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An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries
An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries
Christine Specter
One stated policy for International Space Year (ISY) is to pay special attention to the needs of developing countrlss while planning ISY activities. This article provides a historical context for assessing ISY as an opportunity to turn this policy Into practice. A survey of experts involved in ISY planning was undertaken and the results Include six recommendations for overcoming the obstacles to developing countries' full participation In ISY: (1) funding from International organizations and national foreign assistance agencies must increase substantially; (2) more attention must be given to Improving the flow of Information and communication about ISY; (3) education and training opportunltiss must be made available to a wide audience of developing country participants; (4) steps must be taken now to relieve the political and socioeconomic tensions that exist between North and South, particularly as they relate to ISY; (5) Inadequacies in infrastructure must be considered; and (6) data-related obstacles must be examined.
Since the late 1950s the language of international initiatives, international agreements, and international law has reflected the view that the benefits of the exploration and use of outer space are to accrue to all states, including the developing countries. This may be viewed within a historical perspective of growing demands by the developing countries for more active participation in space activities and a greater voice in determining how the benefits of space technology can be applied to solving real world problems. Such a perspective provides a valuable point of departure for a discussion of International Space Year (ISY) as an opportunity to relate Earth observation activities to the needs of developing countries.
International GeophysicalYear
International Geophysical Year (IGY) marked the initiation of the Space Age in the late 1950s. The use of satellites for scientific investigations was an integral part of IGY, beginning with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite by the USSR in 1957 as part of its IGY programme. IGY ran from 1 July 1957 through 31 December 1958. Sixty thousand scientists from over 60 nations were involved in what is considered the largest international scientific activity ever undertaken.1 Close to 50% of the countries listed as participants were in the Dr Specter is on the faculty of Florida developing world. 2 International University, Department of The purpose of IGY was to increase knowledge of the Sun, the Earth, Management and International Business, Miami~ FL 33199, USA. and global processes of the atmosphere, the oceans and solid Earth. Beyond the results of these international programmes, other major This article is based on 'International Space Year: an opportunity to relate Earth accomplishments included the establishment of the precedence for the observation activities to the benefits and voluntary sharing of data with participating and non-participating states interests of developing countries', paper through World Data Centres, the strengthening of international scienpresented at the 32nd International Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, Institute tific institutions, such as the International Council of Scientific Unions of Space Law, in conjunction with the 40th (ICSU), the emphasis on turning new scientific knowledge into applicaInternational Astronautical Congress, Tor- tions, and, finally, laying the groundwork for the Antarctic Treaty. 3 remolinos, Spain, 7-13 October 1989. The However, many of the potential benefits of IGY did not accrue to the opinions expressed herein represent a synthesisof the views of a group of experts developing countries. A number of developing countries that appeared involved in ISY planning, and do not on the list of IGY participants were not actively involved. Some necessarily represent the opinions of NASA or the Space Agency Forum for countries were included on the list because they allowed observation International Space Year. stations to be established within their territories. 0265-9646/90/020117-14 © 1990 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd
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An ISY policy Jot developing and newly industrialized counlries'
1 Walter Sullivan, Assault on the Unknown: Intemational Geophysical Year, McGrawHill, New York, 1961, p 4. 2 Sydney Chapman, IGY: Year of Discovery, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1968, p 110. 3 United States Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, Commemoration of the International Geophysical Year: Report to Accompany House Resolution 514, 23 June 1982. 4 Dennis Gayle, interview in Miami, FL, 15 August 1989. Dr Gayle served as the Jamaican delegate to the UN General Assembly, assigned to the UN Economic and Social Council and the UN Development Programme during 1972-74. In 1972 he served as a member of an ad hoc working group of the Council which was set up to assess the results of IGY.
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Obstacles to the developing countries'participation By 1972 the United Nations Development Programme ( U N D P ) Secretariat had put together for consideration a set of recommendations suggesting ways that IGY results could have been applied to development and technology transfer activities. A working group was formed to assess the success of IGY in terms of these issues and to examine U N D P recommendations for future action. Obstacles to the developing countries' participation were discussed. 4 Lack of counterpart funding and foreign exchange was one ol the major obstacles to participation in IGY. Established scientists could not participate for this reason, and proposed training of doctoral candidates in relation to 1GY was not possible. Another serious problem was the lack of information/communication flow from the developed countries to the developing countries about 1GY. Developing countries had a general sense of what was going on, but they did not have an in-depth awareness of IGY potentials, nor ideas concerning how developing countries could get inw)lved in IGY. nor how potential IGY programme results could be utilized in developing countries. The lack of specialist personnel to interpret and carry out IGY policies created a major impediment. The UN resident missions would make suggestions to developing countries" governments; the governments would accept these recommendations as policies. However, this is as far as many of them went. For example, the UN resident representative in Jamaica suggested that at least half a dozen staffers from what is now called the Scientific Research Council (SRC) should be selected each year to attend a working group to assess the medium-term results of IGY. The government accepted the idea, but it was never implemented for the following reasons: (1) information was not circulated among potentially interested participants; (2) there was a replacement issue, ie without sufficient depth of human resources there would be no one left who could carry on SRC responsibilities during these leave periods; and (3) there was a lack of awareness of the potentials of IGY. Political and socioeconomic tensions between the developed countries and the developing countries were also evident in IGY. One delegate suggested that developing countries' scientists were seen as second-class participants in IGY. The perspective of the developed countries was to accomplish the scientific objectives; time spent inw)lving developing countries' personnel was seen as taking time away from scientific pursuits. For example, in one developing country where numerous requests and arrangements were made for observation stations, local scientists were ignored or asked to carry out menial tasks. Another delegate called IGY a label for technological imperialism. Two of the U N D P recommendations (which were tabled at the end of the working group session) called for: (1) a much more systematic effort to improve communication between scientists in developed and developing countries; and (2) a percentage of the U N D P budget to be allocated to finance attendance of scientists and technicians at related workshops/meetings and to disseminate the results of IGY.
Advances for developing countries in the 1960s Since the late 1950s the language of international agreements and international law has reflected the view that the benefits of the
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An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries
exploration and use of outer space are to accrue to all states, including the developing countries. The first legislative action of the United Nations in this regard was the 1963 Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. 5 According to these principles the benefit and interest of all mankind are to be served by space activities, and these activities are to be carried out in an environment of international cooperation and understanding. The most important subsequent instrument was the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, 6 the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. 7 Article I states that such activities are to be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development. Article IX states that cooperation and mutual assistance should guide states in carrying out their activities. In 1968 the first United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space was held in Vienna. The objectives of the conference were (1) to examine the practical benefits of the exploration and uses of outer space; and (2) examine the opportunities for nonspace powers to become involved through international cooperation. As a result of the conference, the UN Space Applications Programme was established to provide technical assistance to developing countries, and working groups were established in the Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), one of which was to study issues related to remote sensing and developing countries, s
Assessing progress through the 1980s
s UN General Assembly Resolution 1962/ XVIII, 13 December 1963. 6 Vladimir Kopal, 'The role of United Nations declarations of principles in the progressive development of space law', Journal of Space Law, Vo116, No 1,1988, p 9. 7 United Nations, Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 27 January 1967, 18 UST 2410,
TfAS 6347, 610 UNTS 205, effective 10 October 1967. s US Office of Technology Assessment, UNISPACE '82: A Context for International Cooperation and Completion - A Technical Memorandum, US Department of Com-
merce, National Technical Information Service, Washington, DC, March 1983. 9 Kopal, op cit, Ref 6, p 14. lo US Office of Technology Assessment, opcit, Ref8, p31. ~1/bid, p 6. 12 United Nations, Report of the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer
Space, Vienna, Austria, 9-12 August 1982, A/CONF,101/10, p 43.
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The era of civilian Earth observing satellite systems began in 1972 (with the US launch of the first Landsat), and discussions concerning the need for international principles relating to remote sensing emerged simultaneously.9 A Second UN Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, UNISPACE '82, was held in Vienna in 1982 to continue information exchange and to assess the adequacy of institutional and cooperative means that could be used to ensure that developing countries shared in the benefits of space technology. It was believed that a second conference was necessary, given the rapid progress of space exploration and technology development that had followed the 1968 conference. 10 Two of the major issues that surfaced at this meeting were the economic and political concerns of developing countries and their right of access to data. First, representatives of the developing world demanded a greater share of the benefits of space systems and it became clear that they would be willing to apply political pressure on the sensing nations to achieve this end. 11 Second, the sensed states believed that they should have access to data collected over their territories in a timely, non-discriminatory fashion. They called for COPUOS to reach agreement on principles governing satellite remote sensing. ~2 The final conference report concluded that developing countries faced a number of obstacles in their attempts to apply space technology. Three of these obstacles are identical to those mentioned during the IGY working group's discussions 10 years earlier. Lack of sufficient 119
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13 Ibid, p 51. ~4 UN General Assembly Resolution 41/ 65, 3 December 1986. ~s Carl Q. Christol, 'Remote sensing and international space law', Journal of Space Law, Vol 16, No 1, 1988, pp 25, 37. 16 Ibid, pp 37-38. ~r N. Jasentuliyana, Chief, Outer Space Affairs Division, United Nations Secretariat, 'Events of past interest', Journal of Space Law, Vol 16, No 2, 1988, pp 162163. 18 Ibid. ~9 John McLucas and Harvey Meyerson, 'Planning for international Space Year', Space Policy, Vol 4, No 2, May 1988, p 108.
