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Age differences in meaning in life: Exploring the mediating role of social support
Journal Pre-proof Age differences in meaning in life: Exploring the mediating role of social support Neal Krause, Gerard Rainville
PII:
S0167-4943(20)30001-7
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2020.104008
Reference:
AGG 104008
To appear in:
Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics
Received Date:
1 November 2019
Revised Date:
31 December 2019
Accepted Date:
1 January 2020
Please cite this article as: { doi: https://doi.org/ This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Published by Elsevier.
Age Differences in Meaning in Life: Exploring the Mediating Role of Social Support
Neal Krause, Ph.D.*, Gerard Rainville, Ph.D. Neal Krause, Ph.D.*
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University of Michigan
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Gerard Rainville, Ph.D.
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AARP
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*Address all communication to: Neal Krause, Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann
[email protected]
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Word Count: 4648
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Arbor, MI, 48109-2029. Phone: (734) 763-5583; fax: (734) 763-7379; e-mail:
Number of Tables and Figures: 3
Highlights
We examine the interface between two well-known theories in the psychology of
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aging: Erikson’s theory of life course development and Carstensen’s Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Based on Erikson’s theory, we found a nonlinear, J-shaped relationship between chronological age and meaning in life.
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Based on Carstensen’s theory, we found a nonlinear, J-shaped relationship between age and two measures of social support: received support and satisfaction with support.
We also found that the nonlinear relationships between age and the social support
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measures mediate the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life
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Abstract
Objectives: Three sets of analyses are performed in our study. First, following Erikson (1959),
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we hypothesized that the relationship between age and meaning becomes progressively stronger
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at successively older ages (i.e., the relationship is nonlinear). Second, following Carstensen (1992), we predicted that the relationship between age and social support (received support and
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satisfaction with support) becomes progressively stronger at successively older ages (i.e., these relationships are nonlinear, as well). Third, we proposed that the nonlinear relationship between
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age and meaning is mediated by the nonlinear social support constructs (i.e., received support and satisfaction with support).
Methods: Our data were obtained from online interviews with a nationwide sample of adults of all ages (N = 2, 245).
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Results: Our findings suggest there is a nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life as well as a nonlinear relationship between age and each social support measure. Our data also indicate that the nonlinear effects of the social support measures mediate the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life. Discussion: Finding a sense of meaning may be facilitated by the supportive social networks that
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older people maintain.
Keywords: purpose in life, support received, satisfaction with social support. Introduction The theoretical landscape in the aging and life course literature is populated with a number of theoretical perspectives (see Bengtson et al., 2009). Many times, these perspectives
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are viewed in isolation from each other. As the field continues to mature, it is essential that
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researchers take steps to identify points where these theories overlap, complement, and extend
advantage of what they have to offer each other.
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each other. Only in this way can gerontologists begin to speak with one voice and take greater
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The purpose of our study is to examine the interface between two well-known theories: Erikson’s (1959) theory of life course development and Carstensen’s (1992) socioemotional
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selectivity theory. In addition to examining these theories at a conceptual level, we take a second important step by empirically estimating the interface between the relationships they propose.
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Erikson’s Theory of Life Course Development
Erikson (1959) argued that the life span is divided into eight stages. The final stage, which takes place in late life, is characterized by the crisis of integrity versus despair. This is a time of deep introspection when an individual strives to accept the kind of person that he or she
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has become. This is accomplished by taking steps to reconcile the inevitable gap between what one set out to do in life with one’s actual accomplishments. If this crisis is not resolved successfully, older adults may slip into despair. It is important to reflect on how the process that is described by Erikson (1959) is manifest empirically. The stages in Erikson’s (1959) theory loosely follow a person’s
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chronological age. Moreover, earlier stages in his theory are characterized by different challenges and result in priorities other than attaining a sense of meaning. So if meaning-making is especially important in the final stage in life, and if Erikson’s (1959) stages loosely follow a person’s chronological age, then the relationship between age and meaning should be nonlinear: levels of meaning should be relatively lower earlier in life and then accelerate rapidly as people approach and go through late life (i.e., the curve should roughly assume a J-shape). We are not
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meaning that is discussed above. The first goal of our study is to do so.
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aware of any studies that empirically evaluate the nonlinear relationship between age and
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
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Carstensen (1992) maintains that as people approach late life, they become increasingly
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aware that they have relatively little time left to live. As a result, older people place a greater emphasis on relationships that are emotionally close, while disengaging from more peripheral
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social ties that are less satisfying emotionally.
Once again, it is important to reflect on the way in which the process described by
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Carstensen (1992) is manifest empirically. In a later paper, Carstensen, Fung, and Charles (2003) posit that the goal of creating greater emotional closeness follows a “curvilinear trajectory” whereby efforts to invest in the emotional quality of social ties become much more pronounced in late life than earlier in the life (p. 107). The second goal of our study is to add to research on
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Carstensen’s (1992) theory by seeing whether there is a nonlinear relationship between age and social support.
We hope to add to this research in a second way. Researcher reveals that social support is
a complex phenomenon that is comprised of different types of social support (Barrera, 1986). We examine two types of social support in our study: emotional support received from significant
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others and satisfaction with support that has been received. This distinction is important because there are variations in the amount of social support people need: some individuals feel more comfortable with relatively little assistance while others require significantly more help from significant others. Knowing how much support a person has received cannot capture this distinction. This is why it is important to also examine satisfaction with support. Merging Insights from Erikson and Carstensen
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The discussion that has been provided so far indicates that there are two nonlinear
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relationships in the theories proposed by Erikson (1959) and Carstensen (1992). First, following Erikson (1959), there should be a nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life.
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Second, based on the work of Carstensen (1992), there should be a nonlinear relationship
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between age and social support. If the goal is to merge the two theories, then an obvious point of departure involves merging Carstensen’s (1992) emphasis on social support with Erikson’s
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(1959) focus on meaning. We address this issue below.
As Krause (2007) points out, meaning-making is a challenging process because it
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requires a deep sense of introspection and sound cognitive skills. Finding a sense of purpose and order in life, as well as attaining a sense of fulfillment, often involve wrestling with abstract concepts. This task is further complicated by the fact that there are no absolute criteria for determining whether a person has attained a full sense of order, coherence, and purpose. Given
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this uncertainty, it is not surprising to find that people turn to significant others to help them work through the questions that inevitably arise during the search for meaning. It seems ironic that the need for meaning is greatest at a point in the life course when the
cognitive resources that are needed to attain it begin to decline (Baltes & Smith, 1999). This may be one reason why emotionally close ties are likely to take on added importance in late life.
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Staudinger (2001) shows why this may be so. She argues that a sense of meaning arises, in part, from an autobiographical reconstruction of one’s own life. This is a difficult task to perform, however. Fortunately, as Staudinger (2001) points out, significant others help facilitate the life review process by pointing out blind spots and self-serving biases that arise in the process of autobiographical reconstruction. In addition, as Krause (2007) and others have argued, family members and close friends provide the emotional and motivational regulation that further
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enhances the life review process.
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The argument that has been developed so far is further supported by empirical findings from several studies. For example, Krause (2007) reports that over time, individuals who receive
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more emotional support from their informal social network members tend to have a greater sense
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of meaning in life (see also Zeligman, Varney, Grad, & Huffstead, 2018). So if more social support is associated with a greater sense of meaning, and if social
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support becomes increasingly important with advancing age, then the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life should be reduced (or disappear entirely) after measures of
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social support are included in the study model. Assessing this mediating effect constitutes the final goal of our study.
