mitigation and resilience to river erosion.
It is an important and essential part to find out the knowledge gap. To endorse the rationality of the proposed study, the researchers tried to find out knowledge gap through reviewed the study of relevant literatures, which includes the books, journals, reports and internet resources. Some relevant literatures of the proposed study are discussed below: Islam, M. Zahurul et al., [14] conducted case study to observe the Meghna river bank erosion, population displacement and socio-economic impacts in Bangladesh in their article ‘Bank Erosion of the River Meghna: Population displacement and socio-economic impacts’. Data showed that the river bank erosion affects the people to such an extent that the people lose all of their belongings. As a result, socio-economic problems and displacement were occurred significantly like the condition of the household size, educational attainment, labour force participation and occupational status, land holding and income were negatively affected at both individual and households levels. Keya and Harun [16] examined the psychological stress of riverbank erosion on women in Bangladesh in their study entitled ‘Riverbank Erosion induced Stress and Coping of Displaced Women in Bangladesh’. This study attempted to assess the psychic stress level and coping mechanisms of river erosion affected women who had lost their shelter and property and were compelled to migrate to government khas land. Displaced women used different coping mechanisms like more positive reappraisal and seeking social support. They used less confrontive, less aggressive coping mechanism which is a sign of constructive adaptation strategy. The displaced women were also found to use less self-control, accepting responsibility, escapeavoidance and planned problem solving strategies of coping compared to their non-displaced counterparts [7]. Udomratn, Pichet [28] presents an overview of natural disasters in Asia, as well as mental disorders and psycho-social interventions related to disasters in his article named ‘Mental health and the psychosocial consequences of natural disasters in Asia’. This study reveals that the prevalence rate of post-traumatic stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms vary from 8.6% to 57.3% among Asian survivors in the aftermath of natural disaster. The prevalence of major depressive disorder related to disasters is less frequent when compared with post-traumatic stress disorder. Data from Thailand showing that the prevalence rate of tsunami-related posttraumatic stress disorder in children (diagnosed by child psychiatrists) and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults (using a questionnaire) decreased over time while major depressive disorder in children did not, but depressive symptoms in adults showed a modest decrease at nine months of follow up. In the developing countries of Asia the limitations of mental health professionals and inadequate knowledge and practices concerning the mental health of disaster victims among the medical and paramedic staff may lead to delays in the psychosocial interventions and rehabilitation of the survivors. Rahman, M.R. [24] wrote a paper named ‘Impact of Riverbank Erosion Hazard in the Jamuna Flood plain Areas in Bangladesh’ where he focuses the socio-demographic profile of the victims and population displacement by river erosion. Due to riverbank erosion a significant portion of the victims are compelled to leave the original homestead plot and take shelter by the road side embankment, neighbors land and relative land.
1.3. Research questions To meet the research objectives, the present study will focus on the basis of following questions: 1. What is the nature of displacement people due to riverbank erosion? 2. What are the impacts on economic condition of displacement people? 3. What types of socio-cultural sufferings and psychological distress impacts on displacement people due to river erosion? 4. How the displaced people cope up, adapted or mitigated with river erosion? 1.4. Operational definition of the concepts 1.4.1. Vulnerability Vulnerability is the condition determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or process, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards. Vulnerability is; insecurity, the reverse of security,: it reflects the characteristics of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipated, cope with, resist, and recover from the impact of a natural hazard' [16]. It involves a combination of factors that determine the degree to which someone's life and livelihood is part at risk by a discrete and identifiable event in nature or in society [35]. It refers to exposure to contingencies and stress and difficulty in coping with them. Disaster may attributes by considering the many social, physical, environmental, economic and political components that interact to influence vulnerability [36]. Just as people's livelihoods opportunities and their pattern of assets and incomes are determined by wider political and economic pressures, vulnerability to the impact of hazards is also a function of this wider environment. All the vulnerability variables are inherently connected with people's livelihoods and with poverty [6]. It is not exception about river bank erosion areas people of Bangladesh. 