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funding headed the list of problems. Lack of specialist personnel was seen as a critical factor at two levels: (1) the lack of personnel with the necessary technical training and experience; and (2) the lack of those in national decision-making roles who were aware of the potentials ol space technology. And finally, lack of information concerning the costs and benefits of space technology and applications was mentioned once again. ~ After many years of discussion and debate, the 1986 Principles Relating to R e m o t e Sensing were adopted by the UN General Assembly. 14 Remote sensing, therein defined, related not only to collection of data, but also to processing and analysis of the dala for natural resources management and environmental monitoring. Thc special needs of developing countries were formally recognized, particularly regarding their rights of access to data and information about their territories, the products of Earth observation satellites. J5 At least eight of the 15 principles accorded them significant benefits, Perhaps the three most relevant to ISY considerations are Principles V. VII and XII. Principle V requires states engaging in remote sensing activities to promote international cooperation in these activities: Principle VII calls for these states to provide technical assistance to other interested states. Principle XII declares that the sensed states shall have access to data and to available analysed information on a nondiscriminatory basis and at reasonable cost.t~' In two major ways the Principles moved the language of international agreements away from general discussion to more specific considerations: the special needs of developing countries were addressed, and the launching nations were charged with the responsibility to promote the participation of the sensed states. Of course, it must be pointed out that the Principles are not legally binding, and are not a candidate for treaty status. In 1988 consensus was reached concerning a new agenda item for the legal subcommittee of COPUOS: 'Consideration of legal aspects related to the application of the principle that the exploration and utilization of outer space should be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all States, taking into particular account the needs of developing countries'. ~7 Some developing countries believe that the existing legal framework based on the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 needs to be revised to fill a vacuum. Others (including the USA) say that the new agenda item should focus on how the existing legal framework has translated Article I of the Treaty into practical steps. 1~ Given this continuing debate, the 1980s can be viewed as a decade o1 growing demands by the developing countries for more active participation in space activities and a greater voice in determining how the benefits of space technology can be applied to solving real world problems. This perspective provides a valuable point of departure for a discussion of International Space Year (ISY) as an opportunity to relate Earth observation activities to the needs of developing countries.
Plans for ISY Plans for ISY began in 1985 when the US Congress passed a resolution recommending its establishment, and suggesting ISY take place during 1992.19 The plan was endorsed by President Reagan and NASA in 1986. ISY will commemorate 500 years since Columbus' discovery of the New SPACE
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An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries World. Also, 1992 marks the 35th anniversary of space exploration and 35 years since IGY. The Committee on Space Research (Cospar), the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) exemplify the wide range of support for ISY. The IAF set up an ISY planning committee in October 1986. ICSU views the objectives of ISY as complementary to those of its International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme. Preliminary proposals were prepared in February 1987 by the Space Science Board of the US National Academy of Sciences and the Intercosmos Council of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. These early plans included space exploration missions as well as Earth observation missions. Even in these early plans the US proposals focused on science, applications and education, including increased public awareness, z° Over time, Earth observation utilizing satellite remote sensing has emerged as the major theme of ISY. The ultimate purpose of this endeavour is to inspire and channel international response to the growing environmental challenges we face. Countries participating in ISY include the USA, Canada, numerous European states, Japan, the USSR, the People's Republic of China, Brazil, Pakistan and Thailand. The list is expected to grow.
ISY planning conferences and reports A review of ISY planning documents and conference reports reveals substantial potential for developing countries to participate in, and benefit from, the ISY initiative. Reports which appear to offer such opportunities are summarized below.
20 Ibid. 2~ Technology Application Center, University of New Mexico, International Space Year 1992: Developing Country Perspectives, Executive Summary, for the AID Bureau of Science and Technology, Office of Forestry, Environment and Natural Resources, under Contract #PDC-0000-1-017071-00, November-December 1987. 22/bid, p 1.
23/bid, pp 6-9.
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International Space Year 1992: Developing Country Perspectives. 21 One of the earliest attempts to inform and involve the developing countries in ISY was carried out by the US Agency for International Development (AID), Bureau of Science and Technology. In late 1987, AID's Indefinite Quantity Contractors, the Technology Applications Center, sent a team to visit key remote sensing organizations in major regions of the developing world: Thailand, Peru, Egypt, Jordan and Kenya. Each of these countries is a major remote sensing leader in its region. The purpose of the trips was to discuss ways to make ISY meaningful and effective in encouraging satellite remote sensing for economic development and natural resource management. (It is instructive to note that at the time of these visits very few of the representatives of these organizations had heard of ISY.) The report concluded that 'developing countries are enthusiastic about the ISY idea, but only if they can truly participate;' and 'planning for ISY activities in the developing world must begin immediately to be successful'. 22 These discussions led to nine recommendations for activities in these environments which represented the first input from the developing world to ISY planning. 23 Unfortunately, the AID Bureau of Science and Technology has no plans to implement these recommendations. Pacific I S Y Conference. This conference was held in Hawaii in 1987. It was the first international planning conference for ISY. Of the 139 participants at the meeting, three were from developing or newly 121
An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries"
industrialized countries. There was a representative from Indonesia, one from South Korea and one from the People's Republic of China. 24 Seven technical panels outlined possible activities that could take place under ISY auspices. Two of these panels focused on activities that could be of interest to the developing countries in terms of Earth observation programmes and education/training in remote sensing, The Earth Observation Panel began to formulate plans thal were expanded upon in 1988 at the Mission to Planet Earth Conference described below. The panel report did not deal directly with the issue of developing countries' involvement, but it did mention the need to deal with the issue of data distribution from an international perspective and to involve the widest possible group of users for ISY projects in order to demonstrate the utility of these data. Also, t~.o of the thematic investigations suggested for ISY, tropical rainfall mapping and volcanic hazards in the Pacific Rim, would appear to call for developing countries" participation. '-5 The Professional Associations Working Group for ISY outlined eight basic categories of activities suggested for adoption by professional associations, stressing their role as disseminators of information. Four of these offered potential for developing countries: •
•
•
•
a4 T.B. McCord, ed, Report on the Pacific ISY Conference: A Planning Meeting for the International Space Year, Kona, HI, 19-21 August 1987. 25 Ibid, pp 9-14. z6 Ibid, p 68. 2v United States Congress, House Document 99-221, Establishment of an International Space Year in 1992, Section 115, 99 Stat 1016, 15 May 1986. 28 McCord, op cit, Ref 24, pp 70-71. 29 Ibid, p 71. 3o Harvey Meyerson, ed, Report of the ISY Mission to Planet Earth Conference: A Planning Meeting for International Space
Year, Durham, NH, 29 April-1 May 1988.
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Topical/speciality conferences: 'Reach out to developing nations, utilizing their local professional societies, such as those involving remote sensing, and schedule topical conferences that stress the practical benefits of space activities. "2~ Global ISY communication network: The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers proposed to sponsor this network in conformance with the House Document establishing 1SY which contained the following request: to utilize ~a network of existing national and international communications satellites for a series of coordinated seminars on major worldwide scientific/applications concerns or challenges. Each program might be sponsored by a country, group of countries, or international organizations (eg WMO), but would be simultaneously available to the whole net. "2v Education: 'Identify interested people within education organizations or agencies which have an educational mission, such as U S A I D , and work with them to develop appropriate materials. '2s Briefings to g o v e r n m e n t s : 'To p r o m o t e ISY, seek funding support . . .'2'~
I S Y Mission to Planet Earth Conference. This conference, held in New Hampshire in 1988, was the second international planning meeting for ISY. Of the 82 persons attending this meeting, three were from developing or newly industrialized countries. One participant was from Brazil, two others were from the People's Republic of China. 3° Given the increased number and sophistication of Earth observation missions scheduled over the next decade, it is expected that a flood of data will be available for analysis and interpretation, coming from such systems as ERS-I (ESA), JERS-1 and A D E O S (Japan), Topex/ Poseidon (US-France), U A R S (US), IRS-1 (India), and the USSR Resource system, Brazil's MECB system, advanced weather satellite systems, SPOT and Landsat. Beginning in the mid-1990s, a series of polar platforms will provide additional sources of information: eg Radarsat (Canada) and the Earth Observing System, an international S P A C E POLICY May 1990
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cooperative effort supported by NASA, N O A A and the NSF, in partnership with the ESA, and hopefully, Japan. At the Mission to Planet Earth Conference six working groups prepared recommendations regarding ways in which these systems could be best utilized to address growing concerns regarding the causes and impacts of global change. One series of recommendations related to the need for coordination among national space agencies. Information must be collected concerning the capabilities of current and future systems, gaps in coverage need to be addressed, data must be standardized, and worldwide accessibility to the output must be achieved so that the global user community can integrate the information with other sources. As a mechanism to implement these objectives, the Space Agency Senior Officials Working Group established the Space Agency Forum for ISY (SAFISY) as their coordinating body, representing the national space agencies of the majority of launching countries. Two working groups focused their attention on the Global Information System Test (GIST), a system for coordination of collection, calibration and distribution of Earth observation data. GIST would provide demonstration projects of an 'end to end' use of data, a necessary first step in establishing global standards for global change studies. Concomitant with these global interests, ISY is to incorporate initiatives of relevance to developing countries. Of particular interest is the policy statement in the final report stating: 'The ISY should pay special attention to the needs of developing countries. TM Given the pressing social and economic conditions facing many of these countries today, it is necessary that ISY projects provide information that is directly relevant to development planning within the context of sustainable environments. The Social and Economic Development Objectives working group stressed the importance of transforming data into useful information so the end users (project officers and managers) will be persuaded to use it. Educational programmes for political decision makers will be required if they are to be made aware of the potential for applying remote sensing technology to development programmes, and specialized technical training for indigenous personnel will be necessary if they are to use the technology once the idea is accepted. As a result of the New Hampshire meeting, two expert panels were established, the Expert Panel on Education and Applications, and the SAFISY Panel of Experts on Earth Science and Technology. The European Association for International Space Year (EURISY) was established in May 1989. EURISY and US-ISY will provide support for the SAFISY Education and Applications Panel's first meeting, hosted by CNES in early 1990. 32 31 /bid, p 5. 32 US-ISY Information Service news release: 'European Association for ISY established in Paris', Washington, DC, 23
May 1989. 33 US-ISY Information Service news release: 'Space Agency summit launches broad ISY program', Rome, Italy, 4 May
1989.
