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Adequacy of wholegrain non-wheat flours for layer cake elaboration
LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 507–513
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Adequacy of wholegrain non-wheat flours for layer cake elaboration Manuel Go´mez*, Lucia Mancho´n, Bonastre Oliete, Elena Ruiz, Pedro A. Caballero ´ rea de Tecnologı´a de los Alimentos, E.T.S. Ingenierı´as Agrarias, Universidad de Valladolid, 34004 Palencia, Spain A
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 1 November 2008 Received in revised form 3 September 2009 Accepted 22 September 2009
Flours (white and wholegrain flours) from wheat, rye, triticale, barley and tritordeum were used to elaborate layer cakes. The pasting properties (RVA) and the water-absorption (doughLab) of flours were analyzed. The batter characteristics (density, G0 , G00 , tan d, consistency and flow index), and the cake characteristics (cake volume, crumb and crust colour and texture after 1 and 7 days) were studied. A sensorial evaluation of the cakes was also performed. Wholegrain flours showed higher pasting temperature and water-absorption, but lower peak time and viscosity than white flours. Its batters showed lower density and consistency and higher G0 , G00 , tan d and n values. Wholegrain cakes showed lower specific volume, symmetry, colour characteristics, and staling rate but higher initial firmness. Considering the different cereals, barley showed the most different behaviour in flour, batter and cake characteristics. DoughLab analysis was very interesting to understand the adequacy of flours to cake elaboration, since significant correlations were found between water-absorption and specific volume, symmetry and firmness. Little differences in the consumer test were obtained between wheat and nonwheat cakes. Wholegrain non-wheat cakes could be a good alternative to white flour wheat cakes, due to their adequate technological properties and their nutritional advantages. Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wholegrain flour Cake Rye Triticale Hull-less barley Tritordeum
1. Introduction Several researches have found wholegrain intake to be positively associated with preventing diabetes (Liu et al., 2000; Pereira et al., 2002), cardiovascular disease (Mellen, Walsh, & Herrington, 2008; Truswell, 2002), several forms of cancer (Chatenoud et al., 1998; Jacobs, Marquart, Slavin, & Kushi, 1998) and overweight (Williams, Grafenauer, & O’Shea, 2008). The recommended intake of wholegrain foods in different countries is 3 serving per day (ADA, 1997; Richardson, 2003; Welsh, Shaw, & Davis, 1994). However, most of people do not reach these consumption levels (Albertson & Tobelmann, 1995; Dean, Raats, & Shepherd, 2008; Lang, Thane, Bolton-Smith, & Jebb, 2003). The most important reasons of the low wholegrain consumption are their high prize, low availability, scarce variety, and inappropriate taste and texture (Dean et al., 2008; Smith, Richardson, Kuznesof, & Seal, 2001). In consequence, in order to increase the wholegrain products consumption, food industry should offer higher number of products with higher quality. Most of works about wholegrain products have been centred in bread, but studies about cakes are scarce. Ragaee and Abdel-Aal (2006) studied the substitution of white wheat flour by wholegrain
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 979 108359; fax: þ34 979 108302. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Go´mez). 0023-6438/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2009.09.019
flour from different cereals in cakes elaboration. They indicated that no differences could be found in cake quality even with 30% of wholegrain flour substitution. The use of non-wheat cereals could be interesting because of nutritional or economic reasons, especially in those places where climate and soil conditions do not allow the wheat culture. The elaboration of cakes with white non-wheat flours has been also little studied and it has been usually centred in gluten-free cereals such as rice (Mohamed & Hamid, 1998; Varavinit & Shobsngob, 2000). The use of pulses to elaborate high quality cakes is also possible (Gomez, Oliete, Rosell, Pando, & Ferna´ndez, 2008). Limited information is available about gluten cereals different from wheat, such as rye, triticale, barley or tritordeum, although they are very similar to it in shape and processing. Wheat, rye and barley belong to the same tribe Triticeae. Crossing wheat (Triticum turgidum) and rye (Secale cereale) man obtained triticale (Triticosecale Wittmack). Crossing wheat and barley (Hordeum), Tritordeum was obtained (Martin, Alvarez, Martin, Barro, & Ballesteros, 1999). It is known that triticale flour can substitute wheat flour to elaborate cakes if the percentage is lower than 50% (Kissell & Lorenz, 1976; Tsen, 1974). Moreover, barley flour has been used in muffins elaboration with good results (Berglund, Fastnaught, & Holm, 1992; Newman, McGuire, & Newman, 1990). In consequence, the aim of this study was to verify the adequacy of the wholegrain flours from rye, triticale, hull-less barley and tritordeum to elaborate layer cakes. These cakes were compared to
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M. Go´mez et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 507–513
those elaborated with the white flours from the same cereals and with those elaborated with white and wholegrain wheat flour. The pasting properties of the flours, the characteristics of the batters and the quality of the cakes were evaluated. The consumer acceptability of the different cakes was also analyzed. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Wheat, rye and triticale were obtained from local farmers. Barley was grown at Experimental Farm, ITACyL (Valladolid, Spain). Tritordeum was supplied by Agrasys, S.L. (Parc Cientific de Barcelona, Spain). Cereals were milled in a stone mill in Harinera Los Pisones, (Zamora, Spain). The white flours were obtained by removing particles higher than 210 mm. That is, the white flour was sifted wholemeal with particle sizing lower than 210 mm. The wholegrain flour was obtained directly from the stone mill. Sugar, sunflower oil, fresh whole eggs, fresh milk and double-action baking powder, were purchased from the local market. 2.2. Methods 2.2.1. Pasting properties and water-absorption Pasting properties of flours were measured using the Rapid Visco Analyser RVA-4 (Newport Scientific Pty. Limited, Warriewood, Australia) controlled by Thermocline for Windows software (Newport Scientific Pty. Limited, Warriewood, Australia). Standard I measurement profile (ICC Standard Method No. 162) (ICC, 1996) was used. Values measured from the pasting profile were 1) pasting temperature (temperature at which starch granules begin to swell and gelatinize due to water uptake. It is defined as an increase of 25cP over a period of 20 s); 2) pasting viscosity (paste viscosity when the pasting temperature is reached); 3) peak viscosity (maximum paste viscosity achieved in stage 2; the heating stage of the profile); 4) peak time (time at which peak viscosity was recorded); 5) trough (minimum paste viscosity achieved after holding at the maximum temperature, stage 3); 6) breakdown (difference between peak viscosity and trough); 7) final viscosity (viscosity at the end of run) and 8) setback (difference between final viscosity and trough). Water-absorption (quantity of water necessary to reach 500FU) of the flours was studied using the doughLAB equipment (Newport Scientific Pty. Limited, Warriewood, Australia). The dough was developed in the mixing bowl by the rotary action of two sigmaarm mixing blades and its resistance to kneading as a torque value was obtained. Data obtained from the doughLAB were analyzed using doughMAP software (Newport Scientific Pty. Limited, Warriewood, Australia). 2.2.2. Cake elaboration A single-bowl mixing procedure using a yellow layer cake recipe was used. In every batter 700 g of flour, 840 g of sugar, 420 g of fresh milk, 350 g of fresh whole egg, 210 g of sunflower oil and 21 g of baking powder were used. 10 kinds of cakes (5 cereals 2 flour type – white and wholegrain flours) were elaborated. All ingredients were mixed during 10 min at speed 6 using a Kitchen–Aid Professional mixer – KPM5 – (KitchenAid, USA). 200 g of cake batter were placed into 120 mm diameter and 45 mm height, metallic, lard coated pan, and were baked in an electric oven for 25 min at 200 C. Two sets of twelve cakes were prepared from each batter, in order to have more representative results and diminish variability due to non-controlled conditions. Data shown in this study are the average of both elaborations. After baking, the cakes were removed