1.4.2. Adaptation Adaptation is a process, by which strategies to moderate, cope with, and take advantage of the consequences of climate events are enhanced, developed and implemented. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby a population becomes better suited to its habitat. This process takes place over many generations. It is basic phenomena of biology [9]. According to the IPCC [40]), adaptation is a response to environmental stimuli that affect given entities, subjects or systems. Adaptations are processes within entities and systems, or adjustments made by human systems. Linda Hutcheon is the called the pioneer of ‘adaptation theory’. According to O'Brien et al. [37]), adaptation is an adjustment of ‘natural or human 2
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Progress in Disaster Science 5 (2020) 100055
Change in Perception Pattern
Climate Change
Abnormal Flooding
River bank Erosion
Loss of Homestead Land
Loss of Agricultural Land
Loss of Production
Income Decreased
Forced Displacement
Low Expenditure in Food Consumption
Marginal Expenditure in Education
Poor Expenditure in Health Care
Livelihood Status becomes More Vulnerable
Fig. 1. Conceptual framework. (Source: [27] and Authors Complications, 2017 & 2019)
The degree of economic loss and vulnerability of population due to bank erosion has dramatically increased in recent years. The impact of land loss involves primarily the loss of homestead land, housing structures, crops, cattle, trees and household utensils. Loss of homesteads forces people to move to new places without any option and puts them in disastrous situations. About one million people are directly affected each year by bank erosion in the country. Most households earned their income through daily wages. A very few (6 people) ran small businesses like selling tea and sundries. Very few people living on the bank line depended directly on farming as a source of income, as virtually all villagers had been rendered landless by river erosion. Over 70% of households had an income below the official poverty line in Bangladesh and over 50% were living below the extreme poverty line, with on average households earning less than US$ 1 dollar per day. Uddin and Basak [27] wrote the report entitled ‘Effects of Riverbank Erosion on Livelihood’ in where they depict the overall impacts of riverbank erosion on the livelihood status of the people who resides on the bank of rivers. The study was conducted in the most vulnerable regions of Bangladesh (i.e., Kapasia Union of Gaibandha District, and Kazipur and Khasrajbari Union of Sirajganj District) due to riverbank erosion where the authors tried to find out the coping mechanism and effects of riverbank erosion on livelihood and its associated displacement. Haque [9] discussed the general impacts of hazards in the Lower Brahmaputra (Jamuna) floodplain of Bangladesh. The vulnerability of river bank eroded people have been assessed in terms of loss of land, occupational change, and their kinship, social ties and relationships. The survey was conducted on 547 randomly selected displaced households. A large number of household whose primary occupation was agricultural labourer for dislocation by the river bank erosion. The paper concluded that the Bengal Alluvion and Diluvion Regulation (1825) was enacted and implemented, but the regulation was not intended to introduce any new rule of law and it declared the supremacy and applicability of the rules of usage. According to the regulation, claims and disputes over emerged char lands
were decided upon by considering the local use of payasty (alluvion) and sikosty (diluvion). The Act of 1950 by the government of Pakistan abolished the permanent settlement with the proprietors and emphasised on de-facto possession of land mainly occupied by Muslim peasants and tried to establish legal rights for the marginalized, smaller landowners. In reality, even today, larger landowning class (jotdar) dominates the power structure and they determine the possession of re-emerged land from the riverbeds. However, it is important to remember that newly accreted land may take up to 15 years to develop full production potential, whereas the land that was lost into erosion is in most cases, valuable agricultural land. A.T.M. Abdullahel Baki [3] conducted both qualitative and quantitative research in his article entitled ‘Socio-Economic Impacts of Gorai Riverbank Erosion on People: A Case Study of Kumarkhali, Kushtia’. The findings of the study reveal that affected people have experienced substantial socioeconomic impoverishment. Among them 93% are negatively and 2% are positively impacted. The socio-economic impacts of Gorai riverbank erosion on the people of Kumarkhali were crucial and