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Assessing time-management skills in terms of age, gender, and anxiety levels: A study on nursing and midwifery students in Turkey
Nurse Education in Practice 12 (2012) 284e288
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Nurse Education in Practice journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/nepr
Assessing time-management skills in terms of age, gender, and anxiety levels: A study on nursing and midwifery students in Turkey Hatice Kaya a, *, Nurten Kaya a,1, Aylin Öztürk Pallos¸ a, 2, Leyla Küçük b, 3 a b
Istanbul University, Nursing Faculty, Department of Fundamentals of Nursing, Abide-i Hurriyet Cad, 34381 Istanbul, Turkey Istanbul University, Nursing Faculty, Department of Psychiatric Nursing, Abide-i Hurriyet Cad, 34381, Istanbul, Turkey
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Accepted 6 June 2012
Introduction: The success of university students depends on their ability to utilize time properly and completely. Students are required to learn to manage time so that they are able to apply the same degree of efficiency in the profession they choose after completing their education. Methods: This descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted to determine nursing and midwifery students’ time management skills in terms of their age, gender, and anxiety levels. The study population consisted of 1002 students, of which 584 students were selected for sampling. A Student Information Form, Time Management Inventory, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were used to collect data. Results: Among the students, 89.9% were female, and the average age was 20.58 years (SD ¼ 2.10). The average score of the Time Management Inventory was 87.79 (SD ¼ 11.78), the mean score of the State Anxiety Inventory was 40.11 (SD ¼ 10.84), and that of the Trait Anxiety Inventory was 43.95 (SD ¼ 7.98). Conclusions: Nursing and midwifery students’ time management skills are at mid-level point. Female students were able to manage time better than male students and the time management skills of the students decreased as the anxiety level increased. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Anxiety Midwifery Nursing student Time management
Introduction Time management refers to planning the time available in line with personal goals and lifestyles, while keeping individual preferences, likes, and dislikes in mind. The criterion for efficient time management lies not only in achieving set goals, but also in attaining them in the minimum time possible (Özgen, 2000; lan, 2006; Eldelekliog lu, 2008). The Yes¸ilyaprak, 2003; Karaog important point is how to use the available time most efficiently lan, 2006). Those who are able to use their and effectively (Karaog time efficiently are individuals who do not focus on a single subject within the given time, but those who distribute their time among various activities, such as work, private life, and individual fields of interest (Sayan, 2005). By prioritizing activities, one can use time appropriately. Planning includes the two most important steps
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 212 4400000x27018; fax: þ90 212 224 49 90. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H. Kaya), [email protected] (N. Kaya), [email protected] (A.Ö. Pallos¸), [email protected] (L. Küçük). 1 Tel.: þ90 212 4400000x27066; fax: þ90 212 224 49 90. 2 Tel.: þ90 212 4400000x27086; fax: þ90 212 224 49 90. 3 Tel.: þ90 212 4400000x27074; fax: þ90 212 224 49 90. 1471-5953/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2012.06.002
involved in the organization of human life: how to arrive from the present point to the target point and how to achieve a goal within the shortest time (Özgen, 2000; Yes¸ilyaprak, 2003; Waterworth, lu, 2008). 2003; Eldelekliog Inadequate time planning reduces the scope of academic achievement, causes insufficient time allocation for other personal and social activities, decreases individual satisfaction, increases stress levels, and leads to an inability to acquire positive personality traits, such as decision making, leadership, and critical thinking (Campbell and Svenson, 1992; Simpson and Courtney, 2002; Granlan, 2006). According to Smith Moravec and Hughes, 2005; Karaog (1998), the way individuals handle time determines whether they lu and will become psychologically tense or depressed. Sabuncuog Tüz (1998) suggest that those who cannot organize their time well inevitably experience stress, and the majority of those who complain about having little amounts of time do not know how to use and manage their time. University students’ success depends on their ability to utilize time properly and most efficiently. Thus, students are required to learn how to manage their time so that they are able to apply the same degree of efficiency in the profession they choose after completing their education. This is an extremely important skill that nursing students must acquire during their academic life so that they can enhance their competence and quality of service.
