RESEARCH
Geert Hofstede large European nation
corporation
of three
months.
Distressed
totally unexpected, sulting views
psychologist with
within
two
to. All three
their
entire
so far
careers
with
the same large employer,
to conduct men.
asked a conpostexit inter-
Were
related?
been
very well paid,
in their new jobs were minor job security
the psy-
of feedback-from-
former
a-distance
to
employer.
interviews
revealed that on a direct cause-and-
effect level, their almost simultaneous
of im-
or nonexistent;
In fact, they appeared
this kind
prospects
proved earnings
they
The
resigna-
was less in the
new job than in the old. All three were quite positive
chologist very willingly.
and
the three
the president
The three men all received
had liked their jobs,
Did
was unaware?
their
virtually
and had been highly successful. All three had
signal a serious crisis of which
about
their
former
employer:
a great company.
What
them.”
However,
all three complained
being
increasingly
bureaucracy
“It is
I am now, I owe ta
frustrated
by
as they had moved
three moved to new positions
about
company
up, and all
that involved
a
bigger job in a smaller company.
tions were a coincidence. They had not been influenced by each other, and their new jobs were with different companies.
No specific organizational crisis, then, caused these executives to resign; instead, the cause was a midcareer crisis in their per-
However, in many ways their three cases were strikingly similar. All three men
mon
were in their early forties-an
and powerlessness
age that nor-
mally is the peak of a man’s working life, when he has both a past to build upon and a
44
to look forward
the president
in any way
eager to supply
future
had spent
by these losses, which were
the three
resignations
suffered the resig-
key executives
This study was supported
sonal orientations feeling
toward
of frustration,
com-
meaninglessness,
that seemed to have grown
parallel to the increase as measured by their
by a grant from executive search consultants Berndtson
their work-a
in their formal power hierarchical positions.
International
S.A., Brussels.
Alienation is something that happens to rank-and-file workers harnessed to simple, repetitive tasks. Not excltlsively, says Hofstede. Research shows that managers at headqzrarters also believe their jobs to be meaningless. The remedy? Executive job enrichment.
They felt less and less able to make the impact
which
his life and
on the company
feeling
is by no means
that they wanted
and for this they blamed dividuals
not particular
but a conglomerate
forces generated
to make, in-
bureaucracy.”
THE ALIENATION PHENOMENON
to make a meaningful
however
modest,
common
to most
nowadays
about
trial and o&e repetitive
impact,
in one’s life environment men.
Many
people
the state of mind
is
worry
of indus-
workers who have to do simple,
tasks
devoid
of any
meaning
to
them. The word alienation is used to describe the effect of these jobs on people. Alienation is a term borrowed from sociology and used by different authors to include
different
attributes,
ters on an individual’s ness and meaninglessness, fluence
but it always cen-
feeling
or even understand
of powerless-
his inability
to in-
the forces upon
This
to industrial
Over the past five or ten years, the
of mind
of students
Feelings
of alienation
at American
the state
universities.
may be found,
though
to different extents, at all levels within cratic organizations.
bureau-
The The ambition
depend.
limited
term has also been used to describe
of impersonal
by “company
workers.
happiness
parlance, notation-but
word
bureaucracy,
has acquired
a strong
in its original
text, it refers to any formal fying the management activities.
in popular negative
con-
sociological
con-
system for simpli-
of large and complex
As such, it applies to public as well
as private organizations,
the shop floor as well
as the executive suite. Bureaucracies are born of necessity; without them, large-scale human activities would be unmanageable. The paradox is that, by their very existence, they call forth forces that defeat their own ends. The main problem appears to be that the models of people on which bureaucratic structures are built
are too different
from
real people.
45
Bureaucracies
ask people
to behave
in stan-
a person’s feeling able to make some contribu-
dardized
ways, whereas real people are never
tion to the overall company
standard.
If we force them to behave as if they
fore asked (among
were, the consequence executives
is alienation.
The three
who blamed their move on bureau-
cracy in the large corporation the alienation
moved to escape
they had begun more and more
real contribution pany?”
survey
I would
now like to describe
employee
In Figure
corporation countries.
an example
of
in many
This corporation a subsidiary
markets
its prod-
in each country.
and
It
locations : sales country
are coordinated
by a head office in each coun-
headquarters.
try. All country
head offices report directly
an international
headquarters
located
to
in Eu-
conducted
1969, this
a series of attitude
employees seemed
1968 and and
corporation
surveys of all its
managers.
These
to show an alienation
surveys
problem
surprising
place-within
the corporation’s
ternational
headquarters.
Moreover,
problem
not
only
quarters’ rank-and-file managers.
in-
than
for
national
Attitude-survey statistics,
crets about
results,
the functioning
satisfied
Also,
than
far from befascinating
se-
of organizations.
professionals,
where
clerks
are
In fact, the
level of managers
headquarters
the country
in the inter-
(47 percent
satisfied)
headquarters
(48 percent)
is in
and for
clerks in the sales offices (46 percent). with
their
managers
opportunity
are
more
satisfied
to contribute
to the
company’s success than clerks was to be expected because, by definition, they have a more central role in the organization. the international headquarters
I shall present some of the main corporate findings on the alienation phenomenon so that the reader can judge for himself. (Those who
central
want to take my analysis for granted
This level increases
can skip
man-
more than clerks, except in
headquarters,
That
can reveal
de-
almost exactly the same as for professionals
other categories of employees. ing dull
is a consistent
satisfaction
head-
profes-
from the sales offices to
the
but also its
headquarters
for all three
headquarters.
are more
international
international
that
and clerks-there
and professionals
are
countries),
the
employees-managers,
international
agers
Results
(within
more satisfied than professionals.
more serious for managers
international
offices
this alien-
In fact, there were reasons to con-
sider the problem at the
affected
employees
at a
(noncollege-
to three kinds of work
1 reveals
of
person-
and accoun-
personnel).
crease of satisfaction the
specialized
offices, and
Figure categories sionals,
In
head
for
professional
employees
according
of
responsible
engineers,
clerical
also divided
operates sales offices in the major cities, which
rope.