still it is a nightmare for their successors. Mahmood [17] defined migration as an act of people's movement to a foreign country for a particular period of time, and with a definite purpose in mind. The concept of migration, however, should be clearly understood. Meyer [21] has distinguished between mobility, represent movement within boundaries, and migration, in which persons cross their boundaries. Such boundaries may be geographical, structural, ethnic or some other divisions, which is recognized by the actor as setting him apart to it. When a person migrates to the city he is facing a challenge of mobility within the new setting and new environment. This mobility may require a new life style, new attitudes, and new behavioral forms. Most of the writers who define migration tend to speak only of the physical transition from one geographical area to another. But it is observed differently between migrations which are based on choice and those which are involuntary. Tanjinul Hoque Mollah and Jannatual Ferdaush [19] identify the number of climate included migrants in kazipur upazila under Sirajgonj district. 3
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Progress in Disaster Science 5 (2020) 100055
They considered observed risk such as river bank erosion as casual factors of rural vulnerability. IPCC [13] declared that the greatest single consequence of climate change could be migration, ‘with millions of people displaced by shoreline erosion, coastal flooding and severe drought’. In the mid 1990s, Norman Myers became the most prominent proponent of this ‘maximalist’ school stating that there were 25 million environmental refugees in the mid 1990s, and claiming that this number could double by last decade, with an upper limit of two hundred million by 2050 due to desertification, lack of water, sanitation of irrigated lands and the depletion of biodiversity [4,21]. It also has been hypothesized that displacement would amount to 30 million in China, 30 million in India, 15 million in Bangladesh, 14 million in Egypt, 10 million in other delta areas and coastal zones, 1 million in island states, and with otherwise agriculturally displaced people totaling 50 million by 2050 the figure might be as high as 200–250 million [20,26].
Table 2 Educational qualification of respondents. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 Frequency
Percent
185 132 92 19 6 434
42.63 30.41 21.20 4.38 1.38 100.00
of female respondents like 10.83% exists in 25–35 years age range. Almost 28.80% respondent's age belongs to 25–35 years; 46–55 years age group belong to 24.88% in general, while female respondent is 5.53% only; 56–65 years of age belong to 7.84%. And the lowest 4.61% respondent belongs to 66 and above years in general and 4.38% in male and 0.23% in female. Data also indicate that among the respondents almost 72.35% are male and 27.65% are female. Education is the backbone of a nation (Table 2). Moreover, education represents the awareness and social status of the people in the society. The table represents the cranky situation of their education where only 1.38% respondents were completed graduate and 4.38% completed higher secondary due to financial crisis. A major portion of respondents 42.63% were below primary, 30.41% were primary and 21.2% were secondary level. As a result, they were more vulnerable. Among the 3 FGD where each group consists of seven members, most of the respondents are illiterate; some of them can only write his name. Very few of them are literate because most people lives under poverty line and they have no enough opportunity to education. The table expounds that occupation of respondents before river erosion and after river erosion (Table 3). The table shows that most of the people of the study area are illiterate and they were engaged with catching fish. About half of the respondents or 50% engaged in the occupation of fishing before erosion. On the contrary, due to river erosion two-thirds or 67.97% respondent engage with catching fish because they have no enough educational background or opportunities. As a result, they are going to river early for livelihood. About 37.1% belonged to agriculture, about 9.68% engaged in business, and rest of them, 3.23%, belonged to services sector before river erosion. On the other hand, due to river erosion about 19.82% are involved as farmer in which most land is merging with gher (shrimp cultivation); only 2.07% and 1.15% are engaged in teaching profession and development sector respectively, and 8.99% are doing petty business. Agricultural related employment is very low because the arable land is limited for gher or shrimp cultivation. Showkot Sheikh (47) said, I am an independent old person. I have passed my days through fisherman. Now, I am living with my son. Also, I had lost his land as a result of riverbank erosion though I have a few amount of cultivating land now. The above figure represents the impact of river erosion on their occupational statu (Fig. 2). A significant portion or 76.27% respondents affected severe negatively of river erosion on occupational status. About 10.83% respondents were affected moderately regarding occupational status due to river erosion. On the other hand, about 5.76% respondents were slightly affected on their occupational status by dint of river erosion. Another, 7.14%