The discussion we provide above leads to the following study hypotheses: H1: There will be a nonlinear (roughly J-shaped) relationship between chronological age
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and meaning in life.
H2: There will be a nonlinear (roughly J-shaped) relationship between chronological age and received emotional support. H3: There will be a nonlinear (roughly J-shaped) relationship between chronological age and satisfaction with social support.
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H4: The magnitude of the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life will be reduced once the measures of received support and satisfaction with support are included in the study model. Methods Sample The data for our study come from the AARP 2018 Brain Health and Mental Health
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survey. The interviews, which were conducted in May, 2018, averaged 18 minutes and were
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fielded among 2,287 American adults age 18 and over. Depending upon the respondent’s preference, interviews were conducted in either English or Spanish. The survey was conducted
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by GfK International (now Ipsos) using their probability-based on-line panel, KnowledgePanel.
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The compliance rate is 65%. The data that are provided below were weighted with reference to benchmarks from the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey (CPS) for gender, age,
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race/ethnicity, education, region, and household income. After using listwise procedures to deal with item non-response, complete data were available from a total of 2,245 study participants.
Measures
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Table 2 contains the measures of the core constructs in our study. The procedures that were used to code these indicators are provided in the footnotes of this table.
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Meaning in Life. We evaluated meaning in life with eight items that were taken from the
research of Krause and Hayward (2014). Two indicators were used to assess each of the following dimensions of meaning: having values, having a sense of purpose, having goals, and the ability to reconcile things that have happened in the past. A high score on the summary
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measure that is used in the current study signifies a stronger sense of meaning in life (M = 23.9; SD = 5.00; range = 8-32). The internal consistency reliability estimate (i.e., Cronbach’s alpha) is .92. Received Emotional Support. We assessed the frequency of emotional support that was received from family members and friends with four indicators that were devised by Krause (2016). A high score denotes study participants who received support more frequently (M =
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10.91; SD = 3.44; range = 4-16; α = .89).
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Satisfaction with Support. Immediately after the received support questions were administered, study participants were presented with a single indicator which asked them to
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report their level of satisfaction with their social support systems. A high score represents higher
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levels of satisfaction (M = 3.21; SD = .77; range = 1-4).
Chronological Age. We assed age in our study with a single indicator that is coded in a
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continuous format.
Substantive Control Variable. We conducted the analyses that were discussed above after
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a measure of the frequency of church attendance was controlled statistically. We included a measure of the frequency of church attendance in our study because research indicates that more frequent attendance at worship services is associated with greater social support and more frequent church attendance is associated with a greater sense of meaning in life (see Krause,
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2008, for a review of this research). We assessed church attendance with a single indicator that reflects how often a study participant attends worship services. A high score denotes more frequent church attendance (M = 1.72; SD = 2.33; range = 0-6). Demographic Control Measures. We examined the relationships in our study after the effects of sex, education, and marital status were controlled statistically. Sex (1 = men; 0 =
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women) and marital status (1 = currently married; 0 = otherwise) were coded in a binary format. Education was represented by a four-category ordinal scheme ranging from “less than high school” (scored 1) to ‘bachelor’s degree or higher” (scored 4). Data Analysis Strategy The hypotheses that we developed for our study specify that there will be a J-shaped relationship between age and meaning in life as well as a nonlinear relationship between age and
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the social support indicators. The focus on the discussion in this section involves how to conduct
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the analyses involving meaning. However, the same procedures are used when the two social support measures serve as the outcome measures.
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When we specify that there is a nonlinear relationship between chronological age and
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meaning in life, we hypothesize that, initially, the magnitude of the relationship between age and meaning will be relatively small, but beyond a certain threshold point, additional increments in
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age will be associated with an increasingly stronger sense of meaning. We evaluated this nonlinear relationship with the procedures that are provided by Aiken and West (1991). First, we
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centered all of the independent variables on their means. Then we formed a quadratic term by squaring the centered values of age. Following this, we conducted an ordinary least squares multiple regression analysis in two steps. We assessed the linear effects of the study measures (including the control variables) in the first step (i.e., Model1). Then, in the second step, we
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added the quadratic term to the model (i.e., Model 2). If the quadratic term is statistically significant, we took two additional steps in order to
see if the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning is in the hypothesized form. First, following the procedures discussed by Aiken and West (1991), we depicted the nature of the relationship between the two constructs will graphically. Second, we used a formula that was
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provided by Aiken and West (1991) to estimate the relationship between age and meaning at select ages (see page 64). Although any age could be selected for this purpose, we follow the standard protocol that is used by other investigators and select -1 standard deviation below the mean age, the mean, and +1 standard deviation above the mean age. Once these additional computations are complete, we used a second formula that is provided by Aiken and West (1991) to see if these estimates are statistically significant (see page 64). We also estimated a third
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formula that identifies the precise point where the trough in the curved line occurs (see page 65).
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Cast within the context of our study, this point indicates the exact age when meaning in life scores begin to escalate.
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Hypothesis 4 predicts that the nonlinear effects of each social support measure on
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meaning in life will mediate the curvilinear relationship between age and meaning in life. We evaluated this relationship with Hayes’ MEDCURVE macro (Hayes & Preacher, 2010).
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Results
Table 3 contains the estimates of the relationship between age and meaning in life (see
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columns 1 and 2), age and emotional support received (see columns 3 and 4), and age and satisfaction with support (see columns 5 and 6). Model 1 in this table refers to the first step in estimating these equations (i.e., where only linear relationships are evaluated) whereas Model 2 denotes the second step in which the quadratic term is added to each equation.
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The data in column 1 indicate that older study participants tend to have a stronger sense
of meaning in life than younger study participants (β = .10; p < .001). However, the estimates that are provided in column 2 are of greater interest. According to these data, there is a statistically significant nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life (β = .06; p <
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.005). Following the data analysis strategy that is described above, we computed the relationship between age and meaning at three select levels of age. These findings are provided in Table 4. The first is -1 standard deviation below the mean of age (i.e., 30.4 years of age). The additional calculations reveal that age is associated with slight downturn in meaning, but this relationship is not statistically significant (β = -.04; ns.). The relationship between these constructs changes signs and becomes significant for study participants at the mean age (i.e., age 47.8) (β = .08; p <
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.001). At +1 standard deviation above the mean (i.e., 65.3 years), the magnitude of the
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relationship between age and meaning in life jumps substantially (β = .30; p < .001). As these additional calculations reveal, there is a J shaped nonlinear relationship between age and
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meaning in life. Support is therefore found for Hypothesis 1. The trough of this line (i.e., the low
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point) comes at age 35.9.
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Figure 1 contains a graphic illustration of the nature of the relationship between age and meaning in life. We include both the linear and nonlinear estimates of the relationship between
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the two variables in this diagram. Great care must be taken in interpreting this figure. The nonlinear effects of age that are reported in Table 4 are based on the following formula that is provided by Aiken and West (1991): b1 + (2b2X), where b1 is the linear effect of age, b2 is the nonlinear effect of age, and X is the selected value of age. As this formula reveals, it is not
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appropriate to consider the nonlinear effect of age on meaning in life without simultaneously taking the linear effect into account. As a result, it does not make sense to ask whether the linear effect is “better” than the nonlinear effect. Instead, the key issue is whether the two effects taken together explain more variance in meaning than the linear component taken by itself.