46
(college-level,
level, administrative
European
of answers
for three groups
(anyone
nel such as salesmen, tants),
in a large multinational
that operates
ucts through
ation
1 the distribution is shown
the work of others),
employees
alienation
to make a
to the success of the com-
to this question coordinating
Attitude
“How satis-
fied are you with your opportunity
employees : managers
to feel.
result. We there-
other things),
role, its satisfaction
head o&es,
But although also has a level
is lowest.
as we go to the country
and from
there to the sales of-
Figure 1 through Figure 5 and begin reading again at “The Price of Alienation.“)
fices.
In composing the survey questionnaire, we believed that one yardstick for determining the meaningfulness of a job would be
therefore, is least present at the sales offices and reaches a peak at the international headquarters.
Dissatisfaction
indicating
alienation,
Figure 1 SATISFACTIONWITH OPPORTUNITY TO CONTRIBUTE TO COMPANY SUCCESS
Percent Scoring Neither SatisDissatisfied or
fied nor Dissat-
Satisfied or
Very Dissatisfied
isfied
Very Satisfied
Managers in : Sales offices
5
18
77
Country head o&es
9
31
60
14
39
47
International headquarters Professional employees in: Sales o&es
6
32
62
Country head o&es
16
36
48
International headquarters
24
50
26
Clerical employees in: Sales offices
14
40
46
Country head offices
17
42
41
International headquarters
21
46
33
Other survey results
The
attitude
faction
with
contribution tended
questions implies that the two other questions should show differences between managers
surveys
also showed
opportunity
to
that satis-
make
a real
to the success of this company
to go hand
in hand
with
on other aspects of job content. analysis
of the survey
various
categories
satisfaction
In a statistical
quarters
a close cor-
two other questions, “How satisfied are you with the challenge of the work you do-the extent to which you can get a personal out
of it?”
and
sense “How
sales ofices and head-
similar to those shown by satisfaction
with opportunity
to contribute.
lows us to verify
this
Figure
2 al-
(for simplicity’s
sake
only percent satisfied answers are shown). Figure
scores for each of the
of employees,
relation was found between satisfaction with opportunity to contribute and the answers to
of accomplishment
and others and between
ferences between
2 reveals the same kind of difmanagers,
clerks and between
professionals,
sales offices, country
and head
offices, and international headquarters that Figure 1 showed. However, the differences in Figure
2 tend to be smaller
Especially
for managers,
than in Figure
1.
there are greater dif-
satisfied are you with the extent to which you
ferences between sales offices and headquarters on satisfaction with opportunity to contribute
use your skills and abilities on your job?” The three questions together form a statistical
than on challenge or use of skills. This suggests that the differences in managers’ feelings
“cluster” that indicates, with
the intrinsic
in general,
nature
job. The close relationship
satisfaction
or content
between
of the
these three
of challenge sequences
opportunity
and use of skills may be the conof their different to contribute.
satisfaction
with
47
Figure 2
INTRINSIC JOB INTEREST Percent Scoring “Satisfied” or “Very Satisfied” Challenge of the
Use of S&Us and Abilities
Work
Managers in : Sales offices Country head offices International headquarters
77
65
66 56
61 55
71 53 39
57 48 37
53 46 34
46 42 36
Professional employees in: Sales offices Country head offices International headquarters Clerical employees in: Sales offices Country head of&es International headquarters
The subjective
importance
of contributing
to
corn pan y success
portunities.
Satisfaction
with opportunity
subjectively
more important
to contribute
is
the item
highest importance
members.
This
was
in the above-mentioned
atti-
set of questions
to
the satisfaction questions; these parallel questions tried to elicit the importance of various work aspects to the employee. Instead of “How satisfied
are you with . . . ?” the questions with
“How
important
is it to you
to . . . ?” (for example, have a job that allows you to make a real contribution to the success of your company). All in all, there were 22 importance
48
and 22 covered a person pact on personal
allowed
to them by a certain
than
organization
tude surveys by a parallel
attached
gory of employees.
to managers
it is to other
began
questions
us to rank these 22 items in order of the importance
disclosed
The importance
satisfaction questions; the 22 items the entire field of the relationship of with his job-such as earnings, impersonal life, learning, security, interrelationships, and advancement op-
that,
Rank
cate-
1 would be given to
on the average,
received
the
score; rank 22, the lowest.
The relative importance
attached
to contribut-
ing to company success by our various categories of employees is shown in Figure 3. Figure
3 proves
above: Managers
what
distinguish
was
themselves
stated from
others by attaching much higher importance to contributing to company success. Whereas for professionals
and clerks this issue ranks
from 12 to 18 out of 22, for managers it ranks fifth in the sales offices, third in the country head offices, and second headquarters.
in the international
In the international
headquar-
ters, the only work aspect managers rate important than contributing to company cess is challenging work. In the country o&es, managers view challenging work
more suchead and
Figure 3
IMPORTANCE OF CONTRIBUTING TOCOMPANYSUCCESS Average Rank Order
Managers in: Sales offices Country head ofices International headquarters
5* 3 2
Professional employees in: Sales offices Country head o&es International headquarters
14 15 12
Clerical employees in: Sales offices Country head ofIices International headquarters
16 18 18
* Ran&gs: 1. most important; 22, leastimportant.
a good working ager as being uting
relationship more
to company
with your man-
important
than
the four items rated more important agers are, in order of importance, work,
considerable
contrib-
success. In the sales offices,
freedom
by man-
challenging
to adopt
own approach to the job, an opportunity advancement, and training opportunities. If we compare centages
(Figure
ings (Figure
the satisfaction
1) and the importance
for
making
perrank-
a real contribution
to the success of the company-is
particularly
acute for the international-headquarters agers by a combination (ranked
second)
of high attached
im-
(47 percent
satisfied). It is much less pressing, for example, with clerical employees who, while not very satisfied, indicate by their low
of satisfaction
with opportunity
many other for the lack to contribute
as such
Alienation
does affect one’s self-image
necessarily
one’s image
but not
of the organization
one works for. In fact, the two may be negarelated.