34 Report of the SAFISY P a n e / o f Experts on Earth Science and Technology, Abing-
don, UK, 27 February-1 March 1989.
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S A F I S Y Panel of Experts on Earth Science and Technology. This panel
met in early 1989 in Abingdon, UK. Of the 38 participants, only three developing countries were represented: Pakistan, People's Republic of China, and Thailand. A series of 10 ISY projects was developed in the areas of space data for global change, global information system test and global change outreach. These were approved at the SAFISY meeting in May 1989.33 Six of the project descriptions include specific developing countries as potential participants. 34 These are discussed in more detail in the 'ISY survey' section below.
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An ISY policy for developing and newly industrializedcountries UN involvement in ISY. Based on a General Assembly request, COPUOS considered the advisability of designating 1992 as ISY at its 1989 session. As a result COPUOS has recommended that the General Assembly endorse this initiative. The Committee took note of plans of both Cospar and IAF for celebrating this initiative. COPUOS recommended that ISY be carried out for the benefit and interests of all states, taking into particular account the needs of developing countries. The UN Programme on Space Applications was recommended as the lead programme for carrying out the UN role in ISY, in the context ot training and education. 35 In November 1989 the General Assembly declared 1992 as International Space Year. The US, the USSR, ESA and others have been developing proposals for presentation to the United Nations Scientific and Technical Subcommittee on Outer Space in early 1990. In January 1990 the United Nations announced participation in ISY's 'Mission to Planet Earth' through a programme sponsored by the US. This programme will combine training and educational capabilities of the Space Applications Programme with the resources available through the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Resources Information Database (GRID). The US will transfer satellite data to GRID including data that can be used in measuring ocean productivity (Nimbus 7), cloud climatology (ISCCP) and atmospheric radiation (ERBE). It is hoped that this initiative will stimulate space-~ faring nations to contribute existing and future databases to GRID and to provide enhanced opportunities for developing country personnel to become familiar with how to access and utilize GRID for applications relevant to their specific environmental problems. To achieve this goal, the US will fund and help organize UN training activities and conferences through 1992. An international conference is expected to bring together industrial and developing nations to utilize environmental satellite data for global change monitoring. Summary of IS Y planning and policy implementation This review of ISY activities reveals considerable potential for developing and newly industrialized countries' involvement. The three major programme areas in which these countries could participate appear to be through: (1) Earth science projects based on space data, created by the SAFISY Panel of Experts on Earth Science and Technology; (2) education and applications projects outlined by the Panel of Experts on Education and Applications in early 1990; and (3) education and training activities of the UN. However, over three years have elapsed since ISY planning began. A mere handful of developing countries are involved in ISY, and these are primarily satellite-launching nations. Therefore it is important to consider not only the potential of ISY for developing countries' benefit, but also the obstacles that may impede their participation. The purpose of these considerations is to develop a series of recommendations for actions that can be taken now to ensure that the ISY policy to pay special attention to the needs of developing countries is implemented. To this end, a survey of experts involved in ISY planning activities was undertaken recently. 35 UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, meeting on 4 June 1989, Agenda item 9(a), doc no A/Ac.105/L.178/ Add.4, p 2.
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ISY s u r v e y The purposes of the survey were to: (1) examine the potential for ISY to SPACE
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relate Earth observatio~~a~fi~ities to the benefits and interests of developing countries; (2) examine obstacles that are hindering their participation; and (3) develop a series of recommendations to overcome these obstacles. Survey participants were drawn primarily from the list of 82 persons attending the ISY Mission to Planet Earth Conference. These experts were divided into three categories: those on the Space Agency Senior Officials Working Group (now known as SAFISY); those on the Earth science working groups; and other participants. Since only three of the participants were from developing or newly industrialized countries (one from Brazil and two from the People's Republic of China), additional questionnaires were mailed to three individuals from the developing world who have become involved since the conference. Two served as representatives to the Panel of Experts on Earth Science and Technology (Abingdon meeting), and one individual from the United Nations was selected for his knowledge concerning the Programme on Space Applications and its role in UN activities for ISY. Eighteen usable responses were received. Three of these were from individuals in SAFISY; 13 from Earth science working groups; one from other participants; and one individual representing the United Nations perspective. Responses came from Brazil, Canada, Europe, Japan and the US. Results Earth science projects based on space data. The majority of respondents who were knowledgeable about the results of the Abingdon meeting believed that these projects represent opportunities for significant involvement of the developing countries. Of the 10 projects, eight were mentioned specifically as having value for developing and newly industrialized countries. These projects (and the names of countries identified in the Abingdon report as being potential participants) are listed below.
• • • • • • •
•
Global Consequences of Land Cover Change (Brazil) Enhanced Greenhouse Effect Detection Ocean-Climate Interrelationships (People's Republic of China) ISY Ozone Hole Project Rate of Deforestation (Brazil) Sea Surface Temperature (People's Republic of China) An Encyclopedia of Global Change (Pakistan, Thailand, People's Republic of China, Brazil, Argentina, plus regional and international organizations) Global Change Atlas (same as above)
Several participants mentioned the value of developing countries participating in projects requiring in situ data collection and ground truth data. Education and applications projects. It was more difficult for participants to predict the potential of these projects, since the Expert Panel
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An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries'
for Education and Applications had not yet met. However, those who were willing to predict the level of developing countries' involvement were very positive in this regard. As one participant remarked, the panel has been committed to planning activities that will include cxperts from both developed and developing countries and users of space data Certainly, they will take as a starting point the suggestions for education and training activities recommended at the New Hampshire mccting. and these had a strong emphasis on the developing countries, The idea of holding workshops or short courses in the developing countries was raised by several participants. One individual recommended training related to environmental satellites, especially for climate impact analysis and agroclimatic condition. N O A A ' s direct readout service for weather satellites was recommended as an excellent tool for this purpose. If the Encyclopedia of Global Change Project can be put together there will be considerable benefits for developing countries in terms eft participation. Two experts commented on the relative valuc ¢~f education compared to training or applications projects, the idea being thal building indigenous capability in the developing countries is most important. ~'
Education and training activities to be carried out through the United Nations Programme opt Space Applications. This set of potential activities represents the most recent in ISY planning. The majority of survey participants who responded to this item were enthusiastic about the level of developing countries' involvement. In addition to the Mission to Planet Earth participation, a number of other ISY activities that could be carried out under UN auspices are under discussion. If these plans progress, they will be brought to a meeting of the C O P U O S scientific and technical subcommittee and a general meeting of COPUOS. ~7 Other opportunities. This category was included in the survey to ensure that the review of activities currently being planned with potential for developing countries' involvement was complete. One expert mentioned the potential to coordinate ISY plans with those of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme. Another individual mentioned the opportunity for developing countries to participate in NASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), but that is still in the discussion stage. The only new programme that had not been uncovered was Intelsat's proposal for a global teleconference in 1992. Intelsat would provide the space component, developing countries the ground component, and the UN Space Applications Programme would provide the programming. If this comes to pass, it could represent a significant addition to the educational activities examined abovu. Obstacles to developing countries' participation
a6 The ISY Conference on Education and Applications was held in Deauville, France in February 1990. Six working groups proposed projects for ISY endorsement that will be considered by SAFISY at its next meeting in Japan in May 1990. 37 N. Jasentuliyana, interview in Torremolinos, Spain, 11 October 1989.
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There was considerable agreement among the experts in the ISY survey concerning the major obstacles to participation by developing countries. Most of the obstacles mentioned by the survey participants were discussed by five or more respondents. These are described in more detail below.