from the pans, left 1 h for cooling, and introduced in plastic bags to prevent drying. Eight cakes from the same batter were used for physical measurements one day after baking, and four cakes were used for texture evaluation after 7 days of storage. 2.2.3. Batter measurements Batter density was determined as the ratio of the weight of a standard container filled with batter to that of the same container filled with water (density, 1 g/cm3). Rheological analysis was performed using a controlled stress rheometer (RheoStress 1, Thermo Haake, Karlsruhe, Germany) with parallel plate geometry (60 mm diameter). The batter was placed between parallel plates, the gap adjusted to 1 mm and the excess batter removed. To prevent drying at the edges, a thin layer of vaseline oil was applied to cover the exposed batter surfaces. Prior to the performance of the rheological measurements, the samples were left 300 s of resting time to allow relaxation. Tests were performed at 25 C. Stress sweep tests from 0.1 to 20 Pa and 1 Hz of frequency were previously performed to determine the maximum stress in the linear viscoelastic region of all samples. Then, the applied stress was adjusted to be kept within that linear regime during the frequency dependence test. Oscillatory tests, with a frequency sweep from 0.1 to 10 Hz were conducted with a different aliquot of the same samples. The dynamic rheological properties of samples were assessed by the storage modulus G0 (elastic modulus), the loss modulus G00 (viscous modulus) and loss factor (tan d). The values of dynamic moduli obtained at a frequency of 1 Hz were used. Flow measurements were also carried out where shear stress, s, was measured versus shear rate, g_ , that varied from 0 to 50 s1. One hundred points in log scale were measured in a time of 300 s. The flow curves were adjusted to the power law (s ¼ k$g_ n ) obtaining thus the coefficient consistency ‘‘k’’, which is a viscosity related constant and the exponent ‘‘n’’, called flow index or shear-thinning index. 2.2.4. Quality cake evaluation Cake quality evaluation was performed 24 h after baking. Cake volume was determined using a laser sensor, with the volume analyser BVM-L 370 (TexVol Instruments, Sweden). Symmetry and volume index were measured following the AACC method 10 – 91 (AACC, 2000). A digital calliper was used to measure cake height. Cake density was calculated by the ratio between the weight of the cake and its volume. Measurements were run in triplicate. Colour was measured using a Minolta spectrophotometer CN508i (Minolta, Co.LTD, Japan). Results were expressed in the CIE L*a*b* colour space and were obtained using the D65 standard illuminant, and the 2 standard observer. The hue angle (tan1(b*/ a*)) and chroma or intensity ((a*2 þ b*2)1/2) of the cakes’ crumb and crust were calculated. Colour determinations were made 5 5 times in each cake: crumb or crust cake colour was checked at five different points on each cake and every point was measured five times. The five points were positioned in the centre of the cake and in the centre of four imaginary sectors in which it was divided along the diameter. Crumb texture was determined by a TA-XT2 texture analyzer (Stable Microsystems, Surrey, UK) provided with the software ‘‘Texture Expert’’. An Aluminium 25 mm diameter cylindrical probe was used in a ‘‘Texture Profile Analysis’’ double compression test (TPA) to penetrate to 50% depth, at 2 mm/s speed test, with a 30 s delay between first and second compression. Firmness (N), chewiness (N), cohesiveness, springiness and resilience were calculated from the TPA graphic (Gomez, Ronda, Caballero, Blanco, & Rosell, 2007). In cake texture determinations, the crust was removed, and samples of 40 40 20 mm were used. Texture increase was
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determined by difference between 7- and 1-day after baking Averaged results of eight determinations were presented. 2.2.5. Consumer testing Hedonic sensory evaluation of cakes was conducted with 90 cake usual consumer volunteers from 18 to 55 years old of various socioeconomic backgrounds, consisting of Agricultural Engineering College staff and students from Palencia (Spain). Consumer test were carried out in the Sensory Science Laboratory of the Agricultural Engineering College at the University of Valladolid, Palencia (Spain) in individual booths. This set up (rather than mobile laboratory tests, central location tests, or home-use tests) was selected to afford better control of the experimental conditions and over sample preparation. Cakes were evaluated on the basis of acceptance of their appearance, flavour, taste, aftertaste, texture and overall acceptability on a nine-point hedonic scale. The scale of values ranged from ‘‘like extremely’’ to ‘‘dislike extremely’’ corresponding to the highest and lowest scores of ‘‘9’’ and ‘‘1’’ respectively. Samples were analysed one day after baking. 10 cakes were prepared for analysis: 1 cake was presented as half-pieces for appearance evaluation. The other 9 cakes were divided into 10 triangular portions 2–5 cm width. Samples were presented in white plastic dishes coded with three-digit random numbers and served in a randomized order. Two different sessions were performed, one for white flour cakes, and another one for wholegrain flour cakes. Water was available for rinsing. 2.2.6. Statistical analysis Data were subjected to an analysis of variance (ANOVA) considering the ten flours individually, in order to study the differences between flours, batters and cakes. Fisher’s least significant differences (LSD) test was used to describe means with 95% confidence. Pearson correlation coefficients between characteristics (p < 0.05) were also calculated. Statgraphics Plus V5.1 (Statsoft Inc., USA) was used as statistical analysis software. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Pasting properties and water-absorption No significant differences were found in pasting temperatures and peak times in white and wholegrain flours (Table 1). Tritordeum followed by wheat, were the cereals with the highest pasting temperature. Barley, rye and triticale showed the lowest values and no significant differences among them were observed. Low differences were observed in the peak time values. It was
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noticeable the low peak time value of triticale, which was related to its low peak viscosity. Differences in the pasting temperature and in the peak time could modify the flour adequacy to elaborate cakes. Starch should be able to gelatinize at correct time, rate, and extent during baking in order to optimize the final texture of the product (Howard, Hughes, & Strobel, 1968). The wholegrain flours showed lower viscosity values along the heating-cooling cycle (peak, trough, final, breakdown and setback viscosities) than the white flours. Sudha, Baskaran, and Leelavathi (2007) found similar results when added apple pomace (rich in fibre) to white wheat flour. This fact could be motivated by the presence of higher quantities of fibre in the wholegrain flours. Several works affirmed that the presence of fibre reduced viscosity, although this reduction depended on the kind of fibre added (Brennan & Samyue, 2004; Collar, Santos, & Rosell, 2006; Symons & Brennan, 2004). In the study of the cereals, the highest viscosity of barley and the lowest of triticale were noticeable, in both white and wholegrain flours. Despite of the fact that triticale and tritordeum are wheat composites, their behaviour did not show similar tendencies. It is important to note that from these data, it is not possible to generalize the cereal behaviour (it would be necessary a much wider study). Pasting properties depend on the flour composition and the enzymatic activity (Batey, 2007), which are affected by genetics, climate and soil conditionsars. In consequence, data from Table 1 only indicated differences between flours used in this work. An increase in the water-absorption in the wholegrain flours was also observed, what could be also related to the fibre content, since the presence of fibre increased water-absorption (Gomez, Ronda, Blanco, Caballero, & Apesteguia, 2003). This could indicate that the bran effect on dough rheology depends on the dough hydration and the interactions between the different components. Thus, at high hydration levels, such as those from the RVA, the batters made with wholegrain flour had lower consistency, meanwhile at low hydration levels, the dough consistency was higher. 3.2. Batter characteristics In Table 2 the batter characteristics were shown. In general a light decrease in the density of wholegrain batters was observed. In general a light decrease in the density of wholegrain batters when compared to white flour batters was observed. Masoodi, Sharma, and Chauhan (2002) and Sreenath, Sudarshanakrishna, Prasad, and Santhanam (1996) also observed a decrease in batter density when fibres or rich-fibre products (such as apple pomace) were incorporated to the batter. Baixauli, Salvador, and Fiszman (2008) and Sanz, Salvador, and Fiszman (2008) observed the same effect when resistant starch was added. In our study this effect was
Table 1 Pasting behaviour measured using RVA and water-absorption measured by doughLAB for white and wholegrain flours.a PTe ( C)
PTi (min)
PV (cp)
T (cp)
FV (cp)
BD (cp)
SB (cp)
Abs (%)
Wholegrain flour Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
84.85b 69.30c 71.75c 70.95c 91.35a
5.33b 5.67ab 3.40d 5.13c 5.60ab
1100b 1064b 237d 2192a 652c
573bc 761b 51d 951a 432c
1206c 1506b 76e 1511b 949d
2296de 1909e 438g 4903b 1249f
3999d 5600b 327f 5670b 3292e
59.2c 59.8bc 58.7cd 67.5a 62b
White flourb Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
83.15b 68.60c 69.35c 70.15c 90.60a
5.47b 5.67ab 3.53d 5.13c 5.80a
1335b 1464b 297d 2491a 978b
624bc 1024a 49d 1189a 666b
1326c 1870a 78e 1804a 1347c
2409cd 2818c 538g 5593a 1882e
4468c 7063a 309f 6842a 4637c
56.7e 57.6de 60.2bc 62.8b 57.3de
Values in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). a PTe ¼ pasting temperature; PTi ¼ peak time; PV ¼ peak viscosity; T ¼ trough; FV ¼ final viscosity; BD ¼ breakdown; SB ¼ setback; Abs ¼ Water-absorption. b Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
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k (Pa sn)*
n**
G0 (KPa)
G00 (KPa)
tan d
Wholegrain flour Wheat 0.99a Rye 0.94b Triticale 0.95b Barley 1a Tritordeum 0.94b
respectively. It is also important to consider that rye flour has higher pentosan content than wheat flour, which also influences dough rheology. Significant correlations were found between G0 , G% and tan d values, and also between consistency and G0 and G% values, and between tan d and the shear-thinning index (n).