The
surveys
also contained
a
question about the image of the company as such (not in terms of one’s personal contribution to it): extent
“How
to which
satisfied
are you with the
this company
is regarded
as
successful ?” The results for managers
man-
and low satisfaction
importance scores that to them aspects of the job can compensate
Images of the organization
tively
3), we can see that the problem
of alienation-not
portance
your
to company success. This way out is not open to most managers.
in Figure
are shown
4. As the overall level of answering
was very favorable,
we have taken
the cutoff
point between very satisfied and satisfied. It is clear that in this case the highest success ratings come from international headquarters and the least high from the sales of&es. This is the opposite of the trend for the question about the managers’ personal contribution to
49
Figure 4
??
International
headquarters
give people in our country
SUCCESSOF THE COMPANY AS SUCH
doesn’t
head offices enough
support. Percent Scoring
??
International
headquarters
No
People in the sales offices were asked
Feeling
with regard to both inter-
the same questions
01
Dis-
Very
satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
national offices.
headquarters
and the country
18
53
29
1. Those 15
52
OY
33
frequently
managers 11
45
exceed one-third
or professionals headquarters
about country
of satisfaction
of the international-headquar-
with international
a great company
level), but they had
head office as country
with
headquarters. were some-
what more frequently
mind
port rather than as too much interference.
my job, but it is
seen as not enough
4. In all cases, problems
to be in.”
what more frequently of “red tape”
their
head ofices had
3. In all cases, problems
contribution
with
were dealt
by a sense of pride in
Motivational consequences
sup-
were some-
felt by managers
than
by nonmanagers. However,
a more important
finding
When they were presented with the survey data, some people were surprised; they had
(not visible in Figure 5) was that the answers
expected
in the subsidiaries
to the questions
on support
would be the least satisfied because they would
were statistically
only weakly related to those
be frustrated
about other aspects of the managers’ or profes-
that respondents
by the headquarters
tions. This expectation plicit (“red
assumption tape”)
were
interven-
was based on the im-
that
bureaucratic
invented
systems
by people
in
sionals’ job satisfaction. port or too much trating,
and interference
Feeling
interference,
a lack of supalthough
did not seem to affect too much
frusthe
should like what
way people felt about their work. In the total
they were doing. Our data show this assumption to be wrong. In fact, it is a gross oversimplification of the origins of bureaucracy. The surveys did address the issues of the relationships between subsidiaries and headquar-
picture of the attitude of people toward their jobs it stayed at the level of a minor irritation. The feeling of alienation that we related to
headquarters
50
(these
the same level of problems
success. It seems that the lack
compensated
of the
questioned.
2. Sales offices had few problems
44
the company’s
the company-“Never
very frequently
answering
never
with at country-head-office
with their personal
in Fig-
ure 5:
international
is partly
head
The answers are summarized
Managers in: Sales offices Country head of&es International headquarters
ters managers
inter-
feres too much.
who obviously
ters, however. Managers and professionals in the country head offices were asked how frequently (if at all) the following problems occurred :
not feeling able to make a real contribution to the company’s success goes much deeper. There is no real adversary to blame; the system in which one is absorbed is unclear and the individual feels he is wasting his time, although working very hard.
Figure 5 DISTRIBUTION
OF RESPONSES TOTHE “SUPPORT”AND“INTERFERENCE” QUESTIONS From
Country
Not Enough 5 vpp art
Head
Too
From
Office
offices
Professional employees Sales offices Country head offices (Expressed
The
in percentages.
32 _-
24 __
27 __
27 __
13 31
59 29
7 26
72 42
30 __
27 __
23 _-
34 -_
5 25
75 34
3 21
a3 47
of those
Th e percentages
answering
pect
more
“sometimes”
intrinsic
jobs and will want pays for the alien-
as possible.
They
are
jobs are available.
employee.
employees
will lower
tions to perform because formance as meaningless
In
em-
general,
their
aspira-
they see their peranyway. They are
People
in which
326 par-
executive
training
tion
program
were followed
sales offices reported more did
voluntary managers
spending
overtime
confirms
on their
in country
head offices (observation that sales o&e
considerably
and
jobs than
international
of managers
in action
managers
do spend
longer :hours working). In spite of this, sales office managers did not claim to be overloaded any more frequently
than did head office man-
agers, . ;I considerably greater fraction of sales o&e managers would accept these long hours without
feeling overloaded. Other things being equal, employees
with higher skill and education
levels will ex-
after training. training
in a study
the same company of an in-company
in country
who have experi-
This fact was demonstrated within ticipants
managers
more likely
and if alternative
enced success in the past are more frustrated by alienation than are less successful people.
less likely to exert an extra effort. An illustraSurveyed
their
to use their skills as fully
to company,
job to job, and individual
shown.)
from
are, therefore,
to quit if they feel alienated
to individual
not
satisfaction
ation of its employees will vary from company
of this:
Much
Interference
in:
The price an organization
alienated
Too
Enough Support
----
price of alienation
ployee
Headquarters
Not
Much
Interference
---Managers in: Sales offices Country head
International
and follow-up
this period,
through
their careers
The average time span between was four years. During
20 participants
pany (a very low turnover
had left the comfigure).