H. Kaya et al. / Nurse Education in Practice 12 (2012) 284e288
Indeed, a positive correlation has been found among issues related to time management and academic achievement (Britton and lu and Tüz, 1998; Alay, 2000; Alay and Tesser, 1991; Sabuncuog lan, Koçak, 2002, 2003; Sayan, 2005; Erdem et al., 2005; Karaog 2006; Demirtas¸ and Özer, 2007; Bas¸ak et al., 2008). Based on this fact, the present study was conducted with a focus on Turkish nursing and midwifery students to understand the correlation between time management skills and factors, such as age, gender, and anxiety levels and thereby make further recommendations on time management. Methods Purpose and type of study This descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted with Turkish nursing and midwifery students to determine how factors such as age, gender, and anxiety levels influence the ability to manage time. Research questions What are students’ time management skills? What is the state-trait anxiety level of students? What is the correlation between students’ age, gender, and anxiety levels and the ability to manage time? Study subjects and sample selection The research study involved 1002 students from the Istanbul University Florence Nightingale School of Nursing, Istanbul University Bakırkoy Health Sciences School of Nursing, and Trakya University Health Sciences School of Midwifery in Turkey during the 2009e10 academic year. A total of 584 students were selected for sampling. A stratified sampling method was used, and the sample was stratified according to the three schools included in the study population. Male students accounted for 15% of the study population; the number of male students included in sample group was representative of the study population. Table 1 shows the total number of students in each school and the number of students used for sampling. Data collection tools The data were collected using a Student Information Form, Time Management Inventory (TMI), and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Student information form The Student Information Form was prepared as an instrument to collect relevant information on intervening variables, including the students’ age, gender, and the school they were attending (Bas¸ak lu, 2008). et al., 2008; Eldelekliog
Table 1 Universe of the study and sample distribution. Universe, N
School of Nursing Health Sciences School of Nursing Health Sciences School of Midwifery Total
580 212 210 1.002
285
Time management inventory (TMI) The Time Management Inventory was developed by Britton and Tesser (1991). It was developed to determine the time management skills of university students. Validity and reliability studies for the TMI in Turkish society were performed by Alay and Koçak (2002). They adapted the inventory to the variables existing in Turkish society and conducted a principal components analysis and factor analysis. Three subscales of different sizes as well as twenty-seven items were determined. These sub-dimensions were grouped under the following headings: ‘time planning’, ‘time attitudes’, and ‘time spent’. The time planning subscale in the TMI represents long-term and short-term (daily or weekly) planning. There are sixteen questions, and one of them is calculated inversely. The students who scored high on this subscale spend their time better than other students, which indicate that they have control over how their time is spent. The time attitudes subscale defined how an individual managed their time. There were seven questions, four of which were calculated directly and three (items 2, 6, and 7) of which were calculated indirectly. According to the scores of this subscale, it was evident that students who had high scores could manage their time well by adapting their needs to the time available. The time spent subscales portrayed how students spend their time in a negative way. The activities consisted of four questions, and ‘time spenders’ referred to everything that distracted the students. The students who scored high on this subscale did not waste their time, while those who scored low seemed to spend their time in negative ways. The sum of the scores obtained from these three sections gave the TMI. The minimum possible TMI score was 27, and the lu, 2008). maximum score was 135 (Bas¸ak et al., 2008; Eldelekliog State-trait anxiety inventory (STAI FORM TX-I, STAI FORM TX-II) This scale, developed by Spielberger, was implemented by Öner and Le Compte et al. for the Turkish