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Returning to Table 2, the data in column 3 reflect the linear relationships between the independent variables and emotional support that is received from family members and friends. These data may initially create the impression that older study participants receive less emotional support from significant others than younger adults (β = -.12; p < .001). However, a straightforward explanation is provided by the data in column 4. These findings suggest there is a statistically significant nonlinear relationship between age and received emotional support (β =
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.08; b < .001). Stated in more technical terms, this coefficient reveals that the anomalous finding
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in column 3 arises because the linear specification does not correctly specify the functional form of this relationship between age and social support.
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Following the data analysis plan we provided earlier, we computed the nonlinear
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relationship between age and emotional support at three age levels (see Table 4). At -1 standard deviation below the mean, increases in age are associated with a decrease in emotional support
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received (β = -.31; p < .001). At the average age in our study sample, increases in age are still associated with less emotional support, but the magnitude of this relationship has declined by
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about 56% (β = -.14; p < .001). At one standard deviation above the mean for age, the findings indicate that the sign of the relationship changes and increases in age are associated with increases in emotional support received (β = .18; p < .001). Further calculations suggest that the trough of the line for the relationship between age and received emotional support occurs at age
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34.4. Support is therefore found in the data for Hypothesis 2. As the data provided here indicate, the relationship between age and emotional support roughly follows the form of the relationship that is depicted in Figure 1. The final set of analyses in Table 3 involve the relationship between age and satisfaction with support. The data in column 5 indicate that older study participants tend to be more satisfied
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with their social relationships than younger study participants (β = .05; p < .01). However, as the data in column 6 reveal, it is important to take the nonlinear relationship between these constructs into account (β = .08; p <.001). The additional calculations (see Table 4) indicate that the shape of the relationship between age and satisfaction with support takes the same general form as the relationship between age and received emotional support: at -1 standard deviation below the mean age, an increment in age is associated with lower levels of satisfaction (β = -.13;
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p < .01); at the mean age level, the relationship between age and satisfaction with support
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changes direction (β = .16; p < .001); and at +1 standard deviation above the mean age, the magnitude of the relationship between age and satisfaction with support increases substantially
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(β = .31; p < .001). The trough of the relationship between age and satisfaction with social
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support is at age 29.2. Support is therefore found in the data for Hypothesis 3. This relationship is also roughly approximated by the relationship that is depicted in Figure 1.
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The findings that have been presented up to this point suggest that there is a nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life as well as nonlinear relationships between
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chronological age and received social support and age and satisfaction with social support. If nonlinear social relationships mediate the nonlinear effects of age on meaning, then re-estimating the model after including the nonlinear effects of each social support measure as mediators should result in a decline in the strength of the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning
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in life (see Baron& Kenny, 1986; Hayes & Preacher, 2010). Consistent with this reasoning, we added the nonlinear specifications for the two social
support measures to the model shown in column 2 of Table 3. The software program that was devised by Hayes and Preacher (2010) yields estimates of these nonlinear mediating relationships. We used this procedure with 10,000 bootstrapped samples that yield bias-corrected
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confidence intervals. These analyses produced two blocks of findings (not shown in Tables 3 or 4). The first block of findings suggest that the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning is no longer statistically significant when the nonlinear effect of received support is included in the model. More specifically, the unstandardized coefficient for the age-squared variable (.08) when the measure of received support was in the model was not statistically
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significant (exact p= .44). Moreover, these analyses suggest that the indirect effect of the
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nonlinear age variable on meaning in life that operates through the nonlinear received support construct was .001 (exact p < .01).
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The second block of findings suggests that the nonlinear relationship between age and
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meaning in life is no longer statistically significant after the nonlinear effects of satisfaction with social support are added to the model: the unstandardized coefficient associated with age (.0002)
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under these circumstances was not statistically significant (exact p = .51). In addition, these analyses reveal that the indirect effect of the nonlinear age variable on meaning in life that
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operates through the nonlinear effect of satisfaction with support was .0002 (exact p < .01). Taken together, the two sets of findings reveal that each nonlinear social support measure fully mediates that nonlinear effects of age on meaning in life. Hypothesis 4 is therefore supported by the data.
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Discussion
Our study is based on the premise that the continued proliferation of conceptual models
in the aging and life course literature will not serve the profession well. Instead, following Krause (2011), we believe that it is time for researchers to synthesize the valuable theoretical insights that have been provided already. Throughout, our aim was to provide a blueprint for
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showing how this might be accomplished. More specifically, we illustrate one way to merge the insights from Erikson’s (1959) life course theory of human development with Carstensen’s (1992) socioemotional selectivity theory. This was accomplished by linking Erikson’s (1959) views on the development of meaning in late life with Carstensen’s (1992) notion of the increasing importance of emotionally close relationships as people enter and move through late life. But rather than merely establish this union at a conceptual level, we aimed to evaluate our
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insights empirically, as well.
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We proposed and tested four hypotheses in our study. Based on the insights provided by Erikson (1959), our first hypothesis specifies that there is a nonlinear relationship between age
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and meaning in life. We found support in our data for this perspective: the relationship between
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age and meaning is initially lower at young ages but becomes progressively larger beginning at about mid-life, with the strongest association emerging in late life.
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Our second and third hypotheses used the insights provided by Carstensen (1992) to propose that a similar nonlinear relationship exists between age and received emotional support
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as well as age and satisfaction with social support. Once again, we found support for both hypotheses was found in our data. The findings indicate that initially, age is associated with less received support and less satisfaction with support, but the sign of this relationship changes at roughly midlife. From that point on, increasing age is associated with successively larger
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increases in received support and satisfaction with support, with the strongest relationship emerging among the oldest study participants. Our fourth hypothesis was designed to merge the two theoretical perspectives by showing
that the nonlinear effects of both social support measures fully mediate the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life. The data provide support for this hypothesis, as well.
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When viewed at the broadest level, our findings are consistent with the notion that deriving a sense of meaning is especially important in late life and this meaning-making process is facilitated by the increasing emphasis on social relationships that people form during their later years. There are two reasons why our study findings are noteworthy. First, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that nonlinear age differences in meaning and social support
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have been evaluated within the same study. Second, and more important, our reasons for doing
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so arose from merging Erikson’s (1959) notion of age differences in the importance of meaning in life with Carstensen’s (1992) notion of age differences in the centrality of emotionally close
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social ties. Rather than merely calling for the synthesis of prior theories, we provide a more
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concrete example of how it can be done and how it can be accomplished empirically. Even though our findings may have contributed to the literature, we must be careful not
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to overstate our case because there are limitations in our work. One of the obvious shortcomings arises from the fact that we analyzed data that were gathered at a single point in time, making it
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impossible to determine whether changes in social support precede changes in meaning over time. Moreover, because our data are cross-sectional, we cannot differentiate between age, period, and cohort effects. Both issues must be rigorously evaluated with longitudinal data. Although there are shortcomings in our research, we hope other investigators do not
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dismiss our efforts to infuse research on meaning in life with a strong social psychological flavor. Doing so helps us to more clearly highlight one of the major challenges as well as one of the greatest benefits of growing older - deriving a deep sense of meaning in life with the help of close others. Conflict of interest
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The authors do not have a conflict of interest
Acknowledgements The data for this study are provided through the ongoing, internally-funded, research program at AARP. We are grateful to AARP for granting access to these data. The decision to release these data publically rests solely with AARP. The analyses for this study were not
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preregistered.