However,
out of these 20, 16 had been rated by their trainers
as being among
the top third of their
class. This means that the one-third of most successful trainees were eight times as likely to quit ones. trainers
as the two-thirds
of less successful
Even if we discount the fact that are not infallible in their judgment,
it is still a reasonable
assumption
that these
51
stuck
with
achievers,
a residue who
of disillusioned
in turn
expand
cracy of which they themselves In the previous assumed
a potential
make a contribution in all people; tion
paragraphs
tional behavior at the European Advanced
and to success
Belgium and at INSEAD,
and department
includes
manager,
for whom
six years
stafl of a multinational corporation, Switzerland.
and
even
entire
howcultures
and their
Jobs with a low potential
to the company’s
a process of natural
selection,
success will, by attract
the need to contribute
persons
is low. Our
data suggest that such people are more likely
of behavioral research on the international years of teaching at IMEDE,
persons
to contribute
ten years in Holland as an industrial worker, foreman,
We also recognize,
need to contribute.
Brussels,
Fontainebleau,
France. His earlier work experience
the situation
when this contribu-
differ in their need for achievement
Institute for
Studies in Management,
we have
to the company’s
we have blamed
was missing.
ever, that
currently serves as a professor of organiza-
are the victims.
need to achieve
rather than the employees Geert Hofstede is a native of Holland. He
low
the bureau-
to stay in headquarters
and two
Lausanne,
jobs than
are strong
achievers.
He holds a master’s level degree
in mechanical engineering tute of Technology,
from Delft Insti-
Holland and a doctorate
in social psychology from Groningen
JOB
Univer-
ENRICHMENT FORHEADQUARTERS
EXECUTIVES
sity, also in Holland. His publications, research interest, and teach-
On the shop and ofice
ing and consulting activities are all related to
alienation
on the behavior of their members.
being made to restore humanity
winning
His award-
dissertation in 1967, in particular,
dealt with the eflects of budgetary
control
systems on people. At present he is working
are called “job enrichment,”
Some
explore the extent to which national culture
mainly
more successful trainees would also tend to be
more successful
turnover:
The
people tend to leave. The de-
of the three executives
the introduction
to this
use
Frederick approaches
Herzberg’s to job
on the structure
These
terminology.
enrichment
focus
of individual
jobs,
the dominant trend in the United States. In Europe, especially in Sweden and Norway,
the better performers in their day-to-day jobs. This study therefore shows how alienation
parture
to jobs that
efforts generally to
may lead to selective employee
and efforts are
process dehumanized.
on a comparatioe study among employees of
behavior.
has been recognized
of
the bureaucratic
the same corporation in various countries, to a#ects organizational
52
floor, the danger
the impact of the design of large organizations
article
mentioned upset
in their
president because they, too, were star performers. There is a real danger that a company headquarters by this process may become
job enrichment has concentrated on changing group tasks rather than individual jobs. Is job enrichment possible in the headquarters of large corporations? It is unlikely in this case that restructuring individual jobs will be sufficient because in the forces that lead to alienation,
the entire bureaucratic
tem of the organization
is involved.
sys-
Job-en-
richment approaches here should include not only individuals but also groups and the role of entire departments.
Let us first look at the kind of jobs we
among
all headquarters
employee attitude
usually find in headquarters. There is a great variety : top executives with their personal
these activities,
staffs;
those who
bution
behalf
of the corporation;
deal with
the outside those
on
who
plan
the satisfaction
to company satisfied”
those who look after the execution
agers,
professionals,
write
policies
who
check
lowed;
those who
together).
and
vestigate
for the corporation whether
those
who
funds, materials,
these
policies
coordinate
the
those
possess unique
expertise
tion to do by themselves. becomes,
of
unique
The bigger the headthe number
in the sales offices than ters? What
is different
be so much
of itself
??
jobs
feedback
about
contain
are noteworthy:
a much
results-ne
one has worked successfully ??
The headquarters
a direct
In the same
in-
felt alienated study,
supplied quarters survey,
I
the head-
the alienation decided
Now both direct feedback
the
and a cliby job en-
personnel
head offices looked
at
how people in country
the job done by their international
headquar-
This survey, carried out half attitude
survey, be-
as the “Headquarters
Effective-
ness Study.” In this study, the departments the international
headquar-
headquarters of
came known
or customer
on the
to carry out a study
a year after the employee
than
are recognized
of his international
ters counterparts.
attitude
feedback
He asked the corporate
head-
or not. client
he wanted
department
that
data, the chief head-
direct
whether
corporation
executive, after the employee
operation. research
multinational
with
relationship-there is a visible person, customer, who is either satisfied or not. ent relationship
further
eflectiveness study
more
knows
Sales of&e jobs more
ters jobs involve
lower
in such a headquar-
Sales office jobs compared
quarters
cor-
about jobs in sales of-
fices? At least two differences
employees
therefore,
who in headquarters
effectiveness Why, then, in our multinational alienation
clerical
man-
and those who
running. would
and
We should,
(taking
shall first describe another quarters effectiveness study.
those necessary to keep the headquarters
poration
or “satisfied”
70
scoring
flow
are not in a posi-
the greater
from
and who not, and why. For this purpose,
or perform
services that the subsidiaries
“contri-
are fol-
people, orders, and ideas be-
tween the various subsidiaries;
quarters
of these
with
success” varied
“very
subsidiaries;
In fact, the
percent to only 20 percent of personnel
ahead for the short and for the long term and plans by the various
activities.