28f 141a 60c 147a 46de
0.65a 0.46bc 0.45cd 0.44cd 0.51b
95d 292b 161c 412a 104d
93f 225bc 144de 276a 104f
0.98a 0.77c 0.89b 0.67d 1a
3.3. Cake properties
White floura Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
39e 150a 56cd 105b 47de
0.49bc 0.38e 0.45cd 0.41de 0.47bc
91d 265b 139c 400a 110d
89f 197c 118ef 255ab 105f
0.98a 0.74c 0.85b 0.64d 0.95a
Table 2 Density and rheological properties for white and wholegrain flour batters. Density (g/cm3)
1a 1a 0.94b 1.02a 0.98ab
Values in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). *k ¼ consistency index. **n ¼ flow index. a Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
not very clear probably due to the different kind of fibre and formulation used. This effect could be related to the capture of air during battering. The capture of air in the batter is important since it is related to the final volume of cakes (Campbell & Mougeot, 1999). Moreover, it is also important the ability of retaining air at the end of baking which is related to batter viscosity. The size and distribution of bubbles in the batter would be also important although density do not give any information about them. The wholegrain flours showed in general lower consistency values (k) than the white flours. Some authors affirmed that the decrease in batter viscosity occasioned the diminution of cake volume (Lakshminarayan, Rathinam, & KrishnaRau, 2006; Lee, Kim, & Inglett, 2005). The retention of air in the batter would be favoured by high consistency levels. Thus, batters elaborated with wholegrain flours would have lower capacity to retain the air entrapped. It is important to take into account that the changes in density could occasion changes in batter rheology (Campbell & Mougeot, 1999). In consequence; the decrease observed in the wholegrain batters consistency could be also related to the increase in the quantity of entrapped air. Considering the different cereals, rye and barley showed the highest consistency probably due to differences in their chemical composition, especially in the starch and non-starch polysaccharides content. It was also observed that the wholegrain flours showed higher shear-thinning index (n) than the white flours, although differences were only significant in rye and wheat flours. That would indicate a less complex structure, more similar to a Newtonian fluid (n ¼ 1). Anyway, all n values are too small to consider batters as Newtonian fluids. Among the different cereals, wheat showed the highest n values, and rye and barley showed the lowest (the most complex structure since they were the most different to a Newtonian fluid). In all batters G0 values were higher than G%, and consequently they showed the typical behaviour of a soft gel. In general, the wholegrain flours showed batters with higher G0 , G% and tan d than white flours. These results are consistent with those obtained by Shafer and Zabik (1978) and Springsteen, Zabik, and Shafer (1977) who observed higher viscosity in the layer cakes batters when wheat bran was added. Among cereals barley showed the highest G0 and G% values, followed by rye. Barley, followed by rye, was also the cereal with the lowest tan d values. Differences among flours are related with differences in composition. In general, rye and barley have higher starch content than wheat (and consequently lower protein content). Triticale and tritordeum would have intermediate values since are the hybrids between wheat, and rye and barley
The wholegrain cakes showed lower specific volume than the white flour cakes, except in those elaborated with wheat flour, in which no significant differences were observed between wholegrain and white flour cakes (Table 3). The same tendency was observed in volume index and symmetry (in this case, differences between the white and the wholegrain flours were observed in all cereals except barley). The decrease of volume in the wholegrain cakes could be due to the presence of higher quantities of bran as already indicated Shafer and Zabik (1978) and Springsteen et al. (1977). In these cases, however, the quantity of bran added (more than 30%) was much higher than in our work. Among cereals, barley cakes showed the lowest specific volume and volume index, although no significant differences were observed in specific volume between barley and wheat cake, both elaborated with white flour. Using wholegrain flours, barley, triticale and tritordeum cakes showed similar volume index values. On the contrary, using white flours, rye, tritordeum and triticale flours generated cakes with the highest specific volume and volume index. In both, white and wholegrain flours, rye and triticale cakes showed the highest symmetry values, although in the white cakes no differences were observed between them and the wheat cake. The differences between cakes could be probably due to the different granulometry and chemical composition. That could affect the air incorporation into the batter, the batter viscosity, and thus the air retaining capacity during processing. They could also modify the gelatinization temperature of starch which indicates the end of cake expansion. Significant correlations between waterabsorption and some cake characteristics, such as specific volume (R ¼ 0.65), symmetry (R ¼ 0.69) and firmness (R ¼ 0.73) were found. That is, as the water-absorption increased, the specific volume and the symmetry decreased and the firmness increased. The water-absorption is related to the chemical characteristics, especially to protein, non-starch polysaccharides and damaged starch contents. In consequence, despite of the fact that the doughs used in the water-absorption study were more consistent than the cake batters, and that these doughs did not include other ingredients used in the cake elaboration, it seemed that the water-
Table 3 Morphogeometrical and textural characteristics for white and wholegrain flour cakes. Symmetry Firmness Firmness Specific volume Volume index (mm) (mm) (N) increase (N) (cm3/g) Wholegrain flour Wheat 2.85c Rye 2.92c Triticale 2.94c Barley 2.64d Tritordeum 2.84c
165.7cd 159.5de 152.3efg 144.9g 150.5fg
20.1cd 22.7c 29.6b 16.3de 10.34f
3.79cd 4.81bc 5.98a 6.23a 5.60ab
0.54cde 0.71bcd 0.43de 1.01ab 0.34e
White floura Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
163.5d 181.6a 171.3ab 154.9ef 176.9ab
39.0a 42.0a 40.4a 14.2ef 32.8b
3.64d 3.39d 3.82cd 5.69ab 4.19cd
0.89abc 1.16a 1.03ab 1.22a 1.22a
2.84c 3.20ab 3.15b 2.87c 3.31a
Values in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). a Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
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Table 4 Colour characteristics for white and wholegrain flour cakes. Crust
Crumb
L*
a*
b*
Hue
Chroma
L*
a*
b*
Hue
Chroma
Wholegrain flour Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
45.5cd 44.2d 43.4d 50.1b 44.1d
12.4bc 13.6ab 12.1bc 14.5a 13.3abc
17.9d 20.0c 15.3e 18.6cd 15.0e
55.3bc 55.9b 51.6de 52.1cd 48.6e
21.7de 24.1c 19.5f 23.6cd 20.0ef
61.6e 56.2g 58.6f 60.6e 58.2f
6.6a 7.0a 7.1a 5.0b 6.9a
19.4de 20.6cd 19.1de 18.8e 19.2de
71.2e 71.3e 69.6f 75.2d 70.1ef
20.5cd 21.7bc 20.4cd 19.5d 20.4cd
White floura Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
47.3c 47.1c 44.3d 54.9a 49.5b
11.9bc 13.3abc 11.8c 15.0a 12.7bc
18.4d 23.5b 15.3e 26.4a 17.6d
57.1b 60.4a 52.5cd 60.4a 54.3bcd
21.9d 27.0b 19.3f 30.4a 21.7de
72.4a 64.7cd 68.5b 63.8d 65.8c
4.2c 4.6bc 4.9b 4.5bc 5.0b
21.9bc 22.5ab 20.1de 19.6de 23.8a
79.3a 78.4a 76.4cd 77.2bc 78.2ab
22.3b 22.9ab 20.6cd 20.1d 24.3a
Values in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). a Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
absorption analysis gave valuable information to understand the adequacy of flours to cake elaboration. However, no significant correlations were found between the pasting properties of the batters and the characteristics of the cakes. This could be related to the high hydration of samples analyzed by the RVA or to the effect of non-flour ingredients added to the batter (Marcotte, Sablani, Kasapis, Baik, & Fustier, 2004). No correlations were found between the characteristics of batters and the characteristics of cakes, probably due to the complexity of changes that occur during baking. These changes affect the gas retention and the cake expansion, which are processes that occur after the rheological characterization of the batters. It is also important to take into account that in the rheological evaluation of batters a degasification occurred and thus the characteristics of the initial batter were modified. This lack of correlation was consistent with the results of other works (Gomez, Oliete, Garcia-Alvarez, Ronda, & Salazar, 2008). However, significant correlations have been found in layer cakes (Gomez, Oliete, Rosell, et al., 2008). Considering the texture, significant correlations between the specific volume and the symmetry, and between the former and the firmness were found. Cakes with the highest specific volume and the highest symmetry showed the lowest firmness values. The wholegrain flour cakes showed higher firmness and chewiness and lower cohesiveness and resilience values than the white flour cakes (data not shown). Grigelmo-Miguel, Carreras-Boladeras, and Martin-Belloso (1999) also observed an increase in muffins firmness and chewiness when dietetic fibre was added to the formulation, what was consistent with our results since the wholegrain flours had higher fibre content than the white flours. In the cereal study, Wheat cakes showed the lowest firmness and chewiness and the highest cohesiveness, but did not significantly differ from the rye cakes. The barley cakes showed the highest firmness and the lowest cohesiveness values. It was also observed that the wholegrain cakes increased their firmness over the time more slowly than the white flour cakes, although significant differences were only observed in rye, triticale and tritordeum. This tendency was consistent with other researches about the addition of fibre to bread (Gomez et al., 2003) and to muffins (Baixauli et al., 2008). White flour cakes showed similar staling rate, independently the kind of cereal. The lowest firmness increase was observed in tritordeum wholegrain cakes and the highest in white and wholegrain barley cakes. Considering the cake colour (Table 4), the crust of the wholegrain cakes showed lower L* (darker), b* (less yellowish), hue and chroma values than the white flour cakes. Considering the cereals, the crust of barley cakes were the brightest (highest L*value), and
with the highest a* value (more reddish). The differences in the crust colour were due to the presence of different aminoacids and sugars and their effect on Maillard and caramelization reactions. The crumb of the wholegrain cakes was darker (lower L*), more reddish (higher a*), and less yellowish (lower b*) than the white flour cakes. The hue and chroma values of the crumb were also lower. The differences are probably related to the quantity and the kind of bran. The bran from different cereals and even from different wheat cultivars modified the internal and external colour of cakes (Shafer & Zabik, 1978). Among the cereals, wheat cakes showed the brightest crumb (higher L*) but differences between non-wheat cereals were small. These values were conditioned by the colour of flours (presence of coloured substances). Despite of the fact that triticale and tritordeum are hybrids from wheat and rye and barley respectively, no similar behaviour among cereals was observed in cakes properties.