population in 1995. This scale measures the anxiety level of individuals aged 14 and above. The STAI consists of two subscales: State and Trait Anxiety. The State-Anxiety scale consisted of twenty statements that evaluated how the respondent felt at that moment. The TraitAnxiety scale consisted of twenty statements that determined how the respondent felt ‘in general’. When responding to the StateAnxiety scale, the subjects chose the number that best described the intensity of their feelings: (A) not at all, (B) somewhat, (C) moderately, or (D) very much so. When responding to the TraitAnxiety scale, subjects rated the frequency of their feelings based on the following four-point scale: (A) almost never, (B) sometimes, (C) often and (D) almost always. Each STAI item was given a weighted score of 1e4. Points between 0 and 19 derived from both subscales indicated no anxiety points between 20 and 39 and indicated low-level of anxiety; points between 40 and 59 indicated mid-level anxiety; and points between 60 and 79 indicated severe anxiety levels (Öner and Le Compte, 1998). In the studies conducted in Turkey, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the State Anxiety Scale was 0.83e0.92, and for the Trait Anxiety Scale, it was between 0.86 and 0.92. However, in this study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the State Anxiety Scale was 0.92, while that of the Trait Anxiety Scale was 0.85. Ethics
Sample n
%
321 139 124 584
55.34 65.57 59.05 58.28
Prior to the study; written permission was obtained from Istanbul University Florence Nightingale School of Nursing, Istanbul University Bakırkoy Health Sciences School of Nursing, and Trakya University Health Sciences School of Midwifery. The researchers informed the students about the purpose and scope of the study,
286
H. Kaya et al. / Nurse Education in Practice 12 (2012) 284e288
both verbally and in written form, to assure the protection of human rights. Students were free to refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at any time. The data obtained from the students were used only for study purposes. Students were informed that all findings would be reported as group results and would be submitted for publication.
Statistical analyses were conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences program (SPSS Version 10.0 for Windows). Ordinal variables were rated for the mean and standard deviation, minimum, maximum and median values; the nominal variables were rated for frequency and percentage. Spearman’s correlation technique was used to determine the relationship between the students’ age and TMI, STAI Form TX-I, and STAI Form TX-II mean scores. To analyze the normality of the data obtained from the group, KolmogoroveSmirnov goodness-of-fit-tests were applied, and it was determined that some distributions were not normal. Therefore, to compare the means of two groups, the ManneWhitney U method was used, while the KruskaleWallis method was implemented for more than two groups. Results Nursing and midwifery students who composed the samples consisted primarily of females (n ¼ 525, 89.9%). It was determined that 56.5% (n ¼ 330) of them were between 20 and 22 years old and that the mean age was 20.58 years (SD ¼ 2.10, min ¼ 17, max ¼ 40). Student time management skills The students’ Time Management Inventory mean score was 87.79 11.78, the Time Planning subscale mean score was 50.52 9.61, the Time Attitude subscale mean score was 23.09 3.34 and the Time Spending subscale mean score was 14.17 2.64 (Table 2). Student state and trait anxiety levels The first set of figures in Fig. 1 refers to state anxiety levels, which are as follows: 50.5% of the students (n ¼ 295) had mild state anxiety, 45.0% (n ¼ 263) had mid-level state anxiety, and 4.5% (n ¼ 26) had severe state anxiety. The second set of figures in Fig. 1 refers to trait anxiety levels, which are as follows: 28.8% of the students (n ¼ 168) had mild trait anxiety, 68.3% (n ¼ 399) had midlevel trait anxiety and 2.9% (n ¼ 17) had severe trait anxiety. Additionally, the students’ state anxiety mean score was 40.11 (SD ¼ 10.84, Min ¼ 20, Max ¼ 75), and the trait anxiety mean score was 43.95 (SD ¼ 7.98, Min ¼ 23, Max ¼ 66).
Table 2 Time management skills for students (N ¼ 584).
Time planning scoresa Time attitude scoresb Time spender scoresc Total time management skill scoresd a
c d
Scores Scores Scores Scores
60 50
Percent
Analysis
b
70
ranges ranges ranges ranges
16e80. 7e35. 4e20. 27e135.