survey recorded that among
headquarters
into seven main functions search, finance, divided
the person
of
divided
(such as market
and personnel)
into 49 departments
each activity,
were
re-
and then subor activities.
acting
For
as the main
“customer” in each country head ofice was presented with a written questionnaire to be
richment experts to be among the key requirements Eor an “enriched” job. Headquarters
returned to the corporate personnel research department. Anonymity of answers was guar-
jobs, on the other hand, usually receive little or
anteed
no feedback on their success, and it is generally
their identity
less clear who their o&es,
higher
have clients at all? It is evident containing alienation
client
management
is-the
subsidiary
. . . or do they
that, with headquarters
such a mixed bag of roles, the phenomenon will not be the same
unless
customers to be known.
1100 questionnaires (73 percent)
expressly
wanted
Of the more than
mailed out, more than 800
were returned.
The questionnaire
contained some forced-choice questions along with a number of write-in questions. The responses to the latter were assembled for each of the 49 international headquarters activities
53
and sent to the person responsible
for that ac-
Among
other
choice questions
things, activities
of support
dimensions
the
forced-
rated their own jobs).
on the two
and control.
would
whether
show up between
the seven main international
Support
specific
make a real contribution
problems,
Support
in the past 12 months
ated
by the
from
the points
country
quality.
Control
vision;
and
in-
monitoring
auditing;
head
was evalu-
with the meaningfulness
country
function
as “staff super-
country
practices,
international
and so on-all
high level of overall tomers
were asked
amount
of control headquarters
any way related
and of
performance.”
a
The
custhe
from their inter-
counterpart
over the past
results
revealed
that
and quality of support generally hand, making index
headquarters, strongly
including
Control related
to quantity
and
a support
of the international both
quantity
support
were
(if at all, control
of support
quantity
went hand in
it possible to compute
for each activity
quality.
or dissatisfac-
headquarters
employees
of their jobs be in
to the way in which
their
by their customers
Figures
6 shows the results of a com-
tional areas in international been
coded
A through
headquarters
have
G according
to the
rank order of their employees’ scores on “satisfaction
with the opportunity
the company’s
to contribute
success.” Thus
alienation)
and
satisfaction
(high alienation).
tional
G with
areas have been
their ratings
able.
Self-ratings
high in support
and low in control
ratings their
support
alienation
that this headquar-
ters effectiveness study (in which people in the country head offices rated the international headquarters) followed closely after the employee attitude survey (in which people both in the country head offices and in international
run
study-that by their cus-
received
Such a similarity
6 are remark-
headquarters
with
almost
customers
in Figure of
tribute
or low in
effectiveness
The results
and control,
support and high in control.
to
and control
tomers.
in both support
I have already mentioned
according
is, in the way they are perceived
ees on satisfaction
and control and headquarters
ranked
less
but others were
(low
average
The same func-
in the headquarters
but not to quality).
between perceived
the lowest
and
was related
to
A is the func-
received on support
Some headquarters activities were seen as high in both support and control and some as low
Relationships
at
headquarters?
tion with the highest average satisfaction
12 months. The
to
parison of both surveys. The seven main func-
how they felt about received
the
to the success of the
was perceived
policies,
coordination;
aimed at ensuring
within
varied considerably
Could the satisfaction
tion of international
office customers
was defined
company.
survey,
with their opportunity
headquar-
of view of quantity
procedures;
national
answers,
given by the international
ters activity
and
expert
that helps you to do a better job.”
re-
of the
attitude
groups
headquarters
in their satisfaction
formation
the outcome
functional
was defined as “advice and counsel, help with
The
any relationship
two surveys. In the employee
tried to have the customers
rate the headquarters
54
headquarters
searchers wondered
tivity.
opportunity
perfectly
parallel
on support
to conto the
as perceived
in the country in ranking
employ-
head
by
offices.
is extremely
un-
likely to occur by chance. On the other hand, no consistent relationship is visible between satisfaction with opportunity and ratings received on control.
to contribute
This gives us a clue as to why not all parts of headquarters show equal alienation: Where the function is able to establish an effective support relation with its customers in
Figure 6
COMPARISON OFOUTCOMES OFTwo SURVEYS
Headquarters
Employee Attitudes
Main Functions
Survey1
A
14
Headquarters
Control Score
1
2
B
2
2
6
C
3
3
4
D E F G
4
4
3
5
6
5
6
5
1
7
7
7
of satisfaction with opportunity to contribute to company’s a Rankings of ratings by country head ofice counterparts. ’ Quantity plus quality. ‘Rankings: 1, high.
Whether
headquarters,
the function
is, formal
power)
alienation
is less.
exercises control
does not appear
(that
to be re-
lated to feelings of alienation. closely.
Function
on control, ple)
in
manned
has the
with opportunity
and support but also a high score is a relatively
charge
small office (13 peo-
of customer
by ex-customer-service
are well aware of the problems countries.
in Figure
A, which
highest scores on satisfaction to contribute
It maintains
and
succeu.
control,
group;
fective functioning.
all the differences
For example, with
functions
relatively
engineers
who
Function
the marketing that
time
G supplies
Function
area basically
than
budgets.