Lack of funding is seen as a major obstacle to developing countries" participation by a majority of survey participants. The US Congress SPACE POLICY May 1990
An ISY policy for developing and newly industrializedcountries declaration of 1992 as ISY carried no new appropriations of funding to carry out the initiative. USAID has no plans to set aside funds for ISY. Likewise, the spring 1989 recommendation of COPUOS to the UN General Assembly to declare 1992 as the year of ISY states that UN ISY activities will be carried out through 'voluntary contributions by Member States and without any impact on the United Nations regular budget'. 38 Such evidence suggests that the lack of funding problem is indeed severe.
The lack of information~communication flow to developing countries concerning ISY activities and its potential contributions to the developing world was raised by six respondents. As one participant remarked: 'It takes time to reach the level of general awareness of the seriousness of issues that are being addressed by ISY and further time to translate this awareness into a c t i o n . . , the problems are quite fundamental and the ISY timeframe is not conducive to more than a small start at solving them.' Lack of experienced technical~scientific personnel was mentioned by six experts as a major obstacle to participation. One respondent focused attention on the high turnover rate among those who receive training related to remote sensing. Another expert believed that participation in ISY activities usually involves older, high-level officials from developing countries, rather than younger, more motivated scientists. Political and socioeconomic tensions between the developed and the developing countries were mentioned by five experts. At the macro level, political tensions exist between these groups. As one participant remarked, 'the Mission to Planet Earth messages may conflict with the political/economic self-interests of a country'. Another participant discussed the ISY perspective of the developed countries as one to 'celebrate' space while the developing countries need help. One participant remarked that the main reason for the lack of developing countries participating in ISY is the lack of regard of the developed countries for the developing countries. Two others discussed the inequality in the relationships between the developed countries' scientists and those from developing countries, saying that 'the developing country partner has only a pseudo-important role and is only included for public relations purposes'. Along the same lines, another expert saw a major obstacle as developing country scientists not being recognized as 'worthy contributors' by the 'big time' players.
The lack of sufficient scientific infrastructure was mentioned by five experts. This was discussed both in terms of hardware/equipment and in terms of institutional infrastructure. In addition to infrastructure constraints in the developing world, the institutional infrastructure of ISY itself may be a problem. One expert mentioned the lack of coordination between the developed countries that want to assist the developing countries and stated that SAFISY maybe too broad in the field covered and too short-lived to fulfil this role. Also, the 'heavy' bureaucracy of the international organizations, including the United Nations and the World Bank, may discourage action. 3e UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, op cit, Ref 35.
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Data-related issues create obstacles to participation. One participant
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An /SY policy for developing and newly industrializedcountries mentioned the difficulty of getting good data early; another mentioned the non-uniformity of the received data format. Also, there is a resistance by the developing countries to sharing their data because of the national security issue. Resistance surfaces in scientific projects focused on Earth observation. Developing countries do not want other countries, especially their neighbours, to have access to information about their territories. Overcoming the obstacles Participants in the ISY survey focused their attention on six recommended actions that could be taken to overcome these obstacles. These are discussed in detail below. Funding from international organizations and national foreign assistance agencies must increase substantially if the developing countries are to participate significantly in ISY. Six survey respondents acknowledged the need for funding as a critical issue. Five experts focused their remarks on external funding from international organizations (eg the United Nations, World Bank) and from national aid agencies (eg USAID). One expert suggested that USAID could initiate new programmes with countries not currently involved in ISY. Another individual suggested that NASA could fund the collection of data where it would be in the US interest to do so. (However, this would require Congressional approval.) One participant suggested that ISY incorporate low-cost projects having regional interest and multinational participation. Finally, one expert drew attention to the need to involve developing country officials 'today' in order to win their funding support. This leads us to consider the second recommendation. More attention must be given to improving the flow of information/ communication concerning ISY activities and its potential for development applications. Appropriate developing country institutions should be identified and invited to participate. ISY should be promoted during seminars, symposia and regional meetings such as the November 1989 Latin American Remote Sensing Symposium held in Argentina. One participant suggested that policy makers in the field of development aid should be made aware of the relevance of space technology for development if funding for ISY-related activities is to be incorporated in their plans. Also, information concerning plans for international training within the ISY context should be disseminated through appropriate channels quickly. Communication about ISY should flow both ways. It is necessary to solicit the views of the developing countries concerning ISY and its relationship to their needs. Such information could provide valuable input for the international planning process. Education and training opportunities must be made available to a wide audience of developing country participants. Five experts drew attention to the need for both long-term education programmes and shorterterm training for technical personnel and scientists in developing countries. As one participant remarked, 'To the extent possible send scientists (and instrument makers?) to the US, Europe and Japan to learn how remote sensing works and how instruments on Earth orbiting vehicles could help their specific countries.' This points to the remarks
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An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries
of another participant who believes strongly in building indigenous capabilities in space technology within the developing countries, moving scientists and technicians in these environments from the status of users to that of developers who truly understand the technology. This, however, does not discount the value of shorter-term training programmes. These were recommended by a number of participants as an important ingredient for ISY. Steps must be taken now to relieve the tensions that exist between
developed and developing countries, particularly as related to ISY. The first step (from the viewpoint of at least two participants) is to recognize that the tensions exist. One expert saw the root of the tension as a 'disregard for developing countries'. Once the issue is identified, the next step is to deal with it. One participant used the prescription, 'Empower users from developing countries.' Another mentioned the need to get leaders from the appropriate disciplines involved, but not as 'representatives for developing countries', but rather as recognized scientists and researchers who will carry their work back to their colleagues, students and institutions. This perspective seems appropriate for overcoming the sense of 'second-class' participants. Recommendations related to inadequate infrastructure include sugges-
tions for improving it, as well as setting up activities that take the current situation into account. One expert suggested the establishment of a permanent body to coordinate the activities of remote sensing satellite builders, operators and users, which he had first proposed at the Pacific ISY Conference (the International Remote Sensing Council, IRSC). The IRSC idea is discussed in more detail below. In terms of problems associated with the lack of appropriate equipment, it was suggested that the donor countries aid in the development of hardware and software that would be suitable for these environments. In terms of dealing with the existing physical infrastructure, one expert pointed out that ISY programmes for developing countries should be meaningful, but should only use technology that is 'supportable' within a given country's situation. I S Y actors must consider ways to overcome data-related obstacles.
Commitments need to be made to provide current data in a timely, low-cost manner, and on a continuing basis. There is a need for standardization of the received data format. Consideration must be given to the development of low-cost processing and analysis workstations or PCs that can handle the data. Mechanisms f o r implementation
Two mechanisms were recommended as means for implementing the recommendations. These are worthy of consideration because each provides a possible means of dealing with a number of the obstacles in a more holistic fashion. One participant suggested pairings of developed countries with developing countries, stating that, in general, the lead country for an ISY project is a spacefaring nation with a large space programme. Therefore the best hope for involvement of developing countries in ISY is through an organized partnership between a developing country and a developed country. The partnership must be highly structured to create a major and active role for the developing country
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An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countrie,~
partner. The most effective approach is likely to be an 'adopt-a-country" or 'adopt-a-region' technique, where the developed nations working on a given project consciously set out to involve and, where necessary, fund the participation of developing countries. (Another participant shared this idea, presenting the notion of 'spark plugs' in the industrialized countries.) The effort could begin with a series of seminars, training programmes, trial experiments, distribution of existing satellite data, etc. The establishment of the International Remote Sensing Council (IRSC), a permanent body to coordinate Earth observation activities, offered another mechanism for dealing with numerous obstacles. The Council would be comprised of representatives from national governments and international organizations, as well as private sector companies and organizations. It was suggested thal the IRSC could be fostered initially under the auspices of the IAF because it is ~a worldwide body accepted by governments, private industry and the scientific community'. 39 Funding obligations would be paid through yearly fees from each participant organization. The IRSC would be responsible for the following six activities: Q Q Q Q Q •
providing a means of coordinating worldwide Earth observing activities; optimizing current and near-term space assets; promoting the availability of data best suited to meet international and local user needs; promoting new space programmes; facilitating the use of Earth observations for scientific benefits, international and social developments; facilitating coordination of standards for validation and interpretation of remote sensing data. a°
Conclusions
a9 McCord, op cit, Ref 24, p 11. 4o Ibid, p 10.
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ISY offers considerable potential to relate Earth observation activities to the needs of developing countries. However, numerous obstacles must be overcome if the ISY policy to pay special attention to the needs of the developing countries is to be realized. Major obstacles, such as lack of funding, inadequate communication with developing countries, lack of experienced technical/scientific personnel and political/ socioeconomic tensions between the North and the South appear intractable. A comparison of obstacles to participation in IGY and ISY reveals striking similiarities. Fifteen years after IGY, a UN working group concluded that the benefits of IGY did not extend to the developing world. It is conceivable that 15 years from now those examining the results of ISY will conclude that the developing countries played a secondary role in this initiative as well. Given the progression of international agreements and international space law since the early 1960s, ISY presents the international community with a real challenge: to translate the language of these documents into actions for the benefits and interests of developing countries. The recommendations of ISY planning experts provided here should be carefully considered as their implementation may offer us a means of meeting this challenge.