3.4. Sensorial evaluation The data obtained in the organoleptic evaluation were shown in Table 5. Within the white flour cakes, wheat cakes were the highest scored by consumers. Non-wheat cakes did not show significant differences between them. However differences between wheat and non-wheat cakes were not important and could be motivated by the fact that consumers were used to wheat cakes, but not to the flavours and aroma of non-wheat cakes. It was noticeable the fact
Table 5 Hedonic sensorial analysis for white and wholegrain flour cakes. Appearance Flavour Taste
Aftertaste Texture Overall acceptability
Wholegrain flour Wheat 6.40a Rye 5.78b Triticale 5.78b Barley 6.55a Tritordeum 5.61b
6.29a 6.10ab 5.73b 6.23a 6.03ab
6.38a 5.86bc 5.59c 6.48a 6.24ab
6.16ab 5.75c 5.78bc 6.20a 6.11abc
6.25ab 6.24ab 5.73c 6.51a 5.91bc
6.50a 6.10a 5.65b 6.46a 6.21a
White floura Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
6.86a 6.11bc 6.21bc 6.40b 5.92c
7.13a 6.09b 6.14b 6.31b 6.32b
6.67a 5.82b 6.00b 5.92b 6.05b
7.19a 6.53b 6.36b 6.29b 6.35b
6.98a 6.05b 6.09b 6.18b 6.20b
6.63a 6.37a 6.38a 6.35a 6.24a
Values from the same set of values (white flour, wholegrain flour) in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). a Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
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that no differences between cakes were found in the external aspect. This could indicate that significant differences obtained in the instrumental analysis of volume, shape and colour were not high enough to modify their acceptability. In the wholegrain cakes, only triticale cakes showed lower global acceptability than wheat ones, showing the lowest values in texture, flavour and taste, despite of the fact that triticale is a wheat composite. No differences were observed between the other wholegrain cakes probably because consumers were not used to consume them. It was important to note that cakes with the brightest crumb (barley and wheat) obtained the highest appearance values. The scores of the wholegrain cakes could not be compared with those made of white flour since they were obtained in different sessions. However, it was noticeable the high scores reached by wholegrain cakes. It confirmed the good results obtained in similar products (muffins) elaborated with white flour added 25% bran (Polizzoto, Tinsley, Weber, & Berry, 1983). 4. Conclusion Water-absorption of flours (DoughLab) gave valuable information to understand the adequacy of flour to cake elaboration since significant correlations were found between it and specific volume, symmetry and firmness. On the contrary, no significant correlations were found between RVA and batter properties, and cake characteristics. Despite of the fact that wholegrain cakes showed lower volume, symmetry, and colour values than white flour, these instrumental differences were not important since no differences in sensorial appearance were observed. Moreover, wholegrain cakes show lower staling rate. In consequence, the use of wholegrain flours in cake elaboration is a good opportunity to increase the consumption of wholegrains if adequate information about the nutritional characteristics is supplied. Apart from wheat flour, other cereal flours, such as rye, barley or their hybrids, can be used in the development of cakes. They are an interesting alternative to wheat, in price and in nutritional aspects. However, it would be necessary to analyze the adequacy of these flours and their cultivars in other bakery products such as cookies. Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by Comisio´n Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologı´a Proyects (AGL2005-05192-C04-02/ALI), Spain. Authors are also grateful to ITACYL, Harinera Los Pisones and Agrasys for supplying raw materials. References AACC. (2000). Approved methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, Method 10-91 (10th ed.). St. Paul, Minnesota: American Association of Cereal Chemists. ADA. (1997). Position of the American Dietetic Association: health implications of dietary fiber. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 97, 1157–1159. Albertson, A. M., & Tobelmann, R. C. (1995). Consumption of grain and whole-grain foods by an American population during the years 1990–1999. Journal of American Dietetic Association, 95, 703–704. Baixauli, R., Salvador, A., & Fiszman, S. M. (2008). Textural and colour changes during storage and sensory shelf life of muffins containing resistant starch. European Food Research and Technology, 226, 523–530. Batey, I. L. (2007). Interpretation of RVA curves. In G. B. Crosbie, & A. S. Ross (Eds.), The RVA handbook. St. Paul, Minnesota: American Association of Cereal Chemists. Berglund, P. T., Fastnaught, C. E., & Holm, E. T. (1992). Food uses of waxy hull-less barley. Cereal Foods World, 37, 707–714. Brennan, C. S., & Samyue, E. (2004). Evaluation of starch degradation and textural characteristics of dietary fiber enriched biscuits. International Journal of Food Properties, 7, 647–657.
Campbell, G. M., & Mougeot, E. (1999). Creation and characterisation of aerated food products. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 10, 283–296. Chatenoud, L., Tavani, A., La Vecchia, C., Jacobs, D. R., Negri, E., Levi, F., et al. (1998). Whole-grain food intake and cancer risk. International Journal of Cancer, 77, 24–28. Collar, C., Santos, E., & Rosell, C. M. (2006). Significance of dietary fiber on the viscosimetric pattern of pasted and gelled flour-fiber blends. Cereal Chemistry, 83, 370–376. Dean, M., Raats, M. M., & Shepherd, R. (2008). Consumer and functional cereal products. In B. R. Hamaker (Ed.), Technology of functional cereal products. Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing. Gomez, M., Oliete, B., Garcia-Alvarez, J., Ronda, F., & Salazar, J. (2008). Characterization of cake batters by ultrasound measurements. Journal of Food Engineering, 89, 408–413. Gomez, M., Oliete, B., Rosell, C. M., Pando, V., & Fernandez, E. (2008). 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Vienna, Austria: International Association for Cereal Science and Technology. Jacobs, D. R., Marquart, L., Slavin, J., & Kushi, L. H. (1998). Whole-grain intake and cancer: an expanded review and meta-analysis. Nutrition and Cancer, 30, 85–96. Kissell, L. T., & Lorenz, K. (1976). Performance of triticale flours in test for soft wheat quality. Cereal Chemistry, 53, 233–241. Lakshminarayan, S. M., Rathinam, V., & KrishnaRau, L. (2006). Effect of maltodextrin and emulsifiers on the viscosity of cake batter and on the quality of cakes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 86, 706–712. Lang, R., Thane, C. W., Bolton-Smith, C., & Jebb, S. A. (2003). Consumption of wholegrain foods by British adults: findings from further analysis of two national dietary surveys. Public Health Nutrition, 6, 479–484. Lee, S., Kim, S., & Inglett, G. E. (2005). Effect of shortening replacement with oatrim on the physical and rheological properties of cakes. Cereal Chemistry, 82, 120–124. Liu, S., Manson, J. A., Stampfer, M., Hu, F., Giovannucci, E., Colditz, G. A., et al. (2000). A prospective study of whole-grain intake and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in US women. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1409–1415. Marcotte, M., Sablani, S., Kasapis, S., Baik, O., & Fustier, P. (2004). The thermal kinetics of starch gelatinization in the presence of other cake ingredients. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 39, 807–810. Martin, A., Alvarez, J. B., Martin, L. M., Barro, F., & Ballesteros, J. (1999). The development of Tritordeum: a novel cereal for food processing. Journal of Cereal Science, 30, 85–95. Masoodi, F. A., Sharma, B., & Chauhan, G. S. (2002). Use of apple pomace as a source of dietary fiber in cakes. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 57, 121–128. Mellen, P. B., Walsh, T. F., & Herrington, D. M. (2008). Whole grain intake and cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis. Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 18, 283–290. Mohamed, S., & Hamid, N. A. (1998). Effects of ingredients on the characteristics of rice cakes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 76, 464–468. Newman, R. K., McGuire, C. F., & Newman, C. W. (1990). Composition and muffinbaking characteristics of flours from barley cultivars. Cereal Foods World, 35, 563–566. Pereira, M. A., Jacobs, D. R., Pins, J. J., Raatz, S. K., Gross, M. D., Slavin, J. L., et al. (2002). Effect of whole grains on insulin sensitivity in overweight hyperinsulinemic adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 75, 848–855. Polizzoto, L. M., Tinsley, A. M., Weber, C. W., & Berry, J. W. (1983). Dietary fibers in muffins. Journal of Food Science, 48, 111–118. Ragaee, S., & Abdel-Aal, E. S. M. (2006). Pasting properties of starch and protein in selected cereals and quality of their food products. Food Chemistry, 95, 9–18. Richardson, D. P. (2003). Wholegrain health claims in Europe. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 62, 161–169. Sanz, T., Salvador, A., & Fiszman, S. M. (2008). Evaluation of four types of resistant starch in muffin baking performance and relationship with batter rheology. European Food Research and Technology, 227, 813–819. Shafer, M. A. M., & Zabik, M. E. (1978). Dietary fiber sources for baked products: comparison of wheat bran and other cereal brans in layer cakes. Journal of Food Science, 43, 375–379. Smith, A., Richardson, D. P., Kuznesof, S., & Seal, C. J. (2001). Effectiveness and acceptability of a dietary intervention to increase consumption of whole grain products in free living individuals. In K. Liukkonen, A. Kuokka, & K. Poutanen (Eds.), Whole grain and human health. Espoo, Finland: Technical Research Centre of Finland. Springsteen, E., Zabik, M. E., & Shafer, M. A. M. (1977). Note on layer cakes containing 30 to 70% wheat bran. Cereal Chemistry, 54, 193–198.
