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Applying cognitive psychology to user-interface design
findings sponsored by the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC) were used. Preliminary tasks involved a review of the draft plant procedures. Then, interviews with operators were conducted to establish the initial information for the displays. These initial requirements were evaluated against existing guidelines and criteria to determine the optimal presentation formats. Detailed steps of the approaches used, design decisions made, and trade-offs that resulted in the final user-acceptable design are discussed. 19.2.27 (105463)
Roscoe, S.N. VTOL control and display design : Principles and methods. In: International reviews of ergonomics, Vol 1, D.J. Oborne (Ed). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 135-158. This review covers an area of aircraft control and display research leading to the application of a set of ergonomics design principles to the problems of vertical and translational instrument flight. A system approach to design is interwoven with an holistic approach to experimentation. VTOL missions are analysed to reveal deficiencies in conventional instrumentation, to identify information and control requirements, and to configure and simulate a generic VTOL control and display system. Through a sequential programme of experimentation involving fractional-factorial screening designs and centralcomposite response surface mapping, critical dynamic control and display design parameters are optimised.
Workplace and equipment design 19.2.28 (105479)
Chan, W.L., Pethick, A.J., and Graves, R.J. Ergonomic implications in the design of an engine assembly line. In: Contemporary ergonomics 1987, E.D. Megaw (Ed). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 1 4 0 - 145. An ergonomics study, simulating four tasks on a new assembly line, indicated that their design would result in the target line cycle times not being achieved. Postural analysis also indicated a high potential risk of back pain problems. The proposed reduction in the number of repair loops on the line could increase repair times and had implications for the selection and training of repairmen. An ergonomics redesign of the workstations recommends changes in the workspace layout, the presentation of workpieces and component stock feeding systems which would improve the
160
Applied Ergonomics
June 1988
operator's health, as well as reducing the process cycle times for the tasks.
moment at L5-SI were used as parameters of back load. The results showed that a newly designed shovel, 19.2.29 (105481) characterised by a relatively large Das, B. curvature, is an acceptable alternative An ergonomic approach to designing a to the standard shovel. However, none manufacturing work system. In t J of the test shovels appeared to be I n d u s t Ergonomics, 1987, 1(3), 231 designed in the best possible way for 240. digging tasks in sand with very high This paper highlights the methodology thrusting resistance. that was applied systematically to 19.2.32 (105513) incorporate ergonomics principles and Robertson, S., and Porter, J.M. data to the design of a manufacturing Motorcycle ergonomics: An work system. The manufacturing task exploratory study. In : Contemporary comprised drilling four holes on a ergonomics 1987, E.D. Megaw (Ed). prepared steel plate. The components Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, of the manufacturing work system pp 173 178. included: manufacturing task, powerfeed drill press, jig, fixture and other This paper describes a questionnaire equipment, workplace layout, operator survey of the ergonomics problems of training and (hard) production motorcycles, and a pilot experimental standard and'feedback. The ergonomicstudy of the preferred riding position ally designed manufacturing work for motorcyclists. A high incidence of system proved to be effective and discomfort was evident and there are efficient in terms of manufacturing strong indications that the seat height processing time, safety, training time, and the location of handlebars and and worker productivity, satisfaction footrests do not adequately cater for and job attitudes. the preferences of the users. 19.2.30(105491)
Freivalds, A. The ergonomics of tools. In- International reviews of ergonomics, Vol 1, D.J. Oborne (Ed). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 4 3 - 7 5 . Tools are as old as the human race, originating as extensions of arms and hands. By increasing the performance of basic tools, the human could progress to more effective food production and eventually to highly skilled industrial operations. A survey is presented of common hand tools and the features of each that produce the optimum interface between the human operator and the tool. Basic ergonomics concepts, such as maximising functional forces, optimising posture and hand position, and minimising the physical stress and resulting physiological strain, are discussed, along with some introductory hand anatomy and musculoskeletal problems resulting from improper tool usage and design. Lastly, an outline of general ergonomics criteria useful in the design of tools is presented. 19.2.31 (105493) Van der Grinten, M. Shovel design and back load in digging trenches. In: Musculoskeletal disorders at work, P. Buckle (Ed). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 9 6 - 1 0 1 . In an experimental field study, the effect of shovel design on back load during digging trenches in compact sand was studied. Three different designs with modestly modified length and curvature of the handle were compared with a 'standard shovel'. The trunk flexion and the biomechanical
Environment 19.2.33 (105554)
Parsons, K.C. Practical methods for assessing human response to thermal environments. In: New methods in applied ergonomics, J.R. Wilson, E.N. Corlett and I. Manenica (Eds). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 137-152. The principles and practice of assessing human response to hot, neutral and cold environments are discussed. Despite some gaps in knowledge, general principles can provide a methodology for assessing the effects of the thermal environment on the health, comfort and performance of workers. A practical assessment of an office for thermal comfort is described. Both physical and subjective measures were made and data analysis methods and final recommendations are provided.