S P A C E P O L I C Y M a y 1990
Christine Specter
One stated policy for International Space Year (ISY) is to pay special attention to the needs of developing countrlss while planning ISY activities. This article provides a historical context for assessing ISY as an opportunity to turn this policy Into practice. A survey of experts involved in ISY planning was undertaken and the results Include six recommendations for overcoming the obstacles to developing countries' full participation In ISY: (1) funding from International organizations and national foreign assistance agencies must increase substantially; (2) more attention must be given to Improving the flow of Information and communication about ISY; (3) education and training opportunltiss must be made available to a wide audience of developing country participants; (4) steps must be taken now to relieve the political and socioeconomic tensions that exist between North and South, particularly as they relate to ISY; (5) Inadequacies in infrastructure must be considered; and (6) data-related obstacles must be examined.
Since the late 1950s the language of international initiatives, international agreements, and international law has reflected the view that the benefits of the exploration and use of outer space are to accrue to all states, including the developing countries. This may be viewed within a historical perspective of growing demands by the developing countries for more active participation in space activities and a greater voice in determining how the benefits of space technology can be applied to solving real world problems. Such a perspective provides a valuable point of departure for a discussion of International Space Year (ISY) as an opportunity to relate Earth observation activities to the needs of developing countries.
International GeophysicalYear
International Geophysical Year (IGY) marked the initiation of the Space Age in the late 1950s. The use of satellites for scientific investigations was an integral part of IGY, beginning with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite by the USSR in 1957 as part of its IGY programme. IGY ran from 1 July 1957 through 31 December 1958. Sixty thousand scientists from over 60 nations were involved in what is considered the largest international scientific activity ever undertaken.1 Close to 50% of the countries listed as participants were in the Dr Specter is on the faculty of Florida developing world. 2 International University, Department of The purpose of IGY was to increase knowledge of the Sun, the Earth, Management and International Business, Miami~ FL 33199, USA. and global processes of the atmosphere, the oceans and solid Earth. Beyond the results of these international programmes, other major This article is based on 'International Space Year: an opportunity to relate Earth accomplishments included the establishment of the precedence for the observation activities to the benefits and voluntary sharing of data with participating and non-participating states interests of developing countries', paper through World Data Centres, the strengthening of international scienpresented at the 32nd International Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, Institute tific institutions, such as the International Council of Scientific Unions of Space Law, in conjunction with the 40th (ICSU), the emphasis on turning new scientific knowledge into applicaInternational Astronautical Congress, Tor- tions, and, finally, laying the groundwork for the Antarctic Treaty. 3 remolinos, Spain, 7-13 October 1989. The However, many of the potential benefits of IGY did not accrue to the opinions expressed herein represent a synthesisof the views of a group of experts developing countries. A number of developing countries that appeared involved in ISY planning, and do not on the list of IGY participants were not actively involved. Some necessarily represent the opinions of NASA or the Space Agency Forum for countries were included on the list because they allowed observation International Space Year. stations to be established within their territories. 0265-9646/90/020117-14 © 1990 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd
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An ISY policy Jot developing and newly industrialized counlries'
1 Walter Sullivan, Assault on the Unknown: Intemational Geophysical Year, McGrawHill, New York, 1961, p 4. 2 Sydney Chapman, IGY: Year of Discovery, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 1968, p 110. 3 United States Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, Commemoration of the International Geophysical Year: Report to Accompany House Resolution 514, 23 June 1982. 4 Dennis Gayle, interview in Miami, FL, 15 August 1989. Dr Gayle served as the Jamaican delegate to the UN General Assembly, assigned to the UN Economic and Social Council and the UN Development Programme during 1972-74. In 1972 he served as a member of an ad hoc working group of the Council which was set up to assess the results of IGY.
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Obstacles to the developing countries'participation By 1972 the United Nations Development Programme ( U N D P ) Secretariat had put together for consideration a set of recommendations suggesting ways that IGY results could have been applied to development and technology transfer activities. A working group was formed to assess the success of IGY in terms of these issues and to examine U N D P recommendations for future action. Obstacles to the developing countries' participation were discussed. 4 Lack of counterpart funding and foreign exchange was one ol the major obstacles to participation in IGY. Established scientists could not participate for this reason, and proposed training of doctoral candidates in relation to 1GY was not possible. Another serious problem was the lack of information/communication flow from the developed countries to the developing countries about 1GY. Developing countries had a general sense of what was going on, but they did not have an in-depth awareness of IGY potentials, nor ideas concerning how developing countries could get inw)lved in IGY. nor how potential IGY programme results could be utilized in developing countries. The lack of specialist personnel to interpret and carry out IGY policies created a major impediment. The UN resident missions would make suggestions to developing countries" governments; the governments would accept these recommendations as policies. However, this is as far as many of them went. For example, the UN resident representative in Jamaica suggested that at least half a dozen staffers from what is now called the Scientific Research Council (SRC) should be selected each year to attend a working group to assess the medium-term results of IGY. The government accepted the idea, but it was never implemented for the following reasons: (1) information was not circulated among potentially interested participants; (2) there was a replacement issue, ie without sufficient depth of human resources there would be no one left who could carry on SRC responsibilities during these leave periods; and (3) there was a lack of awareness of the potentials of IGY. Political and socioeconomic tensions between the developed countries and the developing countries were also evident in IGY. One delegate suggested that developing countries' scientists were seen as second-class participants in IGY. The perspective of the developed countries was to accomplish the scientific objectives; time spent inw)lving developing countries' personnel was seen as taking time away from scientific pursuits. For example, in one developing country where numerous requests and arrangements were made for observation stations, local scientists were ignored or asked to carry out menial tasks. Another delegate called IGY a label for technological imperialism. Two of the U N D P recommendations (which were tabled at the end of the working group session) called for: (1) a much more systematic effort to improve communication between scientists in developed and developing countries; and (2) a percentage of the U N D P budget to be allocated to finance attendance of scientists and technicians at related workshops/meetings and to disseminate the results of IGY.
Advances for developing countries in the 1960s Since the late 1950s the language of international agreements and international law has reflected the view that the benefits of the
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An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries
exploration and use of outer space are to accrue to all states, including the developing countries. The first legislative action of the United Nations in this regard was the 1963 Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. 5 According to these principles the benefit and interest of all mankind are to be served by space activities, and these activities are to be carried out in an environment of international cooperation and understanding. The most important subsequent instrument was the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, 6 the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. 7 Article I states that such activities are to be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development. Article IX states that cooperation and mutual assistance should guide states in carrying out their activities. In 1968 the first United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space was held in Vienna. The objectives of the conference were (1) to examine the practical benefits of the exploration and uses of outer space; and (2) examine the opportunities for nonspace powers to become involved through international cooperation. As a result of the conference, the UN Space Applications Programme was established to provide technical assistance to developing countries, and working groups were established in the Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), one of which was to study issues related to remote sensing and developing countries, s
Assessing progress through the 1980s
s UN General Assembly Resolution 1962/ XVIII, 13 December 1963. 6 Vladimir Kopal, 'The role of United Nations declarations of principles in the progressive development of space law', Journal of Space Law, Vo116, No 1,1988, p 9. 7 United Nations, Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 27 January 1967, 18 UST 2410,
TfAS 6347, 610 UNTS 205, effective 10 October 1967. s US Office of Technology Assessment, UNISPACE '82: A Context for International Cooperation and Completion - A Technical Memorandum, US Department of Com-
merce, National Technical Information Service, Washington, DC, March 1983. 9 Kopal, op cit, Ref 6, p 14. lo US Office of Technology Assessment, opcit, Ref8, p31. ~1/bid, p 6. 12 United Nations, Report of the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer
Space, Vienna, Austria, 9-12 August 1982, A/CONF,101/10, p 43.
S P A C E P O L I C Y M a y 1990
The era of civilian Earth observing satellite systems began in 1972 (with the US launch of the first Landsat), and discussions concerning the need for international principles relating to remote sensing emerged simultaneously.9 A Second UN Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, UNISPACE '82, was held in Vienna in 1982 to continue information exchange and to assess the adequacy of institutional and cooperative means that could be used to ensure that developing countries shared in the benefits of space technology. It was believed that a second conference was necessary, given the rapid progress of space exploration and technology development that had followed the 1968 conference. 10 Two of the major issues that surfaced at this meeting were the economic and political concerns of developing countries and their right of access to data. First, representatives of the developing world demanded a greater share of the benefits of space systems and it became clear that they would be willing to apply political pressure on the sensing nations to achieve this end. 11 Second, the sensed states believed that they should have access to data collected over their territories in a timely, non-discriminatory fashion. They called for COPUOS to reach agreement on principles governing satellite remote sensing. ~2 The final conference report concluded that developing countries faced a number of obstacles in their attempts to apply space technology. Three of these obstacles are identical to those mentioned during the IGY working group's discussions 10 years earlier. Lack of sufficient 119
An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countrie.~
13 Ibid, p 51. ~4 UN General Assembly Resolution 41/ 65, 3 December 1986. ~s Carl Q. Christol, 'Remote sensing and international space law', Journal of Space Law, Vol 16, No 1, 1988, pp 25, 37. 16 Ibid, pp 37-38. ~r N. Jasentuliyana, Chief, Outer Space Affairs Division, United Nations Secretariat, 'Events of past interest', Journal of Space Law, Vol 16, No 2, 1988, pp 162163. 18 Ibid. ~9 John McLucas and Harvey Meyerson, 'Planning for international Space Year', Space Policy, Vol 4, No 2, May 1988, p 108.