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Barrera, M. (1986). Distinctions between social support concepts, measures, and models.
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Carstensen, L. L. (1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 7 (3), 331-338. Carstensen, L. L., Fung, H. H., & Charles, S. T. (2003). Socioemotional selectivity theory and
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regulation of emotion in the second half of life. Motivation and Emotion, 27 (2), 103-123.
Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. New York: International University Press. Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2010). Quantifying and testing indirect effects in simple mediation models when the constituent paths are nonlinear. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 45(4), 627-660.
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Krause, N. (2007). A longitudinal study of social support and meaning in life. Psychology and Aging, 22 (3), 456-469. Krause, N. (2008). Aging in the church: How social relationships affect health. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press. Krause, N. (2011). Religion and health: Making sense of a disheveled literature. Journal of Religion and Health, 50 (1), 20-35.
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Krause, N. (2016). Assessing supportive social exchanges inside and outside religious
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Institutions: Exploring variations among Whites, Hispanics, and Blacks. Social Indicator Research: 128 (1), 131-146.
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Krause, N., & Hayward, R. D. (2014). Assessing stability and change in a second-order
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Staudinger, U. M. (2001). Life reflection: A social-cognitive analysis of life review. Review of General Psychology, 5 (2), 148-160.
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Zeligman, M., Varney, M., Grad, R. I., & Huffstead, M. (2018). Posttraumatic growth in individuals with chronic illness: The role of social support and meaning making. Journal
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of Counseling and Development, 96 (1), 53-63.
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Figure 1. Linear and Curvilinear Fit Lines with a Scatterplot of the Values for Age and Meaning in Life
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Table 1. Core Study Measures _____________________________________________________________________________ 1. Meaning in Lifea A. Values 1. I have a system of values and beliefs that guide my daily activities. 2. I have a philosophy of life that helps me understand who I am.
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B. Purpose
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1. I feel like I am living fully.
2. I feel like I have found a really significant meaning in my life.
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C. Goals my
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1. In life, I have goals and aims.
2. I have a sense of direction and purpose in life.
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D. Reflections on the Past
1. I feel good when I think about what I have accomplished in life.
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2. I am at peace with my past. 2. Received Emotional Supportb
A. How often has someone been right there with you (physically) in a stressful situation? B. How often has someone comforted you by showing you physical affection?
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C. How often has someone listened to you talk about your private feelings? D. How often has someone expressed interest and concern in your well-being?
3. Satisfaction with Social Supportc How satisfied are you, if at all, with the quality of your social relationships? 4. Church Attendanced
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How often do you attend religious services? _____________________________________________________________________________ a
These items were scored in the following manner (coding in parentheses): disagree strongly (1),
disagree (2), agree (3), agree strongly (4). b
These items were scored in the following manner: never (1), once in a while (2), fairly often
(3), very often (4). This item was scored in the following manner: not at all satisfied (1), not very satisfied (2),
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c
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somewhat satisfied (3), very satisfied (4).
This item was scored in the following manner: about once a year (1), several times a year but
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week (5), several times a week or more often (6).
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not monthly (2), about once a month (3), several times a month but not weekly (4), about once a
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Table 2. Demographic Characteristics of the Study Sample ______________________________________________________________________________ 1. Agea M = 47.68; SD = 17.45; range = 18 - 93 2. Sexb M = .48; SD = .50; range = 0 - 1
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3. Marital Statusc
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M = .56; SD = .50; range = 0 - 1 4. Education
9.3%
2. High school
27.7%
3. Some college
28.8%
4. Bachelor’s degree or higher
34.2%
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1. Less than high school
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M = 2.81; SD = .10; range = 1 - 4
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5. Income
M = 13.0; SD = 4.67; range = 1 - 21 1.8%
2. $5,000 to $7,499
0.8%
3. $7,500 to $9,999
1.1%
4. $10,000 to $12,499
2.0%
5. $12,500 to $14,999
1.7%
6. $15,000 to $19,999
3.2%
7. $20,000 to $24,999
3.5%
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1. Less than $5,000
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4.2%
11. $40,000 to $49,999
6.6%
12. $50,000 to $59,999
7.4%
13. $60,000 to $74,999
9.5%
14. $75,000 to $84,999
7.4%
15. $85,000 to $99,999
7.3%
16. $100,000 to $124,999
12.4%
17. $125,000 to $149,999
6.0%
18. $150,000 to $174,999
5.8%
19. $175,000 to $199,999
4.1%
20. $200,000 to $249,999
3.4%
21. $250,000 or more
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10. $35,000 to $39,999
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4.2%
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9. $30,000 to $34,999
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4.1%
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8. $25,000 to $29,999
3.5%
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______________________________________________________________________________ Age is coded continuously in years.
b
Sex is coded in the following manner: 0 = women; 1 = men
c
Marital status is coded in the following manner: 0 = not married; 1 = married
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a
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Table 3. Age, Meaning in Life, and Social Support (N = 2,245)
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______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Meaning in Life
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Model 1
Independent
Support
Satisfaction with
Support Model 2 Model 2
Model 1 Model 1
,09***a .08*** -.12*** -.14*** .05*
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Age
Received Emotional
Model 2
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Variables
Dependent Variables
.040
(.03)b (.02) (-.02)
25
(-.03)
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(.01)
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Sex
( .01)
-.02
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.02 -.11*** -.11***
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-.04
(.24)
(-.06) .09*** .10***
.100*** .05*
(.45) (.35)
(-.74)
(-.07) .100*** .06*** (.48)
(.04)
(.33)
(.05) .12*** .13*** .15*** .17***
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Marital Status
(-.22) (-.76)
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Education
-.04
.18**
.20***
(1.04)
26
(1.17)
(1.33)
(1.18)
(.27)
(.30)
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Church
.19*** .09***
.10*** (.40) (.400)
.06**
-------
.08***
(.13) (.13) (.04) (.03) -------
.08***
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-------
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Attendance
Age2
.09***
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.10***
.18***
------(.01)
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------(.01) ------(.01)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .09
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Multiple R2
.09 .06 .07 .06 .07
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a
Standardized regression coefficient
b
Metric (unstandardized) regression coefficient
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________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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* = p < .01; *** = p < .005; *** = p < .001
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Table 4. Illustrating the Relationship between Age and Main Study Outcomes at Select Levels of Key Independent Variables (N = 2, 245) ____________________________________________________________________________ A. Variations in the Relationship between Age and Meaning in Life Select Value of Age Relationship with Meaning in Life -1 SD (Age 30.4 years) -.04a (-.01)b M (Age 47.8 years) .08*** (.02) + 1 SD (Age 65.3 years) .30*** (.06) B. Variations in the Relationship between Age and Received Emotional Support Select Value of Age Relationship with Received Support -1 SD (Age 30.4 years) -.31*** (-.06) M (Age 47.8 years) -.14*** (-.03) + 1 SD (Age 65.3 years) .18*** (.04) C. Variations in the Relationship between Age and Satisfaction With Support Select Value of Age Relationship with Received Support -1 SD (Age 30.4 years) -.13** (-.01) M (Age 47.8 years) .16*** (.01) + 1 SD (Age 65.3 years) .31*** (.10) ______________________________________________________________________________ a Standardized regression coefficient b Unstandardized (metric) regression coefficient *** = p < .001; ** = p < .01
29
PII:
S0167-4943(20)30001-7
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2020.104008
Reference:
AGG 104008
To appear in:
Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics
Received Date:
1 November 2019
Revised Date:
31 December 2019
Accepted Date:
1 January 2020
Please cite this article as: { doi: https://doi.org/ This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Published by Elsevier.