Therefore,
the engineers
staff has
in the countries
neers are supposed
toward
that these engi-
to show toward
their cus-
tomers: Calls for help are always honored. Most people in the countries feel that the headquarters’ targets tough but realistic. Function
for
G, scoring
tion with opportunity
productivity
are
low on satisfac-
to contribute,
support,
quarters
the
groups.
and control
service.
area is much
more people
service
are needed marketing
most of them are experts
in
in the same way
customer
to deal with
6,
scores,
small
A does to customer
complex
the headquarters
functions.
alienation
fairly
support
the marketing
the same service attitude
does not
between
unfavorable
same
has
and ef-
E and F in Figure
However,
However,
group
I will come back to the
productivity of the customer-service activities in the countries because it has a say in their maintained
suggests
issue of size later on; size, however, explain
are at the
on the
functional
to do with both alienation
It is
a tight control
single
75 people. This
that the size of the headquarters
service.
in the various
is the largest
it comprises
something
Let us look at the extremes 6 more
Study2
Support Index3
1 Ran&g
the country
Eflectiveness
more area.
at headproblems;
in their own area,
but as experts they often have trouble communicating with subsidiaries. Also, the rapid growth and frequent reorganizations of this part of the headquarters staff has led to a lack of clarity as to responsibilities both in the subsidiaries and among the headquarters staff themselves.
A relatively
large part of the staff
55
control
and
this kind of work. People in the subsidiaries,
support
are also possible,
who do not think that headquarters
to be alienating
is new at headquarters
and inexperienced
at
can really
quarters about
consequently,
the head-
what
goes on in the subsidiaries.
cause of this lack of information,
Be-
policies
is-
is a diagram
show support
ficiently
of the subsidiaries
to formalize
take
the reality
account;
subsidiaries’
this,
in turn,
confidence
more. It was remarkable G,
diminishes
in headquarters
international
which
had
been
un-
to company
reflected
in the
and whose
Control,
as previously
but, on the
quarters
effectiveness
success.
we may conclude
headquarters
always
imaginary.
functions
scores on support
that the
ing a high
easier
However,
in organizations,
that the importance
satisfied with its opportunity
received favorable
practice
than support.
knowledge
role was clear, was not dissatisfied
In general,
control
this kind
It is common of a job is not
organization
defined study,
level of overall
of
it does not
It is much
that one small group
by most reorganizations
to contribute
in actual
relationships.
is often
Function
chart, for ex-
of the distribution
of control
affected
highly
rather than support
even
within
contrary,
the
about organiza-
formal control in an organization;
staff may not suf-
without
but they are likely
The organization
sued by the headquarters into
chart.
in the head-
aims
at “ensur-
performance.”
It
can do this only if it has an influence
on how
things
support
are done. But control
that have
is an extremely
are com-
like suppressing
without
blunt weapon. It can do things an expenditure
or replacing
a
parable to the sales of&es in which, as we have
person. However,
this in itself does not ensure
also seen, alienation
high performance
or solve a problem.
is a supportive that,
is low. In both cases, there
relationship
to the members
ment,
involves
a constant
doing. If the customer salesman
and natural
departfeed-
of what they are
really feels helped, the
feels rewarded.
seen (Figure
with the customer
of the selling
back on the meaningfulness
We
have
already
5) that people in the sales offices
and in the country
head
problems
with not enough
quarters
than
with
of&es
Support,
the replacing
solution
in the case of business
often
frequently through
control, and power
alienation. If headquarters departments get a role in which they are able to give true supdefined by its receivers), their memnot likely to feel alienated. It is imwhether they simultaneously exert It is perfectly possible to combine
at all. The
that the very act of shifting
support from headinterference-
no solution
of people-a
In parpopular
problems-is people
may
change, but the problems survive. (The case of Function G as described above shows even
fluence
Our analysis leads to a very important conclusion for the battle against headquarters
port (as bers are material control.
ticular,
more
too much
have
that is, an excess of control.
56
ample,
roles
thinking
tions has stressed control relationships.
staff feels isolated and is uninformed
Control
to the role incumbents.
Traditional
help them, will not so easily take their problems to headquarters;
support.
breeds new problems.)
on how things
are done
a process of support
trol: supplying becoming time.
people around
too
A real inis obtained
rather than con-
new know-how
aware of the problems
or tools and at the same
This analysis would not be complete if we did not look at something that underlies both control and support-power. Control, as we described it, can be equated with formal
power, We
but this is only one side of the coin.
owe
Crozier
to the French
sociologist
a study of the phenomenon
in bureaucratic
organizations.
power-quite events
become
relates
of the formal or-
uncertainty.
chart-to
have
of power
Crazier
independently
ganization
Michel
completely
alienation
production
process, or a perfect bureaucracy,
position”
Real
command
power
power
a well-planned
however
rests with
Strategies for reducing
Effective
in an organization,
high
who
cratic tradition.
agement
the main
In our
source
with customers.
A (customer
of uncertainty These
relationship
headquarters problem that
them
in direct
source of uncertainty; of their
power.
(marketing), mainly
the a the
this is the real source the
uncertainties
G arise
at the sales office level. In this case,
however,
the lack of a support
in the eyes of the people cuts the international
tribution lated
This
kind
of power
to make a meaningful
is that such power
to control
study
con-
(formal
is scarcely re-
power)
at all, but
That
conducted
it
did matter. A reflecting study is to the headquarters what a
of customer
office. The
satisfaction
headquarters
is to a sales
effectiveness amount
was further
level of each separate Unfortunately, amount
to what is going on. What our study
has shown
headquarters of this kind
which
in the above sense, is the op-
of alienation.
means the ability
top management
The
described
at all represented a recognition that the opinion of the people in the subsidiaries about
feedback,
they have no real power. posite
the company’s
in the countrieswhich means
study
earlier in this article was such a mirror.
an enormous
staff off
it coordinates.
effectiveness
generated
from the sources of uncertainty, Power,
Reflecting means presenting headwith a periodic mirror to reflect its
relationship-
headquarters
manreward-
??