Median
Minimume maximum
Mean SD
51.00 23.00 15.00 88.00
24e76 10e35 4e20 49e125
50.52 23.09 14.17 87.79
9.61 3.34 2.64 11.78
40 State Anxiety Trait Anxiety
30 20 10 0 Zero Level
Mild Level
Mid-Level
Severe Level
Fig. 1. State and trait anxiety scores of students (N ¼ 584).
Relationship between students’ gender characteristics, age, anxiety levels, and time management skills When factors affecting the students’ time management skills were examined, it was found that gender significantly influenced the overall TMI scores of the students, particularly the time attitude and time spent scores. The female students’ average subscale score was higher than that of the male students (p < 0.05) (Table 3). The age and age group of students did not affect the average TMI score. Moreover, there was no statistically significant difference between TMI scores by different ages (p > 0.05) (Tables 4 and 5). The results also showed a statistically significant negative correlation between the students’ overall and subscale TMI scores and the state anxiety and trait anxiety scores (Table 6). Based on these results, it can be concluded that time management skills improved as students’ anxiety levels decreased. Discussion Student time management skills It is vitally important for students to realize the importance of the concept of time and acquiring time management skills. Moreover, it is of great significance that adolescents determine their priorities, decide what to do in the future, make short- and longterm plans, develop healthily and achieve their goals lu, 2008). (Eldelekliog Table 3 The relationship between students’ gender characteristics and anxiety states and time management skill scores of students (N ¼ 584). Gender
Median
Mean SD
Mean rank
Za
p
Time planning scores
Female Male
51.00 50.00
50.61 9.45 49.78 11.00
294.48 274.92
0.85
0.40
Time attitude scores
Female Male
23.00 22.00
23.19 3.39 22.20 2.74
298.32 240.67
2.50
0.01
Time spender scores
Female Male
15.00 13.00
14.35 2.54 12.59 2.99
302.62 202.49
4.36
0.00
Total time management skill scores
Female Male
88.00 85.00
88.15 11.66 84.58 12.51
298.13 242.36
2.41
0.02
State anxiety
Female Male
39.00 45.00
39.65 10.68 44.19 11.47
285.52 354.64
2.99
0.00
Trait anxiety
Female Male
44.00 46.00
43.91 8.05 44.34 7.35
291.10 305.00
0.60
0.55
a
ManneWhitney U.
H. Kaya et al. / Nurse Education in Practice 12 (2012) 284e288 Table 4 The relationship between students’ age groups and anxiety states and time management skill scores of students (N ¼ 584). Mean SD
(x2)a
Median
Time planning scores
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
51.00 50.00 52.00
50.96 9.32 50.11 9.39 51.28 11.05
294.90 286.84 310.05
1.31
Time attitude scores
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
23.00 23.00 23.00
23.23 3.18 22.97 3.15 23.29 4.26
302.53 284.65 303.05
1.66
0.44
Time spender scores
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
15.00 14.00 15.00
14.48 2.53 14.00 2.63 14.22 2.86
310.47 281.57 298.92
3.51
0.17
Total time management skill scores
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
88.00 87.00 91.00
88.67 11.55 87.08 11.34 88.78 13.77
299.94 282.59 316.56
3.16
0.21
State anxiety
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
38.00 40.00 41.00
38.74 10.56 40.51 10.56 41.34 12.26
270.63 299.76 308.69
4.25
0.12
Trait anxiety
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
44.00 44.00 44.00
43.81 8.35 44.11 7.44 43.63 9.25
289.87 296.87 280.56
0.68
0.71
Students need to follow their courses, prepare for exams systemically, attend extra-curricular activities and make good use of time for their remaining activities (Erdem et al., 2005). According to research findings, the total TMI scores of students varied between 49 and 125, and the average score was 87.79 (SD ¼ 11.78). Similar to our study findings, the study conducted by Bas¸ak et al. (2008) showed that the average TMI score for nursing school students was 89.41 (SD ¼ 12.71); Erdul (2005) found an average TMI score for university students of 85.14 (SD ¼ 11.46) in his study. Lafçı and Öztunç (2009) determined that the average TMI score of nursing school students was 74.10 (SD ¼ 12.40). The results of our study revealed that because nursing and midwifery students had not begun their professional life, they had not gained sufficient experience in time management. It was observed that there is room for improvement in terms of time management skills. Relationship between students’ gender characteristics, age, anxiety levels, and time management skills From the data acquired, it was ascertained that gender is one of the factors that influences students’ time management skills; the average scores of female students were higher than those of male students (p < 0.05). Similar to our research findings, Erdul (2005) determined that female students were more successful
Table 5 The relationship between students’ age (year) and anxiety states and time management skill scores of students (N ¼ 584). Age (year) ra
p
0.003 0.014 0.049 0.004 0.079 0.024
0.945 0.729 0.240 0.917 0.056 0.560
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). a Nonparametric correlations Spearman’s rho.