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funding headed the list of problems. Lack of specialist personnel was seen as a critical factor at two levels: (1) the lack of personnel with the necessary technical training and experience; and (2) the lack of those in national decision-making roles who were aware of the potentials ol space technology. And finally, lack of information concerning the costs and benefits of space technology and applications was mentioned once again. ~ After many years of discussion and debate, the 1986 Principles Relating to R e m o t e Sensing were adopted by the UN General Assembly. 14 Remote sensing, therein defined, related not only to collection of data, but also to processing and analysis of the dala for natural resources management and environmental monitoring. Thc special needs of developing countries were formally recognized, particularly regarding their rights of access to data and information about their territories, the products of Earth observation satellites. J5 At least eight of the 15 principles accorded them significant benefits, Perhaps the three most relevant to ISY considerations are Principles V. VII and XII. Principle V requires states engaging in remote sensing activities to promote international cooperation in these activities: Principle VII calls for these states to provide technical assistance to other interested states. Principle XII declares that the sensed states shall have access to data and to available analysed information on a nondiscriminatory basis and at reasonable cost.t~' In two major ways the Principles moved the language of international agreements away from general discussion to more specific considerations: the special needs of developing countries were addressed, and the launching nations were charged with the responsibility to promote the participation of the sensed states. Of course, it must be pointed out that the Principles are not legally binding, and are not a candidate for treaty status. In 1988 consensus was reached concerning a new agenda item for the legal subcommittee of COPUOS: 'Consideration of legal aspects related to the application of the principle that the exploration and utilization of outer space should be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all States, taking into particular account the needs of developing countries'. ~7 Some developing countries believe that the existing legal framework based on the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 needs to be revised to fill a vacuum. Others (including the USA) say that the new agenda item should focus on how the existing legal framework has translated Article I of the Treaty into practical steps. 1~ Given this continuing debate, the 1980s can be viewed as a decade o1 growing demands by the developing countries for more active participation in space activities and a greater voice in determining how the benefits of space technology can be applied to solving real world problems. This perspective provides a valuable point of departure for a discussion of International Space Year (ISY) as an opportunity to relate Earth observation activities to the needs of developing countries.
Plans for ISY Plans for ISY began in 1985 when the US Congress passed a resolution recommending its establishment, and suggesting ISY take place during 1992.19 The plan was endorsed by President Reagan and NASA in 1986. ISY will commemorate 500 years since Columbus' discovery of the New SPACE
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May 1990
An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries World. Also, 1992 marks the 35th anniversary of space exploration and 35 years since IGY. The Committee on Space Research (Cospar), the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) exemplify the wide range of support for ISY. The IAF set up an ISY planning committee in October 1986. ICSU views the objectives of ISY as complementary to those of its International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme. Preliminary proposals were prepared in February 1987 by the Space Science Board of the US National Academy of Sciences and the Intercosmos Council of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. These early plans included space exploration missions as well as Earth observation missions. Even in these early plans the US proposals focused on science, applications and education, including increased public awareness, z° Over time, Earth observation utilizing satellite remote sensing has emerged as the major theme of ISY. The ultimate purpose of this endeavour is to inspire and channel international response to the growing environmental challenges we face. Countries participating in ISY include the USA, Canada, numerous European states, Japan, the USSR, the People's Republic of China, Brazil, Pakistan and Thailand. The list is expected to grow.
ISY planning conferences and reports A review of ISY planning documents and conference reports reveals substantial potential for developing countries to participate in, and benefit from, the ISY initiative. Reports which appear to offer such opportunities are summarized below.
20 Ibid. 2~ Technology Application Center, University of New Mexico, International Space Year 1992: Developing Country Perspectives, Executive Summary, for the AID Bureau of Science and Technology, Office of Forestry, Environment and Natural Resources, under Contract #PDC-0000-1-017071-00, November-December 1987. 22/bid, p 1.
23/bid, pp 6-9.
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International Space Year 1992: Developing Country Perspectives. 21 One of the earliest attempts to inform and involve the developing countries in ISY was carried out by the US Agency for International Development (AID), Bureau of Science and Technology. In late 1987, AID's Indefinite Quantity Contractors, the Technology Applications Center, sent a team to visit key remote sensing organizations in major regions of the developing world: Thailand, Peru, Egypt, Jordan and Kenya. Each of these countries is a major remote sensing leader in its region. The purpose of the trips was to discuss ways to make ISY meaningful and effective in encouraging satellite remote sensing for economic development and natural resource management. (It is instructive to note that at the time of these visits very few of the representatives of these organizations had heard of ISY.) The report concluded that 'developing countries are enthusiastic about the ISY idea, but only if they can truly participate;' and 'planning for ISY activities in the developing world must begin immediately to be successful'. 22 These discussions led to nine recommendations for activities in these environments which represented the first input from the developing world to ISY planning. 23 Unfortunately, the AID Bureau of Science and Technology has no plans to implement these recommendations. Pacific I S Y Conference. This conference was held in Hawaii in 1987. It was the first international planning conference for ISY. Of the 139 participants at the meeting, three were from developing or newly 121
An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries"
industrialized countries. There was a representative from Indonesia, one from South Korea and one from the People's Republic of China. 24 Seven technical panels outlined possible activities that could take place under ISY auspices. Two of these panels focused on activities that could be of interest to the developing countries in terms of Earth observation programmes and education/training in remote sensing, The Earth Observation Panel began to formulate plans thal were expanded upon in 1988 at the Mission to Planet Earth Conference described below. The panel report did not deal directly with the issue of developing countries' involvement, but it did mention the need to deal with the issue of data distribution from an international perspective and to involve the widest possible group of users for ISY projects in order to demonstrate the utility of these data. Also, t~.o of the thematic investigations suggested for ISY, tropical rainfall mapping and volcanic hazards in the Pacific Rim, would appear to call for developing countries" participation. '-5 The Professional Associations Working Group for ISY outlined eight basic categories of activities suggested for adoption by professional associations, stressing their role as disseminators of information. Four of these offered potential for developing countries: •
•
•
•
a4 T.B. McCord, ed, Report on the Pacific ISY Conference: A Planning Meeting for the International Space Year, Kona, HI, 19-21 August 1987. 25 Ibid, pp 9-14. z6 Ibid, p 68. 2v United States Congress, House Document 99-221, Establishment of an International Space Year in 1992, Section 115, 99 Stat 1016, 15 May 1986. 28 McCord, op cit, Ref 24, pp 70-71. 29 Ibid, p 71. 3o Harvey Meyerson, ed, Report of the ISY Mission to Planet Earth Conference: A Planning Meeting for International Space
Year, Durham, NH, 29 April-1 May 1988.
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Topical/speciality conferences: 'Reach out to developing nations, utilizing their local professional societies, such as those involving remote sensing, and schedule topical conferences that stress the practical benefits of space activities. "2~ Global ISY communication network: The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers proposed to sponsor this network in conformance with the House Document establishing 1SY which contained the following request: to utilize ~a network of existing national and international communications satellites for a series of coordinated seminars on major worldwide scientific/applications concerns or challenges. Each program might be sponsored by a country, group of countries, or international organizations (eg WMO), but would be simultaneously available to the whole net. "2v Education: 'Identify interested people within education organizations or agencies which have an educational mission, such as U S A I D , and work with them to develop appropriate materials. '2s Briefings to g o v e r n m e n t s : 'To p r o m o t e ISY, seek funding support . . .'2'~
I S Y Mission to Planet Earth Conference. This conference, held in New Hampshire in 1988, was the second international planning meeting for ISY. Of the 82 persons attending this meeting, three were from developing or newly industrialized countries. One participant was from Brazil, two others were from the People's Republic of China. 3° Given the increased number and sophistication of Earth observation missions scheduled over the next decade, it is expected that a flood of data will be available for analysis and interpretation, coming from such systems as ERS-I (ESA), JERS-1 and A D E O S (Japan), Topex/ Poseidon (US-France), U A R S (US), IRS-1 (India), and the USSR Resource system, Brazil's MECB system, advanced weather satellite systems, SPOT and Landsat. Beginning in the mid-1990s, a series of polar platforms will provide additional sources of information: eg Radarsat (Canada) and the Earth Observing System, an international S P A C E POLICY May 1990
An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries
cooperative effort supported by NASA, N O A A and the NSF, in partnership with the ESA, and hopefully, Japan. At the Mission to Planet Earth Conference six working groups prepared recommendations regarding ways in which these systems could be best utilized to address growing concerns regarding the causes and impacts of global change. One series of recommendations related to the need for coordination among national space agencies. Information must be collected concerning the capabilities of current and future systems, gaps in coverage need to be addressed, data must be standardized, and worldwide accessibility to the output must be achieved so that the global user community can integrate the information with other sources. As a mechanism to implement these objectives, the Space Agency Senior Officials Working Group established the Space Agency Forum for ISY (SAFISY) as their coordinating body, representing the national space agencies of the majority of launching countries. Two working groups focused their attention on the Global Information System Test (GIST), a system for coordination of collection, calibration and distribution of Earth observation data. GIST would provide demonstration projects of an 'end to end' use of data, a necessary first step in establishing global standards for global change studies. Concomitant with these global interests, ISY is to incorporate initiatives of relevance to developing countries. Of particular interest is the policy statement in the final report stating: 'The ISY should pay special attention to the needs of developing countries. TM Given the pressing social and economic conditions facing many of these countries today, it is necessary that ISY projects provide information that is directly relevant to development planning within the context of sustainable environments. The Social and Economic Development Objectives working group stressed the importance of transforming data into useful information so the end users (project officers and managers) will be persuaded to use it. Educational programmes for political decision makers will be required if they are to be made aware of the potential for applying remote sensing technology to development programmes, and specialized technical training for indigenous personnel will be necessary if they are to use the technology once the idea is accepted. As a result of the New Hampshire meeting, two expert panels were established, the Expert Panel on Education and Applications, and the SAFISY Panel of Experts on Earth Science and Technology. The European Association for International Space Year (EURISY) was established in May 1989. EURISY and US-ISY will provide support for the SAFISY Education and Applications Panel's first meeting, hosted by CNES in early 1990. 32 31 /bid, p 5. 32 US-ISY Information Service news release: 'European Association for ISY established in Paris', Washington, DC, 23
May 1989. 33 US-ISY Information Service news release: 'Space Agency summit launches broad ISY program', Rome, Italy, 4 May
1989.