image with the subsidiaries
with
of difficulty,
headquarters recruiting,
headquarters
In the case of Function again
jobs : reflecting,
quarters
procedure
contact
of four strategies, order
for enriching
of its
in whenever
really serious-a
I can think
at the
the countries,
staff is called
becomes
keeps
with
efconflict-
ing, and restructuring.
is problems
by virtue
is formidable,
“R’s,” in increasing
as techniques
service),
are dealt with
local oflice level. However, support
with the
case of international
Function
data,
ing as it does with the essence of the bureau-
the personnel leader.
headquarters
it, the entire organization-more
four
headquarters
for reducing
will, as shown by the previous
fective. The challenge
well-planned production process, this may be the union leader who can authorize a strike or union
strategies
through
In the
ofhcer who negotiates
headquarters
at the same time make the headquarters-and
his
those
the sources of uncertainty.
of a support
alienation
certain
or
on the existence
relationship.
Whenever
predictable
no one has much
that it depends
study
of qualitative handled
headquarters
at the activity.
I do not possess data on the
of change brought
back. However,
an analogy
about by this feedwith
the process
of change after regular employee attitude surveys (something that has been researched rather extensively) makes me suppose that the crucial factor in determining further change is the setting of priorities by higher management. This relates the strategy of reflecting to recruiting ??
quarters
and rewarding. Recruiting
management
importance
of personnel for headjobs is obviously of key
for the role that headquarters
will
57
fulfill
in the organization.
previously
have
noted
headquarters
that, by a process of natural
selec-
It probably
tion, low achievers
We
assignment
is very
important.
takes an average of two years for
may be the ones to stay
a headquarters
manager
whereas the most successful people may leave.
sary personal
contact
We have also seen the importance
he only starts to be fully effective
cruiting
of the re-
policy in the headquarters
A case, where all managerial
Function
service
field,
a practice
fective support quarters only
that
from
knowledgeable
ing. In many headquarters training.
is an essential
be the period
and
two other
companies,
years may
needs
However,
with
six to eight
direct on-line exposure to problems.
to headquarters.
are rethis pre-
reasons
for
??
ward
often prevents
serving
a term
relationship.
part of a person’s
to have
of
The
more
formal
headquarters
the building
re-
operations
up of a support
Headquarters
face upward-they toward
after
experience
is a crucial aspect of the
role dilemma.
structure
and shelv-
Such a trainee is usually not the ideal
he/she
Retuarding
headquarters’
training
at
four
years. An upper limit is less easy to mandate;
gets stale and
cruited
in headquarters:
for a headquarters
it is essential that experienced
thus
after that
is not less than
manager’s
as supporters
a conflict
therefore,
his clients;
which the headquarters
to be accepted
recruiting
ef-
If head-
enough sents
the
led to an
role for headquarters.
has to give support,
people
point. The ideal duration assignment,
and professional
jobs were filled by expractitioners
to establish the neceswith
people
typically
are magnetically
drawn
the power center of the organization,
supporter for the subsidiaries; it is often by the blunders he makes in his dealings with
which they expect their rewards
these subsidiaries
of decisions on their careers. It is important
to
be visible
to
that
he really
other reason for recruiting shelving : Managers,
learns.
to headquarters
especially
higher
agers, who have become redundant in the organization no equivalent conveniently
employment stored
is available,
in a headquarters
a job title whose length related to its real content.
Recruiting means
man-
are posi-
generally
that
training
be well distinguished
assignments and limited
those positions where expertise is less necessary and that attempts at shelving should be vigorously
resisted.
Last,
the length
of the
however,
relationship means
and mostly downward headquarters tification-they
boss and
are not Top
with the sub-
a facing
outward
in the hierarchy.
people believe-with are not against
support
management
Many
ample jus-
rewarded
their rewards lie elsewhere, priority.
to
and from in the form
to one’s headquarters
A support sidiaries,
They
for a support role at head-
close to them
the higher bosses, up to the president.
elsewhere
is inversely
should
is
and for whom at the time
tion, with
quarters
The
which is physically
but,
for
that.
because
they accord it low in headquarters
communicates through its reward policy the kind of behavior it considers desirable. If the way to be promoted
is to serve your boss (“He
needs this report before Monday”) rather than serve your clients in the subsidiaries, this will be the headquarters’ be paid is alienation. In a study
priority;
but the price to
I did of budget
control
systems in five Dutch companies, I compared the attitudes of lower line managers about co-
58
operation with the budget department to the budget department’s criteria for performance
appraisal.
The latter were determined
ing the budget criteria their
people
in the order
in which
boss used them
performance.
to rank when
It appeared
agers thought
about
they thought
appraising
department
as a performance
the company
where the cooperation people thought
their
cooperation,
The company
their
with the worst
minimum
with
necessary.
other
From
Kahn of the University
. . . treat every coordinative which
it is. For
how
independent
ask how autonomous minimum
to support.
ship,
of other
of with
with
minimal the
that
only
requirements
or systemic
communica-
were the best of the five
studied.
common with
fault
the
and
. .
The
coordination
contrasts
of centralized from
risk
chart.
this principle
to reduce headquarters alienation; it may also be the most effective one. It means that in any
nomy
would
not
would
not have grown
case where a headquarters
role leads to alien-
ation, it should be determined
whether
or not
not regard
ful contribution
to the success of the company,
maybe his job should not be done at all. In the cases of the headquarters
functions
The be
haphazardly
alienation
a
aesthetics, and beauties organization
small,
ecobut
it
and it would
blessing.
flat and lean, a federated
It would rather
structure.