Age Differences in Meaning in Life: Exploring the Mediating Role of Social Support
Neal Krause, Ph.D.*, Gerard Rainville, Ph.D. Neal Krause, Ph.D.*
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University of Michigan
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Gerard Rainville, Ph.D.
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AARP
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*Address all communication to: Neal Krause, Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann
[email protected]
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Word Count: 4648
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Arbor, MI, 48109-2029. Phone: (734) 763-5583; fax: (734) 763-7379; e-mail:
Number of Tables and Figures: 3
Highlights
We examine the interface between two well-known theories in the psychology of
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aging: Erikson’s theory of life course development and Carstensen’s Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Based on Erikson’s theory, we found a nonlinear, J-shaped relationship between chronological age and meaning in life.
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Based on Carstensen’s theory, we found a nonlinear, J-shaped relationship between age and two measures of social support: received support and satisfaction with support.
We also found that the nonlinear relationships between age and the social support
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measures mediate the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life
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Abstract
Objectives: Three sets of analyses are performed in our study. First, following Erikson (1959),
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we hypothesized that the relationship between age and meaning becomes progressively stronger
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at successively older ages (i.e., the relationship is nonlinear). Second, following Carstensen (1992), we predicted that the relationship between age and social support (received support and
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satisfaction with support) becomes progressively stronger at successively older ages (i.e., these relationships are nonlinear, as well). Third, we proposed that the nonlinear relationship between
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age and meaning is mediated by the nonlinear social support constructs (i.e., received support and satisfaction with support).
Methods: Our data were obtained from online interviews with a nationwide sample of adults of all ages (N = 2, 245).
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Results: Our findings suggest there is a nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life as well as a nonlinear relationship between age and each social support measure. Our data also indicate that the nonlinear effects of the social support measures mediate the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life. Discussion: Finding a sense of meaning may be facilitated by the supportive social networks that
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older people maintain.
Keywords: purpose in life, support received, satisfaction with social support. Introduction The theoretical landscape in the aging and life course literature is populated with a number of theoretical perspectives (see Bengtson et al., 2009). Many times, these perspectives
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are viewed in isolation from each other. As the field continues to mature, it is essential that
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researchers take steps to identify points where these theories overlap, complement, and extend
advantage of what they have to offer each other.
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each other. Only in this way can gerontologists begin to speak with one voice and take greater
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The purpose of our study is to examine the interface between two well-known theories: Erikson’s (1959) theory of life course development and Carstensen’s (1992) socioemotional
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selectivity theory. In addition to examining these theories at a conceptual level, we take a second important step by empirically estimating the interface between the relationships they propose.
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Erikson’s Theory of Life Course Development
Erikson (1959) argued that the life span is divided into eight stages. The final stage, which takes place in late life, is characterized by the crisis of integrity versus despair. This is a time of deep introspection when an individual strives to accept the kind of person that he or she
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has become. This is accomplished by taking steps to reconcile the inevitable gap between what one set out to do in life with one’s actual accomplishments. If this crisis is not resolved successfully, older adults may slip into despair. It is important to reflect on how the process that is described by Erikson (1959) is manifest empirically. The stages in Erikson’s (1959) theory loosely follow a person’s
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chronological age. Moreover, earlier stages in his theory are characterized by different challenges and result in priorities other than attaining a sense of meaning. So if meaning-making is especially important in the final stage in life, and if Erikson’s (1959) stages loosely follow a person’s chronological age, then the relationship between age and meaning should be nonlinear: levels of meaning should be relatively lower earlier in life and then accelerate rapidly as people approach and go through late life (i.e., the curve should roughly assume a J-shape). We are not
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meaning that is discussed above. The first goal of our study is to do so.
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aware of any studies that empirically evaluate the nonlinear relationship between age and
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
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Carstensen (1992) maintains that as people approach late life, they become increasingly
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aware that they have relatively little time left to live. As a result, older people place a greater emphasis on relationships that are emotionally close, while disengaging from more peripheral
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social ties that are less satisfying emotionally.
Once again, it is important to reflect on the way in which the process described by
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Carstensen (1992) is manifest empirically. In a later paper, Carstensen, Fung, and Charles (2003) posit that the goal of creating greater emotional closeness follows a “curvilinear trajectory” whereby efforts to invest in the emotional quality of social ties become much more pronounced in late life than earlier in the life (p. 107). The second goal of our study is to add to research on
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Carstensen’s (1992) theory by seeing whether there is a nonlinear relationship between age and social support.
We hope to add to this research in a second way. Researcher reveals that social support is
a complex phenomenon that is comprised of different types of social support (Barrera, 1986). We examine two types of social support in our study: emotional support received from significant
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others and satisfaction with support that has been received. This distinction is important because there are variations in the amount of social support people need: some individuals feel more comfortable with relatively little assistance while others require significantly more help from significant others. Knowing how much support a person has received cannot capture this distinction. This is why it is important to also examine satisfaction with support. Merging Insights from Erikson and Carstensen
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The discussion that has been provided so far indicates that there are two nonlinear
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relationships in the theories proposed by Erikson (1959) and Carstensen (1992). First, following Erikson (1959), there should be a nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life.
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Second, based on the work of Carstensen (1992), there should be a nonlinear relationship
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between age and social support. If the goal is to merge the two theories, then an obvious point of departure involves merging Carstensen’s (1992) emphasis on social support with Erikson’s
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(1959) focus on meaning. We address this issue below.
As Krause (2007) points out, meaning-making is a challenging process because it
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requires a deep sense of introspection and sound cognitive skills. Finding a sense of purpose and order in life, as well as attaining a sense of fulfillment, often involve wrestling with abstract concepts. This task is further complicated by the fact that there are no absolute criteria for determining whether a person has attained a full sense of order, coherence, and purpose. Given
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this uncertainty, it is not surprising to find that people turn to significant others to help them work through the questions that inevitably arise during the search for meaning. It seems ironic that the need for meaning is greatest at a point in the life course when the
cognitive resources that are needed to attain it begin to decline (Baltes & Smith, 1999). This may be one reason why emotionally close ties are likely to take on added importance in late life.
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Staudinger (2001) shows why this may be so. She argues that a sense of meaning arises, in part, from an autobiographical reconstruction of one’s own life. This is a difficult task to perform, however. Fortunately, as Staudinger (2001) points out, significant others help facilitate the life review process by pointing out blind spots and self-serving biases that arise in the process of autobiographical reconstruction. In addition, as Krause (2007) and others have argued, family members and close friends provide the emotional and motivational regulation that further
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enhances the life review process.
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The argument that has been developed so far is further supported by empirical findings from several studies. For example, Krause (2007) reports that over time, individuals who receive
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more emotional support from their informal social network members tend to have a greater sense
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of meaning in life (see also Zeligman, Varney, Grad, & Huffstead, 2018). So if more social support is associated with a greater sense of meaning, and if social
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support becomes increasingly important with advancing age, then the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life should be reduced (or disappear entirely) after measures of
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social support are included in the study model. Assessing this mediating effect constitutes the final goal of our study.