3. Materials and methods This study was exploratory in nature. Data were systematically well arranged. To conduct this study, survey method was used to collect data and mixed method (qualitative and quantitative) research design was used. Data was collected purposively from the selected three villages named Chromukha, Dakshin Bedkashi, and Ghorilal of riverine Koyra upazila in south-western coastal belt of Khulna district in Bangladesh from August 20 to August 30, 2017 of 91 sample size in the first phase and the September 07 to September 14, 2019 of 343 sample size in the second phase consecutively. There are 442 households in Choramukha, 450 households in Dakshin Bedkashi, 670 households in Ghorilal and in total 1562 households in the study area (source: 7 no. Dakshin Bedkashi union office). By using confidence level 95% and confidence interval 4, the sample size is calculated as 434 based on following formula: SS ¼
Education Below primary Primary Secondary Higher secondary Graduate/B.A. Total
Z2 ðPÞ ð1−PÞ where : C2
Z = Z value (e.g. 1.96 for 95% confidence level) P = percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal (0.5 used for sample size needed) C = confidence interval, expressed as decimal (e.g., 0.04 = ±4). So, 434 Samples, 3 FGD and 3 KII were chosen purposively from the total population of the three different villages for performing this research. Moreover, project documents and report about the concern organizations, newspaper (local and national) articles, magazines, journal, books, research reports etc. were used. Data were computerized, processed and analyzed by using various statistical techniques and software like SPSS and Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word etc. and presented in text form with necessary images, figures etc. 4. Findings and discussion of the study 4.1. Socio-economic status of the respondents Data in the Table 1 represent that majority of the respondents 33.87% belongs to the age group 36–45 years while in that range the male and female respondent is 23.96% and 9.91% respectively, but the large number
Table 3 Occupational status of respondents. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Table 1 Age and gender distribution of respondents. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Previous occupational status
Present occupational status
Age (in year)
Frequency
Percent
Male
Percent
Female
Percent
Occupation
Frequency
Percent
Occupation
Frequency
Percent
25–35 36–45 46–55 56–65 66 and above Total
125 147 108 34 20 434
28.80 33.87 24.88 7.84 4.61 100.0
78 104 84 29 19 314
17.98 23.96 19.36 6.68 4.38 72.35
47 43 24 5 1 120
10.83 9.91 5.53 1.15 0.23 27.65
Agriculture Service
161 14
37.10 3.23
Business Fisherman Total
42 217 434
9.68 50.00 100.00
Farmer Teacher NGO worker Business Fisherman Total
86 9 5 39 295 434
19.82 2.07 1.15 8.99 67.97 100.00
4
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Progress in Disaster Science 5 (2020) 100055
Table 5 River erosion changes in social normal life. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
76.27% 80 60 40 10.83%
20
5.76%
7.14%
River erosion changes their social normal life
Frequency
Percent
Yes No Total
432 2 434
99.54 0.46 100.00
0 Severely
Moderate
Slightly
No Effect
Fig. 2. River erosion impact on occupational status. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019.
17.51% Fully Damage
respondents expressed that they were not affected on their occupational status because they were engaged with service and NGOs related work. The table represents that income of respondents before and after erosion (Table 4). The table expounds that only 1.38% and 4.15% respondents earn 500–1000 and 1000–1500 taka at present, but about 0.92% and 1.15% of respondents earned 500–1000 and 1000–1500 taka respectively before the river erosion. About 20.05% respondent earns 1500–3000 Tk at present, on the other hand there were 4.15% respondents belonged to this. And 35.25% respondents earn 3000–5000 Tk at present, whereas 17.97% respondents earned 3000–5000 Tk earlier. About 36.64% respondents earn 5000–10,000 Tk at present whereas 39.17% respondents were belonged to that range of income in before erosion. Only 2.53% respondents earn 10,000 and above taka at present, but about 36.64% of respondents earned the range of income before the river erosion. Due to river erosion the earning income of the respondents are decreased right now for lack of employment opportunities, lack of boat who was engaged with fisherman in comparison to earlier. Ayub Molla (48) said, Once a time I had income was twenty thousand taka. But after the erosion my income is five thousand taka I mean the shortage of work, changing place and changing occupation are main reason for reducing income.