In such an organization, headquarters
up
of coordinative
necessarily
than a lofty hierarchical
this role can be eliminated completely. If a manager thinks he does not make a meaning-
and
size as an unmixed
be decentralized,
points
a preoccupation
symmetry
organization
source.
by functional
on the regularities
follows
source
to that
also
of management,
which
is the hardest
leadermaximum
a central
justified
way
??
and
return
when
organizational
which
activities
information
and an emphasis of
Restructuring
originate
is the
with
are essential.
ultimate
Coordination
must
and maximum
be of
what
positions
notions
the idea
it can
For each position,
and for what
the connections
advocacy
in the or-
it can be made,
number be connected,
sharply
as a cost,
unit
and of top management.
purposes
the
ask
functional
to call these
companies
L.
and four
requirement
each
about the staff
Staff/line
a study of organi-
tions :
the staff man’s boss was requested performance.
to the
others drew a number of conclusions on how to limit the need for coordination in organiza-
control
tions in this company
groups
of Michigan
staff man was supposed to serve. When it was time for the yearly performance evaluation,
man’s
to
stress in the early sixties, Robert
it must
were whom
clients and ask their opinions
important
groups small and to reduce
coordination
that wants
jobs, this company
who the clients
their
others
that I would
to give high priority
For staff or headquarters
It is therefore
keep headquarters
ganization,
that placed tactfulness
for any organization
its personnel determined
in appraising
policy
ber of people.
with the num-
was
placed fourth.
first had an interesting recommend
that their tactful-
In the company tactfulness
In
was best,
with the line managers)
boss’ first criterion
performance.
criterion.
itself, increase disproportionally
zational
people placed
“tactfulness” the budget
their
that what line man-
the budget
was related to where the budget
ness (in dealing
by ask-
ten possible
would
the risk of be
greatly
reduced.
A and G,
we saw that size has something to do with alienation; not so much the size of the entire organization, as of the units in which people work. Making a meaningful contribution is easier in a small group with face-to-face contact than in a large one; the needs for coordination,
which
detract
from
the contribution
59
CONCLUSION
A based
This
article
in private
has been business
in alienation us recognize zations,
after
many
business
all,
are
of the
regardless
business
flexibility. new
and
increase
the periph-
public
organi-
so different.
The
quent
them.
have
to
a tradition
of
in business
bureaucratization
stop
with
forms enriching
and office workers;
the failures
of job enrichment
may
stem
enrichment
from
philosophy
tion-including
a conse-
experimentations
of manual levels
is doomed
with
organization
cannot
and
Game
an
Hofstede
with is essen-
the
Control
by Harper
and
Row)
the attitudes
departments
and
agers
(Chapter
portance superiors
the jobs
stress the im-
kind
(Management
organiza-
departments
60
orare
scarce. A very readable,
recent book by an Ameri-
can sociologist,
Charles
Perrow,
ganizations:
Critical
Essay
1972).
Part
is Complex
I, “Why
Or-
Foresman Bureau-
Review,
discusses
personnel
the way
people
that give personnel
has been written A concise
and
people
on the subject summary
is found
(Harvard
September-October
job enrichment
generally
concentrates
European
approach
in the on
tends
States
jobs,
the
to stress restructuring
tasks. A good summary
of
1974).
United
individual
toward “semi-autonomous inspired pioneer is found “Democratization
by the
in Freder-
“The Wise Old Turk”
Review,
of this approach
groups” by its most in Einar Thorsrud’s
Work
as
a
Process
of
Change Toward Nonbureaucratic Types of Organizations” (European Contributions to Organization
This
Theory,
volume,
cracy,” shows how bureaucracies work and presents in a balanced way their advantages over
Europeans
other solutions
organizations.
as well as their disadvantages.
their
of Personnel
International
view
Whereas
group
Company,
do they think
of job enrichment
ick Herzberg’s Business
SELECTEDBIBLIOGRAPHY
(Scott,
for staff person-
their success and failure experiences.
CD and
system
of behavior
the kinds of activities
readership
to the way
In the article “Frustrations
“prophet”
A
related
11). His findings
other
of bureaucratic
other
of controllers’ by line man-
of a job
management.
a management
they
States
among
will reward?
Much
for
The
Gorcum/Tavi-
in the United
Vol. 13, 1973), Geert Hofstede
in the entire
Good texts on the functioning
(Van
book
were perceived
of the reward
nel: What
headquar-
His
discusses,
how
these departments
studied
in organiza-
of members
of job enrichment.
ganizations
in them.
projects
its headquarters
environ-
in international
people
Managers”
absence
8 com-
cultural
has previously
in fact, some of at those
of bureaucracy
of staff departments
of Budget
things, the pes-
(The
1964, 1971). Chap-
stock, 1968, 1972; distributed
to experiment
of organization
Geert
ters,
However,
is Michel
ments.
tions, not necessarily
problems
Press,
American
in com-
have
such
and
the functioning
society
tial. We
French
of French
system, and Chapter
business.
view that our entire alienation,
pares
bureaucracy
Phenomenon
ters 6 and 7 give a full analysis as an organizational
in
to adopt
less bureaucratic
of Chicago
executive
If we do not want to increasing
University
Bureaucratic
apply
than in government. simistic
The
Crozier’s
on
case studies organizations
do
It is easier
forms
makes
classic
government-controlled
servant
of who owns
organizations
greater
The from
not
civil
organizations
mon,
collected
of such organizations
a headquarters
Large
with
we move
that
stereotypes
on data
enterprises.
when
ery to the center
based
European
on two extensive
Sami Kassem,
Van Gorcum, edited
by Geert
contains
relevant
other
1975, Chapter Hofstede articles
to the functioning
14).
and M.
by leading of large