The discussion we provide above leads to the following study hypotheses: H1: There will be a nonlinear (roughly J-shaped) relationship between chronological age
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and meaning in life.
H2: There will be a nonlinear (roughly J-shaped) relationship between chronological age and received emotional support. H3: There will be a nonlinear (roughly J-shaped) relationship between chronological age and satisfaction with social support.
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H4: The magnitude of the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life will be reduced once the measures of received support and satisfaction with support are included in the study model. Methods Sample The data for our study come from the AARP 2018 Brain Health and Mental Health
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survey. The interviews, which were conducted in May, 2018, averaged 18 minutes and were
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fielded among 2,287 American adults age 18 and over. Depending upon the respondent’s preference, interviews were conducted in either English or Spanish. The survey was conducted
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by GfK International (now Ipsos) using their probability-based on-line panel, KnowledgePanel.
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The compliance rate is 65%. The data that are provided below were weighted with reference to benchmarks from the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey (CPS) for gender, age,
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race/ethnicity, education, region, and household income. After using listwise procedures to deal with item non-response, complete data were available from a total of 2,245 study participants.
Measures
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Table 2 contains the measures of the core constructs in our study. The procedures that were used to code these indicators are provided in the footnotes of this table.
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Meaning in Life. We evaluated meaning in life with eight items that were taken from the
research of Krause and Hayward (2014). Two indicators were used to assess each of the following dimensions of meaning: having values, having a sense of purpose, having goals, and the ability to reconcile things that have happened in the past. A high score on the summary
7
measure that is used in the current study signifies a stronger sense of meaning in life (M = 23.9; SD = 5.00; range = 8-32). The internal consistency reliability estimate (i.e., Cronbach’s alpha) is .92. Received Emotional Support. We assessed the frequency of emotional support that was received from family members and friends with four indicators that were devised by Krause (2016). A high score denotes study participants who received support more frequently (M =
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10.91; SD = 3.44; range = 4-16; α = .89).
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Satisfaction with Support. Immediately after the received support questions were administered, study participants were presented with a single indicator which asked them to
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report their level of satisfaction with their social support systems. A high score represents higher
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levels of satisfaction (M = 3.21; SD = .77; range = 1-4).
Chronological Age. We assed age in our study with a single indicator that is coded in a
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continuous format.
Substantive Control Variable. We conducted the analyses that were discussed above after
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a measure of the frequency of church attendance was controlled statistically. We included a measure of the frequency of church attendance in our study because research indicates that more frequent attendance at worship services is associated with greater social support and more frequent church attendance is associated with a greater sense of meaning in life (see Krause,
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2008, for a review of this research). We assessed church attendance with a single indicator that reflects how often a study participant attends worship services. A high score denotes more frequent church attendance (M = 1.72; SD = 2.33; range = 0-6). Demographic Control Measures. We examined the relationships in our study after the effects of sex, education, and marital status were controlled statistically. Sex (1 = men; 0 =
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women) and marital status (1 = currently married; 0 = otherwise) were coded in a binary format. Education was represented by a four-category ordinal scheme ranging from “less than high school” (scored 1) to ‘bachelor’s degree or higher” (scored 4). Data Analysis Strategy The hypotheses that we developed for our study specify that there will be a J-shaped relationship between age and meaning in life as well as a nonlinear relationship between age and
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the social support indicators. The focus on the discussion in this section involves how to conduct
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the analyses involving meaning. However, the same procedures are used when the two social support measures serve as the outcome measures.
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When we specify that there is a nonlinear relationship between chronological age and
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meaning in life, we hypothesize that, initially, the magnitude of the relationship between age and meaning will be relatively small, but beyond a certain threshold point, additional increments in
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age will be associated with an increasingly stronger sense of meaning. We evaluated this nonlinear relationship with the procedures that are provided by Aiken and West (1991). First, we
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centered all of the independent variables on their means. Then we formed a quadratic term by squaring the centered values of age. Following this, we conducted an ordinary least squares multiple regression analysis in two steps. We assessed the linear effects of the study measures (including the control variables) in the first step (i.e., Model1). Then, in the second step, we
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added the quadratic term to the model (i.e., Model 2). If the quadratic term is statistically significant, we took two additional steps in order to
see if the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning is in the hypothesized form. First, following the procedures discussed by Aiken and West (1991), we depicted the nature of the relationship between the two constructs will graphically. Second, we used a formula that was
9
provided by Aiken and West (1991) to estimate the relationship between age and meaning at select ages (see page 64). Although any age could be selected for this purpose, we follow the standard protocol that is used by other investigators and select -1 standard deviation below the mean age, the mean, and +1 standard deviation above the mean age. Once these additional computations are complete, we used a second formula that is provided by Aiken and West (1991) to see if these estimates are statistically significant (see page 64). We also estimated a third
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formula that identifies the precise point where the trough in the curved line occurs (see page 65).
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Cast within the context of our study, this point indicates the exact age when meaning in life scores begin to escalate.
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Hypothesis 4 predicts that the nonlinear effects of each social support measure on
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meaning in life will mediate the curvilinear relationship between age and meaning in life. We evaluated this relationship with Hayes’ MEDCURVE macro (Hayes & Preacher, 2010).
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Results
Table 3 contains the estimates of the relationship between age and meaning in life (see
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columns 1 and 2), age and emotional support received (see columns 3 and 4), and age and satisfaction with support (see columns 5 and 6). Model 1 in this table refers to the first step in estimating these equations (i.e., where only linear relationships are evaluated) whereas Model 2 denotes the second step in which the quadratic term is added to each equation.
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The data in column 1 indicate that older study participants tend to have a stronger sense
of meaning in life than younger study participants (β = .10; p < .001). However, the estimates that are provided in column 2 are of greater interest. According to these data, there is a statistically significant nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life (β = .06; p <
10
.005). Following the data analysis strategy that is described above, we computed the relationship between age and meaning at three select levels of age. These findings are provided in Table 4. The first is -1 standard deviation below the mean of age (i.e., 30.4 years of age). The additional calculations reveal that age is associated with slight downturn in meaning, but this relationship is not statistically significant (β = -.04; ns.). The relationship between these constructs changes signs and becomes significant for study participants at the mean age (i.e., age 47.8) (β = .08; p <
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.001). At +1 standard deviation above the mean (i.e., 65.3 years), the magnitude of the
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relationship between age and meaning in life jumps substantially (β = .30; p < .001). As these additional calculations reveal, there is a J shaped nonlinear relationship between age and
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meaning in life. Support is therefore found for Hypothesis 1. The trough of this line (i.e., the low
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point) comes at age 35.9.
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Figure 1 contains a graphic illustration of the nature of the relationship between age and meaning in life. We include both the linear and nonlinear estimates of the relationship between
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the two variables in this diagram. Great care must be taken in interpreting this figure. The nonlinear effects of age that are reported in Table 4 are based on the following formula that is provided by Aiken and West (1991): b1 + (2b2X), where b1 is the linear effect of age, b2 is the nonlinear effect of age, and X is the selected value of age. As this formula reveals, it is not
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appropriate to consider the nonlinear effect of age on meaning in life without simultaneously taking the linear effect into account. As a result, it does not make sense to ask whether the linear effect is “better” than the nonlinear effect. Instead, the key issue is whether the two effects taken together explain more variance in meaning than the linear component taken by itself.