34 Report of the SAFISY P a n e / o f Experts on Earth Science and Technology, Abing-
don, UK, 27 February-1 March 1989.
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S A F I S Y Panel of Experts on Earth Science and Technology. This panel
met in early 1989 in Abingdon, UK. Of the 38 participants, only three developing countries were represented: Pakistan, People's Republic of China, and Thailand. A series of 10 ISY projects was developed in the areas of space data for global change, global information system test and global change outreach. These were approved at the SAFISY meeting in May 1989.33 Six of the project descriptions include specific developing countries as potential participants. 34 These are discussed in more detail in the 'ISY survey' section below.
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An ISY policy for developing and newly industrializedcountries UN involvement in ISY. Based on a General Assembly request, COPUOS considered the advisability of designating 1992 as ISY at its 1989 session. As a result COPUOS has recommended that the General Assembly endorse this initiative. The Committee took note of plans of both Cospar and IAF for celebrating this initiative. COPUOS recommended that ISY be carried out for the benefit and interests of all states, taking into particular account the needs of developing countries. The UN Programme on Space Applications was recommended as the lead programme for carrying out the UN role in ISY, in the context ot training and education. 35 In November 1989 the General Assembly declared 1992 as International Space Year. The US, the USSR, ESA and others have been developing proposals for presentation to the United Nations Scientific and Technical Subcommittee on Outer Space in early 1990. In January 1990 the United Nations announced participation in ISY's 'Mission to Planet Earth' through a programme sponsored by the US. This programme will combine training and educational capabilities of the Space Applications Programme with the resources available through the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Resources Information Database (GRID). The US will transfer satellite data to GRID including data that can be used in measuring ocean productivity (Nimbus 7), cloud climatology (ISCCP) and atmospheric radiation (ERBE). It is hoped that this initiative will stimulate space-~ faring nations to contribute existing and future databases to GRID and to provide enhanced opportunities for developing country personnel to become familiar with how to access and utilize GRID for applications relevant to their specific environmental problems. To achieve this goal, the US will fund and help organize UN training activities and conferences through 1992. An international conference is expected to bring together industrial and developing nations to utilize environmental satellite data for global change monitoring. Summary of IS Y planning and policy implementation This review of ISY activities reveals considerable potential for developing and newly industrialized countries' involvement. The three major programme areas in which these countries could participate appear to be through: (1) Earth science projects based on space data, created by the SAFISY Panel of Experts on Earth Science and Technology; (2) education and applications projects outlined by the Panel of Experts on Education and Applications in early 1990; and (3) education and training activities of the UN. However, over three years have elapsed since ISY planning began. A mere handful of developing countries are involved in ISY, and these are primarily satellite-launching nations. Therefore it is important to consider not only the potential of ISY for developing countries' benefit, but also the obstacles that may impede their participation. The purpose of these considerations is to develop a series of recommendations for actions that can be taken now to ensure that the ISY policy to pay special attention to the needs of developing countries is implemented. To this end, a survey of experts involved in ISY planning activities was undertaken recently. 35 UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, meeting on 4 June 1989, Agenda item 9(a), doc no A/Ac.105/L.178/ Add.4, p 2.
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ISY s u r v e y The purposes of the survey were to: (1) examine the potential for ISY to SPACE
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relate Earth observatio~~a~fi~ities to the benefits and interests of developing countries; (2) examine obstacles that are hindering their participation; and (3) develop a series of recommendations to overcome these obstacles. Survey participants were drawn primarily from the list of 82 persons attending the ISY Mission to Planet Earth Conference. These experts were divided into three categories: those on the Space Agency Senior Officials Working Group (now known as SAFISY); those on the Earth science working groups; and other participants. Since only three of the participants were from developing or newly industrialized countries (one from Brazil and two from the People's Republic of China), additional questionnaires were mailed to three individuals from the developing world who have become involved since the conference. Two served as representatives to the Panel of Experts on Earth Science and Technology (Abingdon meeting), and one individual from the United Nations was selected for his knowledge concerning the Programme on Space Applications and its role in UN activities for ISY. Eighteen usable responses were received. Three of these were from individuals in SAFISY; 13 from Earth science working groups; one from other participants; and one individual representing the United Nations perspective. Responses came from Brazil, Canada, Europe, Japan and the US. Results Earth science projects based on space data. The majority of respondents who were knowledgeable about the results of the Abingdon meeting believed that these projects represent opportunities for significant involvement of the developing countries. Of the 10 projects, eight were mentioned specifically as having value for developing and newly industrialized countries. These projects (and the names of countries identified in the Abingdon report as being potential participants) are listed below.
• • • • • • •
•
Global Consequences of Land Cover Change (Brazil) Enhanced Greenhouse Effect Detection Ocean-Climate Interrelationships (People's Republic of China) ISY Ozone Hole Project Rate of Deforestation (Brazil) Sea Surface Temperature (People's Republic of China) An Encyclopedia of Global Change (Pakistan, Thailand, People's Republic of China, Brazil, Argentina, plus regional and international organizations) Global Change Atlas (same as above)
Several participants mentioned the value of developing countries participating in projects requiring in situ data collection and ground truth data. Education and applications projects. It was more difficult for participants to predict the potential of these projects, since the Expert Panel
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for Education and Applications had not yet met. However, those who were willing to predict the level of developing countries' involvement were very positive in this regard. As one participant remarked, the panel has been committed to planning activities that will include cxperts from both developed and developing countries and users of space data Certainly, they will take as a starting point the suggestions for education and training activities recommended at the New Hampshire mccting. and these had a strong emphasis on the developing countries, The idea of holding workshops or short courses in the developing countries was raised by several participants. One individual recommended training related to environmental satellites, especially for climate impact analysis and agroclimatic condition. N O A A ' s direct readout service for weather satellites was recommended as an excellent tool for this purpose. If the Encyclopedia of Global Change Project can be put together there will be considerable benefits for developing countries in terms eft participation. Two experts commented on the relative valuc ¢~f education compared to training or applications projects, the idea being thal building indigenous capability in the developing countries is most important. ~'
Education and training activities to be carried out through the United Nations Programme opt Space Applications. This set of potential activities represents the most recent in ISY planning. The majority of survey participants who responded to this item were enthusiastic about the level of developing countries' involvement. In addition to the Mission to Planet Earth participation, a number of other ISY activities that could be carried out under UN auspices are under discussion. If these plans progress, they will be brought to a meeting of the C O P U O S scientific and technical subcommittee and a general meeting of COPUOS. ~7 Other opportunities. This category was included in the survey to ensure that the review of activities currently being planned with potential for developing countries' involvement was complete. One expert mentioned the potential to coordinate ISY plans with those of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme. Another individual mentioned the opportunity for developing countries to participate in NASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), but that is still in the discussion stage. The only new programme that had not been uncovered was Intelsat's proposal for a global teleconference in 1992. Intelsat would provide the space component, developing countries the ground component, and the UN Space Applications Programme would provide the programming. If this comes to pass, it could represent a significant addition to the educational activities examined abovu. Obstacles to developing countries' participation
a6 The ISY Conference on Education and Applications was held in Deauville, France in February 1990. Six working groups proposed projects for ISY endorsement that will be considered by SAFISY at its next meeting in Japan in May 1990. 37 N. Jasentuliyana, interview in Torremolinos, Spain, 11 October 1989.
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There was considerable agreement among the experts in the ISY survey concerning the major obstacles to participation by developing countries. Most of the obstacles mentioned by the survey participants were discussed by five or more respondents. These are described in more detail below.