Paral damage
82.49%
Fig. 3. Types of house damage due to river erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
embankments at present. Besides, at present 6.91% and 9.45% have to stay on shelter house and their relative houses respectively due to river erosion. Sripodo Mondal (60) expressed, My family is extended family. I have nine members of my family. I had four rooms before erosion, but due to erosion in a single room we have four to five members' lives at present. The table presents that most of the respondents earn less income due to river bank erosion (Table 6). A large portion of respondents or 36.18% found decreasing income due to river erosion. About 28.34% of respondents opine that their food crisis were tremendously increases. One-third portion of respondents or 32.02% loss their agricultural land and about 3.46% respondents face habitat problems tremendously. The table shows that the majority of respondents (Table 7) or 57.14% were severely negatively affected by food crisis and drinking water in their social conditions due to river erosion. One-third or 30.42% were severely affected habitat or residential problems in their social life and 6.91% were facing educational problems due to erosion. Besides some portion of the respondents were careless for their health and sanitation. About 1.15% and 4.38% respondents think that their social status or conditions were severely affected regarding their health and sanitation respectively due to erosion. Expressing the words of Ranojit Thandar (52), I am a poor old farmer. I had lost my cultivating land during the erosion of Shakbaria River. Now, I have only a few amount of cultivating land. I cultivate my own land along with my son and monthly income is almost 10,000 tk. Bank erosion of Shakbaria River has brought significant losses (about 1.2 lac taka-1.6 lac taka) in my life. River erosion affects the cultural aspect or programme (Fig. 5). About 90.09% respondents opine that river erosion affects the cultural program
4.2. Challenges, vulnerability and effects of river bank erosion Everyone expect a well and healthy social and economic life (Table 5). But in the above table mention that 99.54% respondents were fragile situation and changes in social normal life due to river erosion of Kapothaksma and Shakbaria river. Other 0.46% respondents think that they have no changes or affect social normal life because of wellbeing economic circumstances. Housing is the main shelter of a family where the members are closely related to each other. The Fig. 3 claimed that majority of the respondents' or about 82.49% respondents' house were fully damaged due to river erosion. Other 17.51% respondents' house were partial damaged due to river erosion. The Fig. 4 shows that about 56.91% respondents live at present their own house though 82.49% were fully damaged due to erosion. Most of the respondents built their traditional house with the help of polythene and tent. About 26.27% respondents live besides the roads and Table 4 Income of respondents before and after erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 Present income
100
Previous income
Income (in Tk)
Frequency
Percent
Income (in Tk)
Frequency
Percent
500–1000 1000–1500 1500–3000 3000–5000 5000–10,000 10,000 and above Total
6 18 87 153 159 11 434
1.38 4.15 20.05 35.25 36.64 2.53 100.00
500–1000 1000–1500 1500–3000 3000–5000 5000–10,000 10,000 and above Total
4 5 18 78 170 159 434
0.92 1.15 4.15 17.97 39.17 36.64 100.00
56.91% 6.91%
9.45%
On Shelter house
Relative house
26.27% 0.46%
0 Own house
On the roads
Others
Fig. 4. Live at present. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 5
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Progress in Disaster Science 5 (2020) 100055
Table 6 Modes of challenges due to river erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
8.06%
Modes of challenges
Frequency
Percent
Increases food crisis Decrease income Loss of land Habitat problems Total
123 157 139 15 434
28.34 36.18 32.02 3.46 100.00
Yes
Table 7 Severely negatively affected social status/conditions. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Fig. 6. Suffering from psychological problem due to erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Social condition