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LWT - Food Science and Technology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt
Adequacy of wholegrain non-wheat flours for layer cake elaboration Manuel Go´mez*, Lucia Mancho´n, Bonastre Oliete, Elena Ruiz, Pedro A. Caballero ´ rea de Tecnologı´a de los Alimentos, E.T.S. Ingenierı´as Agrarias, Universidad de Valladolid, 34004 Palencia, Spain A
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 1 November 2008 Received in revised form 3 September 2009 Accepted 22 September 2009
Flours (white and wholegrain flours) from wheat, rye, triticale, barley and tritordeum were used to elaborate layer cakes. The pasting properties (RVA) and the water-absorption (doughLab) of flours were analyzed. The batter characteristics (density, G0 , G00 , tan d, consistency and flow index), and the cake characteristics (cake volume, crumb and crust colour and texture after 1 and 7 days) were studied. A sensorial evaluation of the cakes was also performed. Wholegrain flours showed higher pasting temperature and water-absorption, but lower peak time and viscosity than white flours. Its batters showed lower density and consistency and higher G0 , G00 , tan d and n values. Wholegrain cakes showed lower specific volume, symmetry, colour characteristics, and staling rate but higher initial firmness. Considering the different cereals, barley showed the most different behaviour in flour, batter and cake characteristics. DoughLab analysis was very interesting to understand the adequacy of flours to cake elaboration, since significant correlations were found between water-absorption and specific volume, symmetry and firmness. Little differences in the consumer test were obtained between wheat and nonwheat cakes. Wholegrain non-wheat cakes could be a good alternative to white flour wheat cakes, due to their adequate technological properties and their nutritional advantages. Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wholegrain flour Cake Rye Triticale Hull-less barley Tritordeum
1. Introduction Several researches have found wholegrain intake to be positively associated with preventing diabetes (Liu et al., 2000; Pereira et al., 2002), cardiovascular disease (Mellen, Walsh, & Herrington, 2008; Truswell, 2002), several forms of cancer (Chatenoud et al., 1998; Jacobs, Marquart, Slavin, & Kushi, 1998) and overweight (Williams, Grafenauer, & O’Shea, 2008). The recommended intake of wholegrain foods in different countries is 3 serving per day (ADA, 1997; Richardson, 2003; Welsh, Shaw, & Davis, 1994). However, most of people do not reach these consumption levels (Albertson & Tobelmann, 1995; Dean, Raats, & Shepherd, 2008; Lang, Thane, Bolton-Smith, & Jebb, 2003). The most important reasons of the low wholegrain consumption are their high prize, low availability, scarce variety, and inappropriate taste and texture (Dean et al., 2008; Smith, Richardson, Kuznesof, & Seal, 2001). In consequence, in order to increase the wholegrain products consumption, food industry should offer higher number of products with higher quality. Most of works about wholegrain products have been centred in bread, but studies about cakes are scarce. Ragaee and Abdel-Aal (2006) studied the substitution of white wheat flour by wholegrain
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 979 108359; fax: þ34 979 108302. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Go´mez). 0023-6438/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2009.09.019
flour from different cereals in cakes elaboration. They indicated that no differences could be found in cake quality even with 30% of wholegrain flour substitution. The use of non-wheat cereals could be interesting because of nutritional or economic reasons, especially in those places where climate and soil conditions do not allow the wheat culture. The elaboration of cakes with white non-wheat flours has been also little studied and it has been usually centred in gluten-free cereals such as rice (Mohamed & Hamid, 1998; Varavinit & Shobsngob, 2000). The use of pulses to elaborate high quality cakes is also possible (Gomez, Oliete, Rosell, Pando, & Ferna´ndez, 2008). Limited information is available about gluten cereals different from wheat, such as rye, triticale, barley or tritordeum, although they are very similar to it in shape and processing. Wheat, rye and barley belong to the same tribe Triticeae. Crossing wheat (Triticum turgidum) and rye (Secale cereale) man obtained triticale (Triticosecale Wittmack). Crossing wheat and barley (Hordeum), Tritordeum was obtained (Martin, Alvarez, Martin, Barro, & Ballesteros, 1999). It is known that triticale flour can substitute wheat flour to elaborate cakes if the percentage is lower than 50% (Kissell & Lorenz, 1976; Tsen, 1974). Moreover, barley flour has been used in muffins elaboration with good results (Berglund, Fastnaught, & Holm, 1992; Newman, McGuire, & Newman, 1990). In consequence, the aim of this study was to verify the adequacy of the wholegrain flours from rye, triticale, hull-less barley and tritordeum to elaborate layer cakes. These cakes were compared to
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those elaborated with the white flours from the same cereals and with those elaborated with white and wholegrain wheat flour. The pasting properties of the flours, the characteristics of the batters and the quality of the cakes were evaluated. The consumer acceptability of the different cakes was also analyzed. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Wheat, rye and triticale were obtained from local farmers. Barley was grown at Experimental Farm, ITACyL (Valladolid, Spain). Tritordeum was supplied by Agrasys, S.L. (Parc Cientific de Barcelona, Spain). Cereals were milled in a stone mill in Harinera Los Pisones, (Zamora, Spain). The white flours were obtained by removing particles higher than 210 mm. That is, the white flour was sifted wholemeal with particle sizing lower than 210 mm. The wholegrain flour was obtained directly from the stone mill. Sugar, sunflower oil, fresh whole eggs, fresh milk and double-action baking powder, were purchased from the local market. 2.2. Methods 2.2.1. Pasting properties and water-absorption Pasting properties of flours were measured using the Rapid Visco Analyser RVA-4 (Newport Scientific Pty. Limited, Warriewood, Australia) controlled by Thermocline for Windows software (Newport Scientific Pty. Limited, Warriewood, Australia). Standard I measurement profile (ICC Standard Method No. 162) (ICC, 1996) was used. Values measured from the pasting profile were 1) pasting temperature (temperature at which starch granules begin to swell and gelatinize due to water uptake. It is defined as an increase of 25cP over a period of 20 s); 2) pasting viscosity (paste viscosity when the pasting temperature is reached); 3) peak viscosity (maximum paste viscosity achieved in stage 2; the heating stage of the profile); 4) peak time (time at which peak viscosity was recorded); 5) trough (minimum paste viscosity achieved after holding at the maximum temperature, stage 3); 6) breakdown (difference between peak viscosity and trough); 7) final viscosity (viscosity at the end of run) and 8) setback (difference between final viscosity and trough). Water-absorption (quantity of water necessary to reach 500FU) of the flours was studied using the doughLAB equipment (Newport Scientific Pty. Limited, Warriewood, Australia). The dough was developed in the mixing bowl by the rotary action of two sigmaarm mixing blades and its resistance to kneading as a torque value was obtained. Data obtained from the doughLAB were analyzed using doughMAP software (Newport Scientific Pty. Limited, Warriewood, Australia). 2.2.2. Cake elaboration A single-bowl mixing procedure using a yellow layer cake recipe was used. In every batter 700 g of flour, 840 g of sugar, 420 g of fresh milk, 350 g of fresh whole egg, 210 g of sunflower oil and 21 g of baking powder were used. 10 kinds of cakes (5 cereals 2 flour type – white and wholegrain flours) were elaborated. All ingredients were mixed during 10 min at speed 6 using a Kitchen–Aid Professional mixer – KPM5 – (KitchenAid, USA). 200 g of cake batter were placed into 120 mm diameter and 45 mm height, metallic, lard coated pan, and were baked in an electric oven for 25 min at 200 C. Two sets of twelve cakes were prepared from each batter, in order to have more representative results and diminish variability due to non-controlled conditions. Data shown in this study are the average of both elaborations. After baking, the cakes were removed