System characteristics 19.2.34 (105578)
Gardiner, M.M., and Christie, B. (Eds) Applying cognitive psychology to userinterface design. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, Chichester, 1987, 381 pp. The design of office automation products to be compatible with their human users must take account of the way humans process information. In order to achieve this, it is important that the design environment and the applied research environment communicate effectively. Complementing work done on an
ESPRIT project in the same area, this book includes contributions from several members of that project team as well as a number of academic researchers. It provides a framework for a 'design support environment' taking inputs from cognitive psychology and is suitable for guiding further research and application work. Key aspects of cognitive psychology research are reviewed, and the application of the research findings is given from an industrial perspective by practitioners in the field. The book discusses the design process, design guidelines and an associated methodology, and gives some suggestions for further developments in the field.
Work design and organisation 19.2.35 (105664)
De Keyser, V. Structuring of knowledge of operators in continuous processes: Case study of a continuous casting plant start-up. In: New technology and human error, J. Rasmussen, K. Duncan and J. Leplat (Eds). John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1987, pp 2 4 7 - 2 5 9 .
A survey was conducted to identify causative circumstances of accidents resulting in musculoskeletal injury to bus drivers either when involved in motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) or even when the bus is not in motion, nonmotor vehicle accidents (non-MVAs). Within a major bus transport corporation (about 2900 drivers) 2520 accidents occurred within a period of five years. Of these, 398 cases were analysed in which clinical and radiological evidence of a musculoskeletal injury existed, and which led to at least 10 days of absence from work. The 398 accidents were classified as MVAs and non-MVAs and each category was subsequently subclassified according to the different circumstances of occurrence. Matching the types of injury with the circumstances of occurrence of the accidents allowed several conclusions to be drawn and suggestions to be made for eliminating the hazards of musculoskeletal injury to bus drivers.
Limit, 50% were between the Maximum Permissible Limit and the Action Level, and only 20% were below the Action Level. A majority of the plants used a self-selection method to match a worker to the physical demands of a given manual lifting task. Training of workers in manual materials handling was provided by 76% of the plants. The principal methods of training included a poster campaign and demonstration of lifting techniques. The basic handling skills were taught in 90% of the plants. The content of training was incomplete, however, and further improvement was necessary. 19.2.40 (105830)
Dul, J., and Hilderbandt, V.H. Ergonomic guidelines for the prevention of low back pain at the workplace. Ergonomics, 1987, 30(2), 419-429.