Frequency
Percent
Education Food and drinking Sanitation Residential facility Health Total
30 248 19 132 5 434
6.91 57.14 4.38 30.42 1.15 100.00
Table 8 Feeling remember that incident. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
adversely. Only 9.91% respondents point out that river erosion could not affect the cultural programs. Mosiur Molla (36) told, Once I well played Ha-du-du in this region and I was also hired by other regions. But it is matter of sorrow that it is now stopped for lack of money, lack of manpower and lack of happiness due to river erosion. Now, the boat race is also absent which was commonly regular. The figure represents that how much river erosion influences on their psychological stress (Fig. 6). About 91.94% respondents suffered psychological stress due to river erosion. About 8.06% respondents opine that they could not suffer any psychological problem due to river erosion. Data in the Table 8 represent the various types of incident feeling remember after erosion. Among the data 36.87% were belonged to flash back due to erosion. One-fourth or about 24.65% respondents felt dizziness due to river erosion. About 16.36% respondents felt altering sleep wake cycle causing for river erosion, 7.14% respondents felt insomnia and 8.07% respondents felt unsteady gait due to erosion. And the rest of 6.91% respondents were belonged to others due to erosion. Grendronath Sardar (62) said, Psychologically I am not well, now. I believe that riverbank erosion is the main cause of my physical illness. Even I became the victim of unstable angina during the disaster period. Now, I have been suffering from whooping cough, scabies and other skin diseases due to river erosion. The table represent the different types of psychological problem that suffered by river erosion (Table 9). Regarding psychological problem, almost two-thirds or 63.59% respondents suffered to post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to river erosion. About 26.96% respondents felt major depressive disorder (MDD) due to river erosion. About 7.14% respondents seemed to somatoform disorder and 2.31% respondents felt mixed anxiety depressive disorder (MADD) respectively due to river bank erosion.
Incident
Frequency
Percent
Dizziness Unsteady gait Flash back Insomnia Altered sleep wake cycle Others Total
107 35 160 31 71 30 434
24.65 8.07 36.87 7.14 16.36 6.91 100.00
Ashin Mondal (48) told, I am very much conscious about my psychological condition. I got some amount of money during erosion, but it is not sufficient for me. When I remember that disaster attack, I feel panic, dizziness and unsteady gait. Besides, I have been suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and somatoform disorder since Shakbaria River erosion. But I did not get psychological treatment for lack of facilities there. 4.3. Adaptation strategies of river erosion affected people The adaptation strategies data show that majority of the respondents or 94.24% cope up, adjusted or adapted by reducing meals with food security (Table 10). A significant portion or 85.02% respondents adjusted the river erosion by internally displaced/migrated or becoming homeless. Threefourths portion or about 75.58% respondents adjusted their river bank erosion by borrowed money from GO, NGOs, Mahajon, Co-operatives, and Relatives with high interest. About 20.51% or one-fifth respondents mitigate their problems due to river erosion by lending money from Relatives, Neighbors and Donor agencies with low interest or free interest. Almost half of the respondents or 48.39% adopted their strategy to change their livelihood after river bank erosion, but mostly altered their livelihood and engaged with catching fish. One-third of the respondents or about 34.10% tried to earn extra money by extra workload. About 81.11% respondents opine that their family adjusted or adapted by decreasing rate of school going children and 33.64% respondents adjusted through drop out their child from formal education. Besides, about 14.75% respondents opined that they did not migrate due to erosion for partial damaged or losses of house by river erosion. Oliur Sheikh (45) said, I have four children's but, I cannot maintain my family by this limited income. I managed my family through low food taking; drop out children's and borrowing money from local NGOs and relatives. I have also some cultivable land where planting new types