from the pans, left 1 h for cooling, and introduced in plastic bags to prevent drying. Eight cakes from the same batter were used for physical measurements one day after baking, and four cakes were used for texture evaluation after 7 days of storage. 2.2.3. Batter measurements Batter density was determined as the ratio of the weight of a standard container filled with batter to that of the same container filled with water (density, 1 g/cm3). Rheological analysis was performed using a controlled stress rheometer (RheoStress 1, Thermo Haake, Karlsruhe, Germany) with parallel plate geometry (60 mm diameter). The batter was placed between parallel plates, the gap adjusted to 1 mm and the excess batter removed. To prevent drying at the edges, a thin layer of vaseline oil was applied to cover the exposed batter surfaces. Prior to the performance of the rheological measurements, the samples were left 300 s of resting time to allow relaxation. Tests were performed at 25 C. Stress sweep tests from 0.1 to 20 Pa and 1 Hz of frequency were previously performed to determine the maximum stress in the linear viscoelastic region of all samples. Then, the applied stress was adjusted to be kept within that linear regime during the frequency dependence test. Oscillatory tests, with a frequency sweep from 0.1 to 10 Hz were conducted with a different aliquot of the same samples. The dynamic rheological properties of samples were assessed by the storage modulus G0 (elastic modulus), the loss modulus G00 (viscous modulus) and loss factor (tan d). The values of dynamic moduli obtained at a frequency of 1 Hz were used. Flow measurements were also carried out where shear stress, s, was measured versus shear rate, g_ , that varied from 0 to 50 s1. One hundred points in log scale were measured in a time of 300 s. The flow curves were adjusted to the power law (s ¼ k$g_ n ) obtaining thus the coefficient consistency ‘‘k’’, which is a viscosity related constant and the exponent ‘‘n’’, called flow index or shear-thinning index. 2.2.4. Quality cake evaluation Cake quality evaluation was performed 24 h after baking. Cake volume was determined using a laser sensor, with the volume analyser BVM-L 370 (TexVol Instruments, Sweden). Symmetry and volume index were measured following the AACC method 10 – 91 (AACC, 2000). A digital calliper was used to measure cake height. Cake density was calculated by the ratio between the weight of the cake and its volume. Measurements were run in triplicate. Colour was measured using a Minolta spectrophotometer CN508i (Minolta, Co.LTD, Japan). Results were expressed in the CIE L*a*b* colour space and were obtained using the D65 standard illuminant, and the 2 standard observer. The hue angle (tan1(b*/ a*)) and chroma or intensity ((a*2 þ b*2)1/2) of the cakes’ crumb and crust were calculated. Colour determinations were made 5 5 times in each cake: crumb or crust cake colour was checked at five different points on each cake and every point was measured five times. The five points were positioned in the centre of the cake and in the centre of four imaginary sectors in which it was divided along the diameter. Crumb texture was determined by a TA-XT2 texture analyzer (Stable Microsystems, Surrey, UK) provided with the software ‘‘Texture Expert’’. An Aluminium 25 mm diameter cylindrical probe was used in a ‘‘Texture Profile Analysis’’ double compression test (TPA) to penetrate to 50% depth, at 2 mm/s speed test, with a 30 s delay between first and second compression. Firmness (N), chewiness (N), cohesiveness, springiness and resilience were calculated from the TPA graphic (Gomez, Ronda, Caballero, Blanco, & Rosell, 2007). In cake texture determinations, the crust was removed, and samples of 40 40 20 mm were used. Texture increase was
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determined by difference between 7- and 1-day after baking Averaged results of eight determinations were presented. 2.2.5. Consumer testing Hedonic sensory evaluation of cakes was conducted with 90 cake usual consumer volunteers from 18 to 55 years old of various socioeconomic backgrounds, consisting of Agricultural Engineering College staff and students from Palencia (Spain). Consumer test were carried out in the Sensory Science Laboratory of the Agricultural Engineering College at the University of Valladolid, Palencia (Spain) in individual booths. This set up (rather than mobile laboratory tests, central location tests, or home-use tests) was selected to afford better control of the experimental conditions and over sample preparation. Cakes were evaluated on the basis of acceptance of their appearance, flavour, taste, aftertaste, texture and overall acceptability on a nine-point hedonic scale. The scale of values ranged from ‘‘like extremely’’ to ‘‘dislike extremely’’ corresponding to the highest and lowest scores of ‘‘9’’ and ‘‘1’’ respectively. Samples were analysed one day after baking. 10 cakes were prepared for analysis: 1 cake was presented as half-pieces for appearance evaluation. The other 9 cakes were divided into 10 triangular portions 2–5 cm width. Samples were presented in white plastic dishes coded with three-digit random numbers and served in a randomized order. Two different sessions were performed, one for white flour cakes, and another one for wholegrain flour cakes. Water was available for rinsing. 2.2.6. Statistical analysis Data were subjected to an analysis of variance (ANOVA) considering the ten flours individually, in order to study the differences between flours, batters and cakes. Fisher’s least significant differences (LSD) test was used to describe means with 95% confidence. Pearson correlation coefficients between characteristics (p < 0.05) were also calculated. Statgraphics Plus V5.1 (Statsoft Inc., USA) was used as statistical analysis software. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Pasting properties and water-absorption No significant differences were found in pasting temperatures and peak times in white and wholegrain flours (Table 1). Tritordeum followed by wheat, were the cereals with the highest pasting temperature. Barley, rye and triticale showed the lowest values and no significant differences among them were observed. Low differences were observed in the peak time values. It was
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noticeable the low peak time value of triticale, which was related to its low peak viscosity. Differences in the pasting temperature and in the peak time could modify the flour adequacy to elaborate cakes. Starch should be able to gelatinize at correct time, rate, and extent during baking in order to optimize the final texture of the product (Howard, Hughes, & Strobel, 1968). The wholegrain flours showed lower viscosity values along the heating-cooling cycle (peak, trough, final, breakdown and setback viscosities) than the white flours. Sudha, Baskaran, and Leelavathi (2007) found similar results when added apple pomace (rich in fibre) to white wheat flour. This fact could be motivated by the presence of higher quantities of fibre in the wholegrain flours. Several works affirmed that the presence of fibre reduced viscosity, although this reduction depended on the kind of fibre added (Brennan & Samyue, 2004; Collar, Santos, & Rosell, 2006; Symons & Brennan, 2004). In the study of the cereals, the highest viscosity of barley and the lowest of triticale were noticeable, in both white and wholegrain flours. Despite of the fact that triticale and tritordeum are wheat composites, their behaviour did not show similar tendencies. It is important to note that from these data, it is not possible to generalize the cereal behaviour (it would be necessary a much wider study). Pasting properties depend on the flour composition and the enzymatic activity (Batey, 2007), which are affected by genetics, climate and soil conditionsars. In consequence, data from Table 1 only indicated differences between flours used in this work. An increase in the water-absorption in the wholegrain flours was also observed, what could be also related to the fibre content, since the presence of fibre increased water-absorption (Gomez, Ronda, Blanco, Caballero, & Apesteguia, 2003). This could indicate that the bran effect on dough rheology depends on the dough hydration and the interactions between the different components. Thus, at high hydration levels, such as those from the RVA, the batters made with wholegrain flour had lower consistency, meanwhile at low hydration levels, the dough consistency was higher. 3.2. Batter characteristics In Table 2 the batter characteristics were shown. In general a light decrease in the density of wholegrain batters was observed. In general a light decrease in the density of wholegrain batters when compared to white flour batters was observed. Masoodi, Sharma, and Chauhan (2002) and Sreenath, Sudarshanakrishna, Prasad, and Santhanam (1996) also observed a decrease in batter density when fibres or rich-fibre products (such as apple pomace) were incorporated to the batter. Baixauli, Salvador, and Fiszman (2008) and Sanz, Salvador, and Fiszman (2008) observed the same effect when resistant starch was added. In our study this effect was
Table 1 Pasting behaviour measured using RVA and water-absorption measured by doughLAB for white and wholegrain flours.a PTe ( C)
PTi (min)
PV (cp)
T (cp)
FV (cp)
BD (cp)
SB (cp)
Abs (%)
Wholegrain flour Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
84.85b 69.30c 71.75c 70.95c 91.35a
5.33b 5.67ab 3.40d 5.13c 5.60ab
1100b 1064b 237d 2192a 652c
573bc 761b 51d 951a 432c
1206c 1506b 76e 1511b 949d
2296de 1909e 438g 4903b 1249f
3999d 5600b 327f 5670b 3292e
59.2c 59.8bc 58.7cd 67.5a 62b
White flourb Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
83.15b 68.60c 69.35c 70.15c 90.60a
5.47b 5.67ab 3.53d 5.13c 5.80a
1335b 1464b 297d 2491a 978b
624bc 1024a 49d 1189a 666b
1326c 1870a 78e 1804a 1347c
2409cd 2818c 538g 5593a 1882e
4468c 7063a 309f 6842a 4637c
56.7e 57.6de 60.2bc 62.8b 57.3de
Values in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). a PTe ¼ pasting temperature; PTi ¼ peak time; PV ¼ peak viscosity; T ¼ trough; FV ¼ final viscosity; BD ¼ breakdown; SB ¼ setback; Abs ¼ Water-absorption. b Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
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510
k (Pa sn)*
n**
G0 (KPa)
G00 (KPa)
tan d
Wholegrain flour Wheat 0.99a Rye 0.94b Triticale 0.95b Barley 1a Tritordeum 0.94b
respectively. It is also important to consider that rye flour has higher pentosan content than wheat flour, which also influences dough rheology. Significant correlations were found between G0 , G% and tan d values, and also between consistency and G0 and G% values, and between tan d and the shear-thinning index (n).