The aim of this paper is to discuss the usefulness of common ergonomics 19.2.38 (105745) guidelines for preventing low back pain Leplat, J., and Rasmussen, J. at the workplace. Sixteen recent Analysis of human errors in industrial ergonomics biomechanical and epiincidents and accidents for improvedemiological books were reviewed to ment of work safety. In: New obtain common ergonomics guidelines technology and human error, for both static and dynamic work Control room operators' knowJ. Rasmussen, K. Duncan and J. Leplat (e g, sitting, lifting), and to obtain an ledge was investigated : (1) by (Eds). John Wiley and Sons, overview of commonly observed comparing operators from three plants Chichester, 1987, pp 157-168. individual and work-related risk factors with the same technology but different of low back pain. The results show Method for the analysis of work work organisations; (2) by analysing, in that the aspects of work for which accidents are discussed, and a a new plant, how novice operators ergonomics guidelines are presented description is given of a causal diagnose incidents during the start-up; generally correspond to work-related situation analysis in terms of a (3) by analysing in this plant which risk factors as shown by epidemio'variation tree' in order to explain information and from which source the logical studies. However, in quantitative the course of events of the individual operator utilises, observed three terms the guidelines show a great cases and to identify possible improvemonths after the start-up. variety, possibly due to differences in ments. The difficulties in identifying criteria. In certain cases, it is not clear 'causes' of accidents are discussed, and whether or not the guidelines are it is proposed to analyse accident 19.2.36 (105700) based on back'!oad or back pain data, reports with the specific aim of Dawson, P. identifying potential for future improve- due to lack of references. It appears Computer technology and the job of that many guidelines are based upon a the first-line supervisor. New Technology, ments rather than causes of past events. combination of back load criteria and The use of a model of cognitive control Work and Employment, 1987, 2(1), other criteria, although it is unknown mechanisms is proposed for 47-60. how these criteria are combined. identification of the human decisions This article presents a detailed case Hence, many guidelines do not apply which are most sensitive to improvestudy of changes in the job tasks of specifically to low back pain. With ments. British Rail yard supervisors under the certain exceptions, most guidelines do routine operation of a computerised not take into account individual factors, 19.2.39 (105751) system of freight information control although epidemiological studies Tang, T.K. in order to evaluate critically the claim indicate that several factors such as age, Manual materials handling : A survey of that computer technology is strength, fitness, psychosocial factors, risks, and the selection and training of contributing to the demise of first-line workers in Singapore. Ergonomics, 1987, and history of back pain should be considered. However, because of the supervisors. 30 (2), 299-304. qualitative character of most current A survey of 83 plants employing epidemiological studies, results cannot safety officers indicated that in 66% of be readily implemented into quantitathem, workers were involved in manual tive ergonomics guidelines. The above lifting. The average number of manual 19.2.37 (105737) general results are discussed with lifting tasks was three per plant. Only Barak, D., and Djerassi, L. examples. It is concluded that there is Musculoskeletal injuries among bus about 6% of the total workforce were a great need for ergonomics guidelines drivers due to motor vehicle accidents involved in manual lifting. Using the that apply specifically to low back pain, and hazardous environmental NIOSH Lifting Guidelines, the survey and for quantitative epidemiological conditions. Ergonomics, 1987, 30(2), revealed that 30% of the lifting tasks data on which these guidelines may be 335-342. were above the Maximum Permissible based.
Health and safety
Applied Ergonomics
June 1988
161
Roscoe, S.N. VTOL control and display design : Principles and methods. In: International reviews of ergonomics, Vol 1, D.J. Oborne (Ed). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 135-158. This review covers an area of aircraft control and display research leading to the application of a set of ergonomics design principles to the problems of vertical and translational instrument flight. A system approach to design is interwoven with an holistic approach to experimentation. VTOL missions are analysed to reveal deficiencies in conventional instrumentation, to identify information and control requirements, and to configure and simulate a generic VTOL control and display system. Through a sequential programme of experimentation involving fractional-factorial screening designs and centralcomposite response surface mapping, critical dynamic control and display design parameters are optimised.
Workplace and equipment design 19.2.28 (105479)
Chan, W.L., Pethick, A.J., and Graves, R.J. Ergonomic implications in the design of an engine assembly line. In: Contemporary ergonomics 1987, E.D. Megaw (Ed). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 1 4 0 - 145. An ergonomics study, simulating four tasks on a new assembly line, indicated that their design would result in the target line cycle times not being achieved. Postural analysis also indicated a high potential risk of back pain problems. The proposed reduction in the number of repair loops on the line could increase repair times and had implications for the selection and training of repairmen. An ergonomics redesign of the workstations recommends changes in the workspace layout, the presentation of workpieces and component stock feeding systems which would improve the
160
Applied Ergonomics
June 1988
operator's health, as well as reducing the process cycle times for the tasks.