9.91%
Table 9 Type of psychological problem that suffered by erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
Yes 90.09%
No
91.94%
No
Fig. 5. River erosion affect cultural program. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 6
Types of psychological problem
Frequency
Percent
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Major depressive disorder (MDD) Somatoform disorder Mixed anxiety depressive disorder Total
276 117 31 10 434
63.59 26.96 7.14 2.31 100.00
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Progress in Disaster Science 5 (2020) 100055
69.36%
Table 10 Adaptation strategies of river erosion affected people. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 Adaptation strategies
Frequency Percent
Homeless or internally displaced/migrated Borrowed money from GO, NGOs, Mahajon, Co-operatives, and Relatives with high interest Lend money from Relatives, Neighbors and Donor agencies with low interest or free interest Changed their livelihood Earning extra money by extra workload By reducing meal(s) Decrease rate of school going children Drop out child from formal education Do not migrate Total
369 328
85.02 75.58
89
20.51
210 148 409 352 146 64 434
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
12.67% 5.99% Repairs of Cyclone Dams shelter
48.39 34.10 94.24 81.11 33.64 14.75 100.00
River excavation
6.22%
Set up sluice gate
5.76%
Others
Fig. 7. Govt. infrastructural strategies for adaptation to river erosion. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019
seeds and managed by shrimp cultivations. Halim Molla (40), a fisherman from Ghorilal Village in the coastal region of Khulna also said, Once upon a time I had owned a fishing boat and net and employed 15 to 20 sailors. Life had its promises and goodness. But fate had something else in store for me. I have three children, wife and mother but had to forced migration due to river erosion of Shakbaria River. My house and land plunged into the river in May 2015. I faced bitter experience as unemployment and extreme poverty. Data shows the different adopted strategies to overcome damaged productivity of land (Table 11). About 37.79% respondents adopted their new strategies to cultivate new shrimp. About 28.57% respondents belong to planting new types of seeds to overcome damaged productivity of land. One-fifth of the respondents or 20.05% respondents improved their situation through adopting training by local NGOs. 6.6% respondents overcome their damaged productivity of land by using more fertilizers. And rests of them like 11.06% respondents adopted others or various strategies to overcome damaged productivity of land). Every citizen wants to adoption of governmental infrastructural strategies for adaptation to any disaster or hazards (Fig. 7). About 69.36% respondents opined that repairing of dams bearing the expenses of government is the requirement of adaptation to river erosion because most of the roads or dams or embankments of the area are very low qualities. About 12.67% respondents opine that cyclone shelter is the government infrastructural strategies for adaptation to river erosion. Only 6.22% respondents express their opinion about set up sluice gate regarding the strategies for adaptation to river erosion. About 5.99% respondents opined excavation of river is prerequisites for adaptation to river erosion. There are some other strategies for adaptation to river erosion that expressed 5.76% respondents). Forest is the main preventive strategies against river bank erosion (Fig. 8). Almost half of the respondents or about 48.85% respondents express that afforestation along the coastal belt is the preventive strategies against river bank erosion by recovering loss of forest. One-fourth or 25.57% respondents express their opinion for preventive strategies to recover the loss of forest by planting deep rooted trees in river erosion areas. About 14.29% respondents point out that planting in highlands is coping strategies to river erosion. About 11.29% respondents opine that some other preventive strategies may be adopted against river bank erosion.