28f 141a 60c 147a 46de
0.65a 0.46bc 0.45cd 0.44cd 0.51b
95d 292b 161c 412a 104d
93f 225bc 144de 276a 104f
0.98a 0.77c 0.89b 0.67d 1a
3.3. Cake properties
White floura Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
39e 150a 56cd 105b 47de
0.49bc 0.38e 0.45cd 0.41de 0.47bc
91d 265b 139c 400a 110d
89f 197c 118ef 255ab 105f
0.98a 0.74c 0.85b 0.64d 0.95a
Table 2 Density and rheological properties for white and wholegrain flour batters. Density (g/cm3)
1a 1a 0.94b 1.02a 0.98ab
Values in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). *k ¼ consistency index. **n ¼ flow index. a Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
not very clear probably due to the different kind of fibre and formulation used. This effect could be related to the capture of air during battering. The capture of air in the batter is important since it is related to the final volume of cakes (Campbell & Mougeot, 1999). Moreover, it is also important the ability of retaining air at the end of baking which is related to batter viscosity. The size and distribution of bubbles in the batter would be also important although density do not give any information about them. The wholegrain flours showed in general lower consistency values (k) than the white flours. Some authors affirmed that the decrease in batter viscosity occasioned the diminution of cake volume (Lakshminarayan, Rathinam, & KrishnaRau, 2006; Lee, Kim, & Inglett, 2005). The retention of air in the batter would be favoured by high consistency levels. Thus, batters elaborated with wholegrain flours would have lower capacity to retain the air entrapped. It is important to take into account that the changes in density could occasion changes in batter rheology (Campbell & Mougeot, 1999). In consequence; the decrease observed in the wholegrain batters consistency could be also related to the increase in the quantity of entrapped air. Considering the different cereals, rye and barley showed the highest consistency probably due to differences in their chemical composition, especially in the starch and non-starch polysaccharides content. It was also observed that the wholegrain flours showed higher shear-thinning index (n) than the white flours, although differences were only significant in rye and wheat flours. That would indicate a less complex structure, more similar to a Newtonian fluid (n ¼ 1). Anyway, all n values are too small to consider batters as Newtonian fluids. Among the different cereals, wheat showed the highest n values, and rye and barley showed the lowest (the most complex structure since they were the most different to a Newtonian fluid). In all batters G0 values were higher than G%, and consequently they showed the typical behaviour of a soft gel. In general, the wholegrain flours showed batters with higher G0 , G% and tan d than white flours. These results are consistent with those obtained by Shafer and Zabik (1978) and Springsteen, Zabik, and Shafer (1977) who observed higher viscosity in the layer cakes batters when wheat bran was added. Among cereals barley showed the highest G0 and G% values, followed by rye. Barley, followed by rye, was also the cereal with the lowest tan d values. Differences among flours are related with differences in composition. In general, rye and barley have higher starch content than wheat (and consequently lower protein content). Triticale and tritordeum would have intermediate values since are the hybrids between wheat, and rye and barley
The wholegrain cakes showed lower specific volume than the white flour cakes, except in those elaborated with wheat flour, in which no significant differences were observed between wholegrain and white flour cakes (Table 3). The same tendency was observed in volume index and symmetry (in this case, differences between the white and the wholegrain flours were observed in all cereals except barley). The decrease of volume in the wholegrain cakes could be due to the presence of higher quantities of bran as already indicated Shafer and Zabik (1978) and Springsteen et al. (1977). In these cases, however, the quantity of bran added (more than 30%) was much higher than in our work. Among cereals, barley cakes showed the lowest specific volume and volume index, although no significant differences were observed in specific volume between barley and wheat cake, both elaborated with white flour. Using wholegrain flours, barley, triticale and tritordeum cakes showed similar volume index values. On the contrary, using white flours, rye, tritordeum and triticale flours generated cakes with the highest specific volume and volume index. In both, white and wholegrain flours, rye and triticale cakes showed the highest symmetry values, although in the white cakes no differences were observed between them and the wheat cake. The differences between cakes could be probably due to the different granulometry and chemical composition. That could affect the air incorporation into the batter, the batter viscosity, and thus the air retaining capacity during processing. They could also modify the gelatinization temperature of starch which indicates the end of cake expansion. Significant correlations between waterabsorption and some cake characteristics, such as specific volume (R ¼ 0.65), symmetry (R ¼ 0.69) and firmness (R ¼ 0.73) were found. That is, as the water-absorption increased, the specific volume and the symmetry decreased and the firmness increased. The water-absorption is related to the chemical characteristics, especially to protein, non-starch polysaccharides and damaged starch contents. In consequence, despite of the fact that the doughs used in the water-absorption study were more consistent than the cake batters, and that these doughs did not include other ingredients used in the cake elaboration, it seemed that the water-
Table 3 Morphogeometrical and textural characteristics for white and wholegrain flour cakes. Symmetry Firmness Firmness Specific volume Volume index (mm) (mm) (N) increase (N) (cm3/g) Wholegrain flour Wheat 2.85c Rye 2.92c Triticale 2.94c Barley 2.64d Tritordeum 2.84c
165.7cd 159.5de 152.3efg 144.9g 150.5fg
20.1cd 22.7c 29.6b 16.3de 10.34f
3.79cd 4.81bc 5.98a 6.23a 5.60ab
0.54cde 0.71bcd 0.43de 1.01ab 0.34e
White floura Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
163.5d 181.6a 171.3ab 154.9ef 176.9ab
39.0a 42.0a 40.4a 14.2ef 32.8b
3.64d 3.39d 3.82cd 5.69ab 4.19cd
0.89abc 1.16a 1.03ab 1.22a 1.22a
2.84c 3.20ab 3.15b 2.87c 3.31a
Values in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). a Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
M. Go´mez et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 507–513
511
Table 4 Colour characteristics for white and wholegrain flour cakes. Crust
Crumb
L*
a*
b*
Hue
Chroma
L*
a*
b*
Hue
Chroma
Wholegrain flour Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
45.5cd 44.2d 43.4d 50.1b 44.1d
12.4bc 13.6ab 12.1bc 14.5a 13.3abc
17.9d 20.0c 15.3e 18.6cd 15.0e
55.3bc 55.9b 51.6de 52.1cd 48.6e
21.7de 24.1c 19.5f 23.6cd 20.0ef
61.6e 56.2g 58.6f 60.6e 58.2f
6.6a 7.0a 7.1a 5.0b 6.9a
19.4de 20.6cd 19.1de 18.8e 19.2de
71.2e 71.3e 69.6f 75.2d 70.1ef
20.5cd 21.7bc 20.4cd 19.5d 20.4cd
White floura Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
47.3c 47.1c 44.3d 54.9a 49.5b
11.9bc 13.3abc 11.8c 15.0a 12.7bc
18.4d 23.5b 15.3e 26.4a 17.6d
57.1b 60.4a 52.5cd 60.4a 54.3bcd
21.9d 27.0b 19.3f 30.4a 21.7de
72.4a 64.7cd 68.5b 63.8d 65.8c
4.2c 4.6bc 4.9b 4.5bc 5.0b
21.9bc 22.5ab 20.1de 19.6de 23.8a
79.3a 78.4a 76.4cd 77.2bc 78.2ab
22.3b 22.9ab 20.6cd 20.1d 24.3a
Values in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). a Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