Lack of funding is seen as a major obstacle to developing countries" participation by a majority of survey participants. The US Congress SPACE POLICY May 1990
An ISY policy for developing and newly industrializedcountries declaration of 1992 as ISY carried no new appropriations of funding to carry out the initiative. USAID has no plans to set aside funds for ISY. Likewise, the spring 1989 recommendation of COPUOS to the UN General Assembly to declare 1992 as the year of ISY states that UN ISY activities will be carried out through 'voluntary contributions by Member States and without any impact on the United Nations regular budget'. 38 Such evidence suggests that the lack of funding problem is indeed severe.
The lack of information~communication flow to developing countries concerning ISY activities and its potential contributions to the developing world was raised by six respondents. As one participant remarked: 'It takes time to reach the level of general awareness of the seriousness of issues that are being addressed by ISY and further time to translate this awareness into a c t i o n . . , the problems are quite fundamental and the ISY timeframe is not conducive to more than a small start at solving them.' Lack of experienced technical~scientific personnel was mentioned by six experts as a major obstacle to participation. One respondent focused attention on the high turnover rate among those who receive training related to remote sensing. Another expert believed that participation in ISY activities usually involves older, high-level officials from developing countries, rather than younger, more motivated scientists. Political and socioeconomic tensions between the developed and the developing countries were mentioned by five experts. At the macro level, political tensions exist between these groups. As one participant remarked, 'the Mission to Planet Earth messages may conflict with the political/economic self-interests of a country'. Another participant discussed the ISY perspective of the developed countries as one to 'celebrate' space while the developing countries need help. One participant remarked that the main reason for the lack of developing countries participating in ISY is the lack of regard of the developed countries for the developing countries. Two others discussed the inequality in the relationships between the developed countries' scientists and those from developing countries, saying that 'the developing country partner has only a pseudo-important role and is only included for public relations purposes'. Along the same lines, another expert saw a major obstacle as developing country scientists not being recognized as 'worthy contributors' by the 'big time' players.
The lack of sufficient scientific infrastructure was mentioned by five experts. This was discussed both in terms of hardware/equipment and in terms of institutional infrastructure. In addition to infrastructure constraints in the developing world, the institutional infrastructure of ISY itself may be a problem. One expert mentioned the lack of coordination between the developed countries that want to assist the developing countries and stated that SAFISY maybe too broad in the field covered and too short-lived to fulfil this role. Also, the 'heavy' bureaucracy of the international organizations, including the United Nations and the World Bank, may discourage action. 3e UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, op cit, Ref 35.
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Data-related issues create obstacles to participation. One participant
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An /SY policy for developing and newly industrializedcountries mentioned the difficulty of getting good data early; another mentioned the non-uniformity of the received data format. Also, there is a resistance by the developing countries to sharing their data because of the national security issue. Resistance surfaces in scientific projects focused on Earth observation. Developing countries do not want other countries, especially their neighbours, to have access to information about their territories. Overcoming the obstacles Participants in the ISY survey focused their attention on six recommended actions that could be taken to overcome these obstacles. These are discussed in detail below. Funding from international organizations and national foreign assistance agencies must increase substantially if the developing countries are to participate significantly in ISY. Six survey respondents acknowledged the need for funding as a critical issue. Five experts focused their remarks on external funding from international organizations (eg the United Nations, World Bank) and from national aid agencies (eg USAID). One expert suggested that USAID could initiate new programmes with countries not currently involved in ISY. Another individual suggested that NASA could fund the collection of data where it would be in the US interest to do so. (However, this would require Congressional approval.) One participant suggested that ISY incorporate low-cost projects having regional interest and multinational participation. Finally, one expert drew attention to the need to involve developing country officials 'today' in order to win their funding support. This leads us to consider the second recommendation. More attention must be given to improving the flow of information/ communication concerning ISY activities and its potential for development applications. Appropriate developing country institutions should be identified and invited to participate. ISY should be promoted during seminars, symposia and regional meetings such as the November 1989 Latin American Remote Sensing Symposium held in Argentina. One participant suggested that policy makers in the field of development aid should be made aware of the relevance of space technology for development if funding for ISY-related activities is to be incorporated in their plans. Also, information concerning plans for international training within the ISY context should be disseminated through appropriate channels quickly. Communication about ISY should flow both ways. It is necessary to solicit the views of the developing countries concerning ISY and its relationship to their needs. Such information could provide valuable input for the international planning process. Education and training opportunities must be made available to a wide audience of developing country participants. Five experts drew attention to the need for both long-term education programmes and shorterterm training for technical personnel and scientists in developing countries. As one participant remarked, 'To the extent possible send scientists (and instrument makers?) to the US, Europe and Japan to learn how remote sensing works and how instruments on Earth orbiting vehicles could help their specific countries.' This points to the remarks
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of another participant who believes strongly in building indigenous capabilities in space technology within the developing countries, moving scientists and technicians in these environments from the status of users to that of developers who truly understand the technology. This, however, does not discount the value of shorter-term training programmes. These were recommended by a number of participants as an important ingredient for ISY. Steps must be taken now to relieve the tensions that exist between
developed and developing countries, particularly as related to ISY. The first step (from the viewpoint of at least two participants) is to recognize that the tensions exist. One expert saw the root of the tension as a 'disregard for developing countries'. Once the issue is identified, the next step is to deal with it. One participant used the prescription, 'Empower users from developing countries.' Another mentioned the need to get leaders from the appropriate disciplines involved, but not as 'representatives for developing countries', but rather as recognized scientists and researchers who will carry their work back to their colleagues, students and institutions. This perspective seems appropriate for overcoming the sense of 'second-class' participants. Recommendations related to inadequate infrastructure include sugges-
tions for improving it, as well as setting up activities that take the current situation into account. One expert suggested the establishment of a permanent body to coordinate the activities of remote sensing satellite builders, operators and users, which he had first proposed at the Pacific ISY Conference (the International Remote Sensing Council, IRSC). The IRSC idea is discussed in more detail below. In terms of problems associated with the lack of appropriate equipment, it was suggested that the donor countries aid in the development of hardware and software that would be suitable for these environments. In terms of dealing with the existing physical infrastructure, one expert pointed out that ISY programmes for developing countries should be meaningful, but should only use technology that is 'supportable' within a given country's situation. I S Y actors must consider ways to overcome data-related obstacles.
Commitments need to be made to provide current data in a timely, low-cost manner, and on a continuing basis. There is a need for standardization of the received data format. Consideration must be given to the development of low-cost processing and analysis workstations or PCs that can handle the data. Mechanisms f o r implementation
Two mechanisms were recommended as means for implementing the recommendations. These are worthy of consideration because each provides a possible means of dealing with a number of the obstacles in a more holistic fashion. One participant suggested pairings of developed countries with developing countries, stating that, in general, the lead country for an ISY project is a spacefaring nation with a large space programme. Therefore the best hope for involvement of developing countries in ISY is through an organized partnership between a developing country and a developed country. The partnership must be highly structured to create a major and active role for the developing country
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partner. The most effective approach is likely to be an 'adopt-a-country" or 'adopt-a-region' technique, where the developed nations working on a given project consciously set out to involve and, where necessary, fund the participation of developing countries. (Another participant shared this idea, presenting the notion of 'spark plugs' in the industrialized countries.) The effort could begin with a series of seminars, training programmes, trial experiments, distribution of existing satellite data, etc. The establishment of the International Remote Sensing Council (IRSC), a permanent body to coordinate Earth observation activities, offered another mechanism for dealing with numerous obstacles. The Council would be comprised of representatives from national governments and international organizations, as well as private sector companies and organizations. It was suggested thal the IRSC could be fostered initially under the auspices of the IAF because it is ~a worldwide body accepted by governments, private industry and the scientific community'. 39 Funding obligations would be paid through yearly fees from each participant organization. The IRSC would be responsible for the following six activities: Q Q Q Q Q •
providing a means of coordinating worldwide Earth observing activities; optimizing current and near-term space assets; promoting the availability of data best suited to meet international and local user needs; promoting new space programmes; facilitating the use of Earth observations for scientific benefits, international and social developments; facilitating coordination of standards for validation and interpretation of remote sensing data. a°
Conclusions
a9 McCord, op cit, Ref 24, p 11. 4o Ibid, p 10.
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ISY offers considerable potential to relate Earth observation activities to the needs of developing countries. However, numerous obstacles must be overcome if the ISY policy to pay special attention to the needs of the developing countries is to be realized. Major obstacles, such as lack of funding, inadequate communication with developing countries, lack of experienced technical/scientific personnel and political/ socioeconomic tensions between the North and the South appear intractable. A comparison of obstacles to participation in IGY and ISY reveals striking similiarities. Fifteen years after IGY, a UN working group concluded that the benefits of IGY did not extend to the developing world. It is conceivable that 15 years from now those examining the results of ISY will conclude that the developing countries played a secondary role in this initiative as well. Given the progression of international agreements and international space law since the early 1960s, ISY presents the international community with a real challenge: to translate the language of these documents into actions for the benefits and interests of developing countries. The recommendations of ISY planning experts provided here should be carefully considered as their implementation may offer us a means of meeting this challenge.
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