5. Conclusion and recommendations Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world due to climate change, sea level rise, uneven distribution of rainfall, abnormal flooding, more frequent and intense tropical cyclones, drought, riverbank erosion, heat and cold waves that affect the lives and livelihoods recurrently. Koyra is one of the most vulnerable river erosion area. River erosion affects adversely the lives of survivors socially, economically, psychologically, and culturally that can influence the behaviour of these areas people. Every year, a large number of its population is displaced due to riverbank erosion. They lose their habitat, agricultural land, forest and tangible properties. They also face food insecurity, economic crisis, psychological stress, and migrate to another place to make new settlement. These lead them environmental and socially vulnerable as a whole in every sense. The marginalized and poor people not only lose their property but also experiences socio-economic vulnerability through river erosion. Before deteriorating situation to beyond control, it is high time to take necessary actions to stop river erosion and to ensure sustainable livelihood management of the victims. Besides, to minimize the loss of river erosion, some measures should be taken in different level: a) Sustainable embankment construction and its maintenance. b) Training on disaster preparedness involving local institution or local government. c) Massive afforestation with the experience of indigenous/local knowledge and its maintenance [25]. d) Action against deforestation. e) Engaged NGOs, local level civil society and the private sector for its maintenance. f) Draw a road map for river dressing to develop of management plans by various entities. g) Comprehensive management policy should be implemented against the siltation of the river bed losing its depth and eroding banks locally or nationally. h) The relief and rehabilitation programme for the displaced people should be taken immediately and properly.
48.85% 50 40 30 20 10 0
Table 11 Strategies to overcome damage productivity of land. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 Strategies
Frequency
Percent
Planting new types seeds Using more fertilizers Trained by local NGOs New shrimp cultivation Others Total
124 11 87 164 48 434
28.57 2.53 20.05 37.79 11.06 100.00
25.57% 14.29%
Afforestation Planting deep Plantation in highlands rooted trees in along the river erosion coastal belt areas
11.29%
Others
Fig. 8. Preventive strategies against river erosion for recovering loss of forest. Source: Field survey, 2017 & 2019 7
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i) Many river erosion affected people lives under poverty line and suffer for least income. So the affected people should be given loan with low interest rate. j) Illiteracy is increasing day by day in the area because of drop out children from formal education. So the local leader as well as the Government representatives should take good initiatives to manage it. k) Social/public awareness should be strengthened. Declaration of competing interests The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Acknowledgements We are grateful to some of students named Bibekananda Bala, Pabittra Kumar Raha of department of Sociology of Khulna University including the authors for their participation of data collection process. We remain also grateful to all of the respondents those who consent to share their experiences for valuable suggestions of our study. The authors analyzed data, and found the results and discussion by the fieldwork. References [3] Baki ATM. Socio-economic impacts of Gorai riverbank erosion on people: a case study of Kumarkhali, Kushtia. BRAC University: Doctoral dissertation; 2014. [4] Boano C, Zetter R, Morris T. Environmentally displaced people: understanding the linkages between environmental change, livelihoods and forced migration. Refugee Studies Centre. Oxford Department of International Development. University of Oxford; 2012. [5] Bristow CS, Best JL. Braided rivers: perspectives and problems. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 1993;75(1):1–11. [6] Cannon T, Twigg J, Rowell J. Social vulnerability, sustainable livelihoods and disasters. London: DFID; 2003. [7] Elahi KM, Ahmed QS, Mafizuddin M, editors. Riverbank erosion, flood and population displacement in Bangladesh. Riverbank erosion impact study. Savar, Dhaka: Jahangirnagar University; 1991. [9] Haque CE. Impact of riverbank erosion in Kazipur: an application of Landsat imagery. REIS Newsletters: Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh; 1987. [10] Haque CE. Impacts of riverbank erosion hazard in Brahmaputra Jamuna floodplain: a study of population displacement and response strategies. PhD Thesis Canada: Department of Geography, University of Manitoba; 1988. [11] Hossain MZ. Riverbank erosion and population displacement: a case of Kazipur in Pabna. Unpublished thesis Savar, Dhaka: Jahangirnagar University; 1984. [13] IPCC. Climate change: the IPCC scientific assessment; 1990 (Mass, Cambridge). [14] Islam MZ, Najmul Islam M, Akter ST. Bank Erosion of the River Meghna: population displacement and socio-economic impacts. Indian Journal of Power River Valley Development 2007;57(10 & 11). [15] Islam F, Rashid ANM. Riverbank erosion displacees in Bangladesh: need for institutional response and policy intervention. Bangladesh J Bioethic 2011;2(2) (Dhaka, Bangladesh).
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