absorption analysis gave valuable information to understand the adequacy of flours to cake elaboration. However, no significant correlations were found between the pasting properties of the batters and the characteristics of the cakes. This could be related to the high hydration of samples analyzed by the RVA or to the effect of non-flour ingredients added to the batter (Marcotte, Sablani, Kasapis, Baik, & Fustier, 2004). No correlations were found between the characteristics of batters and the characteristics of cakes, probably due to the complexity of changes that occur during baking. These changes affect the gas retention and the cake expansion, which are processes that occur after the rheological characterization of the batters. It is also important to take into account that in the rheological evaluation of batters a degasification occurred and thus the characteristics of the initial batter were modified. This lack of correlation was consistent with the results of other works (Gomez, Oliete, Garcia-Alvarez, Ronda, & Salazar, 2008). However, significant correlations have been found in layer cakes (Gomez, Oliete, Rosell, et al., 2008). Considering the texture, significant correlations between the specific volume and the symmetry, and between the former and the firmness were found. Cakes with the highest specific volume and the highest symmetry showed the lowest firmness values. The wholegrain flour cakes showed higher firmness and chewiness and lower cohesiveness and resilience values than the white flour cakes (data not shown). Grigelmo-Miguel, Carreras-Boladeras, and Martin-Belloso (1999) also observed an increase in muffins firmness and chewiness when dietetic fibre was added to the formulation, what was consistent with our results since the wholegrain flours had higher fibre content than the white flours. In the cereal study, Wheat cakes showed the lowest firmness and chewiness and the highest cohesiveness, but did not significantly differ from the rye cakes. The barley cakes showed the highest firmness and the lowest cohesiveness values. It was also observed that the wholegrain cakes increased their firmness over the time more slowly than the white flour cakes, although significant differences were only observed in rye, triticale and tritordeum. This tendency was consistent with other researches about the addition of fibre to bread (Gomez et al., 2003) and to muffins (Baixauli et al., 2008). White flour cakes showed similar staling rate, independently the kind of cereal. The lowest firmness increase was observed in tritordeum wholegrain cakes and the highest in white and wholegrain barley cakes. Considering the cake colour (Table 4), the crust of the wholegrain cakes showed lower L* (darker), b* (less yellowish), hue and chroma values than the white flour cakes. Considering the cereals, the crust of barley cakes were the brightest (highest L*value), and
with the highest a* value (more reddish). The differences in the crust colour were due to the presence of different aminoacids and sugars and their effect on Maillard and caramelization reactions. The crumb of the wholegrain cakes was darker (lower L*), more reddish (higher a*), and less yellowish (lower b*) than the white flour cakes. The hue and chroma values of the crumb were also lower. The differences are probably related to the quantity and the kind of bran. The bran from different cereals and even from different wheat cultivars modified the internal and external colour of cakes (Shafer & Zabik, 1978). Among the cereals, wheat cakes showed the brightest crumb (higher L*) but differences between non-wheat cereals were small. These values were conditioned by the colour of flours (presence of coloured substances). Despite of the fact that triticale and tritordeum are hybrids from wheat and rye and barley respectively, no similar behaviour among cereals was observed in cakes properties.
3.4. Sensorial evaluation The data obtained in the organoleptic evaluation were shown in Table 5. Within the white flour cakes, wheat cakes were the highest scored by consumers. Non-wheat cakes did not show significant differences between them. However differences between wheat and non-wheat cakes were not important and could be motivated by the fact that consumers were used to wheat cakes, but not to the flavours and aroma of non-wheat cakes. It was noticeable the fact
Table 5 Hedonic sensorial analysis for white and wholegrain flour cakes. Appearance Flavour Taste
Aftertaste Texture Overall acceptability
Wholegrain flour Wheat 6.40a Rye 5.78b Triticale 5.78b Barley 6.55a Tritordeum 5.61b
6.29a 6.10ab 5.73b 6.23a 6.03ab
6.38a 5.86bc 5.59c 6.48a 6.24ab
6.16ab 5.75c 5.78bc 6.20a 6.11abc
6.25ab 6.24ab 5.73c 6.51a 5.91bc
6.50a 6.10a 5.65b 6.46a 6.21a
White floura Wheat Rye Triticale Barley Tritordeum
6.86a 6.11bc 6.21bc 6.40b 5.92c
7.13a 6.09b 6.14b 6.31b 6.32b
6.67a 5.82b 6.00b 5.92b 6.05b
7.19a 6.53b 6.36b 6.29b 6.35b
6.98a 6.05b 6.09b 6.18b 6.20b
6.63a 6.37a 6.38a 6.35a 6.24a
Values from the same set of values (white flour, wholegrain flour) in the same column with different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). a Sifted wholegrain flour with particle sizing lower than 210 mm.
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that no differences between cakes were found in the external aspect. This could indicate that significant differences obtained in the instrumental analysis of volume, shape and colour were not high enough to modify their acceptability. In the wholegrain cakes, only triticale cakes showed lower global acceptability than wheat ones, showing the lowest values in texture, flavour and taste, despite of the fact that triticale is a wheat composite. No differences were observed between the other wholegrain cakes probably because consumers were not used to consume them. It was important to note that cakes with the brightest crumb (barley and wheat) obtained the highest appearance values. The scores of the wholegrain cakes could not be compared with those made of white flour since they were obtained in different sessions. However, it was noticeable the high scores reached by wholegrain cakes. It confirmed the good results obtained in similar products (muffins) elaborated with white flour added 25% bran (Polizzoto, Tinsley, Weber, & Berry, 1983). 4. Conclusion Water-absorption of flours (DoughLab) gave valuable information to understand the adequacy of flour to cake elaboration since significant correlations were found between it and specific volume, symmetry and firmness. On the contrary, no significant correlations were found between RVA and batter properties, and cake characteristics. Despite of the fact that wholegrain cakes showed lower volume, symmetry, and colour values than white flour, these instrumental differences were not important since no differences in sensorial appearance were observed. Moreover, wholegrain cakes show lower staling rate. In consequence, the use of wholegrain flours in cake elaboration is a good opportunity to increase the consumption of wholegrains if adequate information about the nutritional characteristics is supplied. Apart from wheat flour, other cereal flours, such as rye, barley or their hybrids, can be used in the development of cakes. They are an interesting alternative to wheat, in price and in nutritional aspects. However, it would be necessary to analyze the adequacy of these flours and their cultivars in other bakery products such as cookies. Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by Comisio´n Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologı´a Proyects (AGL2005-05192-C04-02/ALI), Spain. Authors are also grateful to ITACYL, Harinera Los Pisones and Agrasys for supplying raw materials. References AACC. (2000). Approved methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, Method 10-91 (10th ed.). St. Paul, Minnesota: American Association of Cereal Chemists. ADA. (1997). Position of the American Dietetic Association: health implications of dietary fiber. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 97, 1157–1159. Albertson, A. M., & Tobelmann, R. C. (1995). Consumption of grain and whole-grain foods by an American population during the years 1990–1999. Journal of American Dietetic Association, 95, 703–704. Baixauli, R., Salvador, A., & Fiszman, S. M. (2008). Textural and colour changes during storage and sensory shelf life of muffins containing resistant starch. European Food Research and Technology, 226, 523–530. Batey, I. L. (2007). Interpretation of RVA curves. In G. B. Crosbie, & A. S. Ross (Eds.), The RVA handbook. St. Paul, Minnesota: American Association of Cereal Chemists. Berglund, P. T., Fastnaught, C. E., & Holm, E. T. (1992). Food uses of waxy hull-less barley. Cereal Foods World, 37, 707–714. Brennan, C. S., & Samyue, E. (2004). Evaluation of starch degradation and textural characteristics of dietary fiber enriched biscuits. International Journal of Food Properties, 7, 647–657.
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