moment at L5-SI were used as parameters of back load. The results showed that a newly designed shovel, 19.2.29 (105481) characterised by a relatively large Das, B. curvature, is an acceptable alternative An ergonomic approach to designing a to the standard shovel. However, none manufacturing work system. In t J of the test shovels appeared to be I n d u s t Ergonomics, 1987, 1(3), 231 designed in the best possible way for 240. digging tasks in sand with very high This paper highlights the methodology thrusting resistance. that was applied systematically to 19.2.32 (105513) incorporate ergonomics principles and Robertson, S., and Porter, J.M. data to the design of a manufacturing Motorcycle ergonomics: An work system. The manufacturing task exploratory study. In : Contemporary comprised drilling four holes on a ergonomics 1987, E.D. Megaw (Ed). prepared steel plate. The components Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, of the manufacturing work system pp 173 178. included: manufacturing task, powerfeed drill press, jig, fixture and other This paper describes a questionnaire equipment, workplace layout, operator survey of the ergonomics problems of training and (hard) production motorcycles, and a pilot experimental standard and'feedback. The ergonomicstudy of the preferred riding position ally designed manufacturing work for motorcyclists. A high incidence of system proved to be effective and discomfort was evident and there are efficient in terms of manufacturing strong indications that the seat height processing time, safety, training time, and the location of handlebars and and worker productivity, satisfaction footrests do not adequately cater for and job attitudes. the preferences of the users. 19.2.30(105491)
Freivalds, A. The ergonomics of tools. In- International reviews of ergonomics, Vol 1, D.J. Oborne (Ed). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 4 3 - 7 5 . Tools are as old as the human race, originating as extensions of arms and hands. By increasing the performance of basic tools, the human could progress to more effective food production and eventually to highly skilled industrial operations. A survey is presented of common hand tools and the features of each that produce the optimum interface between the human operator and the tool. Basic ergonomics concepts, such as maximising functional forces, optimising posture and hand position, and minimising the physical stress and resulting physiological strain, are discussed, along with some introductory hand anatomy and musculoskeletal problems resulting from improper tool usage and design. Lastly, an outline of general ergonomics criteria useful in the design of tools is presented. 19.2.31 (105493) Van der Grinten, M. Shovel design and back load in digging trenches. In: Musculoskeletal disorders at work, P. Buckle (Ed). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 9 6 - 1 0 1 . In an experimental field study, the effect of shovel design on back load during digging trenches in compact sand was studied. Three different designs with modestly modified length and curvature of the handle were compared with a 'standard shovel'. The trunk flexion and the biomechanical
Environment 19.2.33 (105554)
Parsons, K.C. Practical methods for assessing human response to thermal environments. In: New methods in applied ergonomics, J.R. Wilson, E.N. Corlett and I. Manenica (Eds). Taylor and Francis, London, 1987, pp 137-152. The principles and practice of assessing human response to hot, neutral and cold environments are discussed. Despite some gaps in knowledge, general principles can provide a methodology for assessing the effects of the thermal environment on the health, comfort and performance of workers. A practical assessment of an office for thermal comfort is described. Both physical and subjective measures were made and data analysis methods and final recommendations are provided.
System characteristics 19.2.34 (105578)
Gardiner, M.M., and Christie, B. (Eds) Applying cognitive psychology to userinterface design. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, Chichester, 1987, 381 pp. The design of office automation products to be compatible with their human users must take account of the way humans process information. In order to achieve this, it is important that the design environment and the applied research environment communicate effectively. Complementing work done on an
ESPRIT project in the same area, this book includes contributions from several members of that project team as well as a number of academic researchers. It provides a framework for a 'design support environment' taking inputs from cognitive psychology and is suitable for guiding further research and application work. Key aspects of cognitive psychology research are reviewed, and the application of the research findings is given from an industrial perspective by practitioners in the field. The book discusses the design process, design guidelines and an associated methodology, and gives some suggestions for further developments in the field.
Work design and organisation 19.2.35 (105664)
De Keyser, V. Structuring of knowledge of operators in continuous processes: Case study of a continuous casting plant start-up. In: New technology and human error, J. Rasmussen, K. Duncan and J. Leplat (Eds). John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1987, pp 2 4 7 - 2 5 9 .
A survey was conducted to identify causative circumstances of accidents resulting in musculoskeletal injury to bus drivers either when involved in motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) or even when the bus is not in motion, nonmotor vehicle accidents (non-MVAs). Within a major bus transport corporation (about 2900 drivers) 2520 accidents occurred within a period of five years. Of these, 398 cases were analysed in which clinical and radiological evidence of a musculoskeletal injury existed, and which led to at least 10 days of absence from work. The 398 accidents were classified as MVAs and non-MVAs and each category was subsequently subclassified according to the different circumstances of occurrence. Matching the types of injury with the circumstances of occurrence of the accidents allowed several conclusions to be drawn and suggestions to be made for eliminating the hazards of musculoskeletal injury to bus drivers.