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Returning to Table 2, the data in column 3 reflect the linear relationships between the independent variables and emotional support that is received from family members and friends. These data may initially create the impression that older study participants receive less emotional support from significant others than younger adults (β = -.12; p < .001). However, a straightforward explanation is provided by the data in column 4. These findings suggest there is a statistically significant nonlinear relationship between age and received emotional support (β =
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.08; b < .001). Stated in more technical terms, this coefficient reveals that the anomalous finding
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in column 3 arises because the linear specification does not correctly specify the functional form of this relationship between age and social support.
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Following the data analysis plan we provided earlier, we computed the nonlinear
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relationship between age and emotional support at three age levels (see Table 4). At -1 standard deviation below the mean, increases in age are associated with a decrease in emotional support
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received (β = -.31; p < .001). At the average age in our study sample, increases in age are still associated with less emotional support, but the magnitude of this relationship has declined by
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about 56% (β = -.14; p < .001). At one standard deviation above the mean for age, the findings indicate that the sign of the relationship changes and increases in age are associated with increases in emotional support received (β = .18; p < .001). Further calculations suggest that the trough of the line for the relationship between age and received emotional support occurs at age
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34.4. Support is therefore found in the data for Hypothesis 2. As the data provided here indicate, the relationship between age and emotional support roughly follows the form of the relationship that is depicted in Figure 1. The final set of analyses in Table 3 involve the relationship between age and satisfaction with support. The data in column 5 indicate that older study participants tend to be more satisfied
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with their social relationships than younger study participants (β = .05; p < .01). However, as the data in column 6 reveal, it is important to take the nonlinear relationship between these constructs into account (β = .08; p <.001). The additional calculations (see Table 4) indicate that the shape of the relationship between age and satisfaction with support takes the same general form as the relationship between age and received emotional support: at -1 standard deviation below the mean age, an increment in age is associated with lower levels of satisfaction (β = -.13;
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p < .01); at the mean age level, the relationship between age and satisfaction with support
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changes direction (β = .16; p < .001); and at +1 standard deviation above the mean age, the magnitude of the relationship between age and satisfaction with support increases substantially
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(β = .31; p < .001). The trough of the relationship between age and satisfaction with social
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support is at age 29.2. Support is therefore found in the data for Hypothesis 3. This relationship is also roughly approximated by the relationship that is depicted in Figure 1.
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The findings that have been presented up to this point suggest that there is a nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life as well as nonlinear relationships between
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chronological age and received social support and age and satisfaction with social support. If nonlinear social relationships mediate the nonlinear effects of age on meaning, then re-estimating the model after including the nonlinear effects of each social support measure as mediators should result in a decline in the strength of the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning
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in life (see Baron& Kenny, 1986; Hayes & Preacher, 2010). Consistent with this reasoning, we added the nonlinear specifications for the two social
support measures to the model shown in column 2 of Table 3. The software program that was devised by Hayes and Preacher (2010) yields estimates of these nonlinear mediating relationships. We used this procedure with 10,000 bootstrapped samples that yield bias-corrected
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confidence intervals. These analyses produced two blocks of findings (not shown in Tables 3 or 4). The first block of findings suggest that the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning is no longer statistically significant when the nonlinear effect of received support is included in the model. More specifically, the unstandardized coefficient for the age-squared variable (.08) when the measure of received support was in the model was not statistically
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significant (exact p= .44). Moreover, these analyses suggest that the indirect effect of the
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nonlinear age variable on meaning in life that operates through the nonlinear received support construct was .001 (exact p < .01).
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The second block of findings suggests that the nonlinear relationship between age and
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meaning in life is no longer statistically significant after the nonlinear effects of satisfaction with social support are added to the model: the unstandardized coefficient associated with age (.0002)
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under these circumstances was not statistically significant (exact p = .51). In addition, these analyses reveal that the indirect effect of the nonlinear age variable on meaning in life that
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operates through the nonlinear effect of satisfaction with support was .0002 (exact p < .01). Taken together, the two sets of findings reveal that each nonlinear social support measure fully mediates that nonlinear effects of age on meaning in life. Hypothesis 4 is therefore supported by the data.
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Discussion
Our study is based on the premise that the continued proliferation of conceptual models
in the aging and life course literature will not serve the profession well. Instead, following Krause (2011), we believe that it is time for researchers to synthesize the valuable theoretical insights that have been provided already. Throughout, our aim was to provide a blueprint for
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showing how this might be accomplished. More specifically, we illustrate one way to merge the insights from Erikson’s (1959) life course theory of human development with Carstensen’s (1992) socioemotional selectivity theory. This was accomplished by linking Erikson’s (1959) views on the development of meaning in late life with Carstensen’s (1992) notion of the increasing importance of emotionally close relationships as people enter and move through late life. But rather than merely establish this union at a conceptual level, we aimed to evaluate our
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insights empirically, as well.
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We proposed and tested four hypotheses in our study. Based on the insights provided by Erikson (1959), our first hypothesis specifies that there is a nonlinear relationship between age
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and meaning in life. We found support in our data for this perspective: the relationship between
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age and meaning is initially lower at young ages but becomes progressively larger beginning at about mid-life, with the strongest association emerging in late life.
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Our second and third hypotheses used the insights provided by Carstensen (1992) to propose that a similar nonlinear relationship exists between age and received emotional support
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as well as age and satisfaction with social support. Once again, we found support for both hypotheses was found in our data. The findings indicate that initially, age is associated with less received support and less satisfaction with support, but the sign of this relationship changes at roughly midlife. From that point on, increasing age is associated with successively larger
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increases in received support and satisfaction with support, with the strongest relationship emerging among the oldest study participants. Our fourth hypothesis was designed to merge the two theoretical perspectives by showing
that the nonlinear effects of both social support measures fully mediate the nonlinear relationship between age and meaning in life. The data provide support for this hypothesis, as well.
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When viewed at the broadest level, our findings are consistent with the notion that deriving a sense of meaning is especially important in late life and this meaning-making process is facilitated by the increasing emphasis on social relationships that people form during their later years. There are two reasons why our study findings are noteworthy. First, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that nonlinear age differences in meaning and social support
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have been evaluated within the same study. Second, and more important, our reasons for doing
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so arose from merging Erikson’s (1959) notion of age differences in the importance of meaning in life with Carstensen’s (1992) notion of age differences in the centrality of emotionally close
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social ties. Rather than merely calling for the synthesis of prior theories, we provide a more
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concrete example of how it can be done and how it can be accomplished empirically. Even though our findings may have contributed to the literature, we must be careful not
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to overstate our case because there are limitations in our work. One of the obvious shortcomings arises from the fact that we analyzed data that were gathered at a single point in time, making it
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impossible to determine whether changes in social support precede changes in meaning over time. Moreover, because our data are cross-sectional, we cannot differentiate between age, period, and cohort effects. Both issues must be rigorously evaluated with longitudinal data. Although there are shortcomings in our research, we hope other investigators do not
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dismiss our efforts to infuse research on meaning in life with a strong social psychological flavor. Doing so helps us to more clearly highlight one of the major challenges as well as one of the greatest benefits of growing older - deriving a deep sense of meaning in life with the help of close others. Conflict of interest
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The authors do not have a conflict of interest
Acknowledgements The data for this study are provided through the ongoing, internally-funded, research program at AARP. We are grateful to AARP for granting access to these data. The decision to release these data publically rests solely with AARP. The analyses for this study were not
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preregistered.