Limit, 50% were between the Maximum Permissible Limit and the Action Level, and only 20% were below the Action Level. A majority of the plants used a self-selection method to match a worker to the physical demands of a given manual lifting task. Training of workers in manual materials handling was provided by 76% of the plants. The principal methods of training included a poster campaign and demonstration of lifting techniques. The basic handling skills were taught in 90% of the plants. The content of training was incomplete, however, and further improvement was necessary. 19.2.40 (105830)
Dul, J., and Hilderbandt, V.H. Ergonomic guidelines for the prevention of low back pain at the workplace. Ergonomics, 1987, 30(2), 419-429.
The aim of this paper is to discuss the usefulness of common ergonomics 19.2.38 (105745) guidelines for preventing low back pain Leplat, J., and Rasmussen, J. at the workplace. Sixteen recent Analysis of human errors in industrial ergonomics biomechanical and epiincidents and accidents for improvedemiological books were reviewed to ment of work safety. In: New obtain common ergonomics guidelines technology and human error, for both static and dynamic work Control room operators' knowJ. Rasmussen, K. Duncan and J. Leplat (e g, sitting, lifting), and to obtain an ledge was investigated : (1) by (Eds). John Wiley and Sons, overview of commonly observed comparing operators from three plants Chichester, 1987, pp 157-168. individual and work-related risk factors with the same technology but different of low back pain. The results show Method for the analysis of work work organisations; (2) by analysing, in that the aspects of work for which accidents are discussed, and a a new plant, how novice operators ergonomics guidelines are presented description is given of a causal diagnose incidents during the start-up; generally correspond to work-related situation analysis in terms of a (3) by analysing in this plant which risk factors as shown by epidemio'variation tree' in order to explain information and from which source the logical studies. However, in quantitative the course of events of the individual operator utilises, observed three terms the guidelines show a great cases and to identify possible improvemonths after the start-up. variety, possibly due to differences in ments. The difficulties in identifying criteria. In certain cases, it is not clear 'causes' of accidents are discussed, and whether or not the guidelines are it is proposed to analyse accident 19.2.36 (105700) based on back'!oad or back pain data, reports with the specific aim of Dawson, P. identifying potential for future improve- due to lack of references. It appears Computer technology and the job of that many guidelines are based upon a the first-line supervisor. New Technology, ments rather than causes of past events. combination of back load criteria and The use of a model of cognitive control Work and Employment, 1987, 2(1), other criteria, although it is unknown mechanisms is proposed for 47-60. how these criteria are combined. identification of the human decisions This article presents a detailed case Hence, many guidelines do not apply which are most sensitive to improvestudy of changes in the job tasks of specifically to low back pain. With ments. British Rail yard supervisors under the certain exceptions, most guidelines do routine operation of a computerised not take into account individual factors, 19.2.39 (105751) system of freight information control although epidemiological studies Tang, T.K. in order to evaluate critically the claim indicate that several factors such as age, Manual materials handling : A survey of that computer technology is strength, fitness, psychosocial factors, risks, and the selection and training of contributing to the demise of first-line workers in Singapore. Ergonomics, 1987, and history of back pain should be considered. However, because of the supervisors. 30 (2), 299-304. qualitative character of most current A survey of 83 plants employing epidemiological studies, results cannot safety officers indicated that in 66% of be readily implemented into quantitathem, workers were involved in manual tive ergonomics guidelines. The above lifting. The average number of manual 19.2.37 (105737) general results are discussed with lifting tasks was three per plant. Only Barak, D., and Djerassi, L. examples. It is concluded that there is Musculoskeletal injuries among bus about 6% of the total workforce were a great need for ergonomics guidelines drivers due to motor vehicle accidents involved in manual lifting. Using the that apply specifically to low back pain, and hazardous environmental NIOSH Lifting Guidelines, the survey and for quantitative epidemiological conditions. Ergonomics, 1987, 30(2), revealed that 30% of the lifting tasks data on which these guidelines may be 335-342. were above the Maximum Permissible based.
Health and safety
Applied Ergonomics
June 1988
161