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References Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Baltes, P. B. & Smith, J. (1999). Multilevel and systemic analysis of old age: Theoretical and empirical evidence for a fourth age. In V. L. Bengston & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of theories of aging (pp. 153-173). New York: Springer.
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regulation of emotion in the second half of life. Motivation and Emotion, 27 (2), 103-123.
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Krause, N. (2007). A longitudinal study of social support and meaning in life. Psychology and Aging, 22 (3), 456-469. Krause, N. (2008). Aging in the church: How social relationships affect health. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press. Krause, N. (2011). Religion and health: Making sense of a disheveled literature. Journal of Religion and Health, 50 (1), 20-35.
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Krause, N. (2016). Assessing supportive social exchanges inside and outside religious
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Krause, N., & Hayward, R. D. (2014). Assessing stability and change in a second-order
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confirmatory factor model of meaning in life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15 (2), 237253.
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Staudinger, U. M. (2001). Life reflection: A social-cognitive analysis of life review. Review of General Psychology, 5 (2), 148-160.
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Zeligman, M., Varney, M., Grad, R. I., & Huffstead, M. (2018). Posttraumatic growth in individuals with chronic illness: The role of social support and meaning making. Journal
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of Counseling and Development, 96 (1), 53-63.
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Figure 1. Linear and Curvilinear Fit Lines with a Scatterplot of the Values for Age and Meaning in Life
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Table 1. Core Study Measures _____________________________________________________________________________ 1. Meaning in Lifea A. Values 1. I have a system of values and beliefs that guide my daily activities. 2. I have a philosophy of life that helps me understand who I am.
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B. Purpose
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1. I feel like I am living fully.
2. I feel like I have found a really significant meaning in my life.
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C. Goals my
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1. In life, I have goals and aims.
2. I have a sense of direction and purpose in life.
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D. Reflections on the Past
1. I feel good when I think about what I have accomplished in life.
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2. I am at peace with my past. 2. Received Emotional Supportb
A. How often has someone been right there with you (physically) in a stressful situation? B. How often has someone comforted you by showing you physical affection?
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C. How often has someone listened to you talk about your private feelings? D. How often has someone expressed interest and concern in your well-being?
3. Satisfaction with Social Supportc How satisfied are you, if at all, with the quality of your social relationships? 4. Church Attendanced
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How often do you attend religious services? _____________________________________________________________________________ a
These items were scored in the following manner (coding in parentheses): disagree strongly (1),
disagree (2), agree (3), agree strongly (4). b
These items were scored in the following manner: never (1), once in a while (2), fairly often
(3), very often (4). This item was scored in the following manner: not at all satisfied (1), not very satisfied (2),
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c
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somewhat satisfied (3), very satisfied (4).
This item was scored in the following manner: about once a year (1), several times a year but
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week (5), several times a week or more often (6).
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not monthly (2), about once a month (3), several times a month but not weekly (4), about once a
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Table 2. Demographic Characteristics of the Study Sample ______________________________________________________________________________ 1. Agea M = 47.68; SD = 17.45; range = 18 - 93 2. Sexb M = .48; SD = .50; range = 0 - 1
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3. Marital Statusc
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M = .56; SD = .50; range = 0 - 1 4. Education
9.3%
2. High school
27.7%
3. Some college
28.8%
4. Bachelor’s degree or higher
34.2%
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1. Less than high school
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M = 2.81; SD = .10; range = 1 - 4
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5. Income
M = 13.0; SD = 4.67; range = 1 - 21 1.8%
2. $5,000 to $7,499
0.8%
3. $7,500 to $9,999
1.1%
4. $10,000 to $12,499
2.0%
5. $12,500 to $14,999
1.7%
6. $15,000 to $19,999
3.2%
7. $20,000 to $24,999
3.5%
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1. Less than $5,000
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4.2%
11. $40,000 to $49,999
6.6%
12. $50,000 to $59,999
7.4%
13. $60,000 to $74,999
9.5%
14. $75,000 to $84,999
7.4%
15. $85,000 to $99,999
7.3%
16. $100,000 to $124,999
12.4%
17. $125,000 to $149,999
6.0%
18. $150,000 to $174,999
5.8%
19. $175,000 to $199,999
4.1%
20. $200,000 to $249,999
3.4%
21. $250,000 or more
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10. $35,000 to $39,999
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4.2%
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9. $30,000 to $34,999
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4.1%
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8. $25,000 to $29,999
3.5%
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______________________________________________________________________________ Age is coded continuously in years.
b
Sex is coded in the following manner: 0 = women; 1 = men
c
Marital status is coded in the following manner: 0 = not married; 1 = married
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Table 3. Age, Meaning in Life, and Social Support (N = 2,245)
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______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Meaning in Life
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Model 1
Independent
Support
Satisfaction with
Support Model 2 Model 2
Model 1 Model 1
,09***a .08*** -.12*** -.14*** .05*
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Age
Received Emotional
Model 2
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Variables
Dependent Variables
.040
(.03)b (.02) (-.02)
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(-.03)
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(.01)
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Sex
( .01)
-.02
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.02 -.11*** -.11***
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-.04
(.24)
(-.06) .09*** .10***
.100*** .05*
(.45) (.35)
(-.74)
(-.07) .100*** .06*** (.48)
(.04)
(.33)
(.05) .12*** .13*** .15*** .17***
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Marital Status
(-.22) (-.76)
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Education
-.04
.18**
.20***
(1.04)
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(1.17)
(1.33)
(1.18)
(.27)
(.30)
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Church
.19*** .09***
.10*** (.40) (.400)
.06**
-------
.08***
(.13) (.13) (.04) (.03) -------
.08***
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-------
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Attendance
Age2
.09***
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.10***
.18***
------(.01)
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------(.01) ------(.01)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .09
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Multiple R2
.09 .06 .07 .06 .07
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a
Standardized regression coefficient
b
Metric (unstandardized) regression coefficient
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________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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* = p < .01; *** = p < .005; *** = p < .001
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Table 4. Illustrating the Relationship between Age and Main Study Outcomes at Select Levels of Key Independent Variables (N = 2, 245) ____________________________________________________________________________ A. Variations in the Relationship between Age and Meaning in Life Select Value of Age Relationship with Meaning in Life -1 SD (Age 30.4 years) -.04a (-.01)b M (Age 47.8 years) .08*** (.02) + 1 SD (Age 65.3 years) .30*** (.06) B. Variations in the Relationship between Age and Received Emotional Support Select Value of Age Relationship with Received Support -1 SD (Age 30.4 years) -.31*** (-.06) M (Age 47.8 years) -.14*** (-.03) + 1 SD (Age 65.3 years) .18*** (.04) C. Variations in the Relationship between Age and Satisfaction With Support Select Value of Age Relationship with Received Support -1 SD (Age 30.4 years) -.13** (-.01) M (Age 47.8 years) .16*** (.01) + 1 SD (Age 65.3 years) .31*** (.10) ______________________________________________________________________________ a Standardized regression coefficient b Unstandardized (metric) regression coefficient *** = p < .001; ** = p < .01
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