State anxiety
Trait anxiety
Time planning scores
r p
0.094* 0.024
0.182** 0.000
Time attitude scores
r p
0.295** 0.000
0.411** 0.000
Time spender scores
r p
0.202** 0.000
0.189** 0.000
Total time management skill scores
r p
0.203** 0.000
0.307** 0.000
0.52
Kruskal Wallis Test.
Time planning scores Time attitude scores Time spender scores Total time management skill scores State anxiety Trait anxiety
Table 6 Correlation between students’ anxiety states and time management skill scores (N ¼ 584).
p
Age groups
a
Mean rank
287
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
at time management than male students. In another study conducted by Demirtas¸ and Özer (2007) to determine the correlation between teacher candidates’ time management skills and their academic achievement with 891 teacher candidates attending fourth grade, the authors found that female students often managed their time better than males. Similarly, in studies conducted by Trueman and Hartley (1996), Misra and McKean lu (2008), it was (2000), Alay and Koçak (2002) and Eldelekliog shown that the average TMI score of female students was higher than that of male students and that the difference was significant. These results show that female students generally manage their time better than male students. In this case, considering the fact that the number of male students is increasing day by day, a plan must be formulated to enhance male students’ time management skills. It was demonstrated that the time attitude subscale scores of female students were significantly higher than those of the male lu (2008) with high students. Likewise, in the studies by Eldelekliog school students and by Erdul (2005) and Andıç (2009) with university students, it was found that female students’ average time attitude subscale points were higher than those of male students and that the difference was statistically significant. These results show that female students generally manage their time better than male students and that they are able to incorporate all of the tasks that they would have thought would require a long time period within a the given, shorter time frame. Compared to male students, female students also showed a significant difference in the time spent subscales. Similarly, in the lu (2008) and Andıç studies conducted by Erdul (2005), Eldelekliog (2009), female students showed higher mean scores in terms of mean time spenders. The students who received high scores on this subscale did not waste their time, while students with low scores indicated that they spent their time in a negative way. These results suggest that female students used time more effectively and did not waste their time compared to male students. Similar to Andıç’s (2009) findings, our study also indicated that there was no significant difference between the genders for the time planning subscales. Because the study was conducted with university students, who on one hand have the responsibility to complete their courses and on the other hand have to learn to live alone, particularly if they study in another city away from their parents, time planning was very important. However, in the present study, gender differences did not play a major role. In lu contrast, Erdul (2005), Demirtas¸ and Özer (2007), and Eldelekliog (2008) found positive differences favoring female students in terms of time management. It is inferred that the differences between these findings and those of the present study were due to the use of different sample groups for the studies.
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H. Kaya et al. / Nurse Education in Practice 12 (2012) 284e288
According to this study, the age group of students and the average age of students did not affect average time management scores (p > 0.05). Parallel to this study, the findings obtained from lu (2008) on high school another study conducted by Eldelekliog students revealed that the age factor was not related to time management skills. In their study with nursing students, Bas¸ak et al. (2008) found that students in the 21e23 age group managed their time better compared than those between 17 and 20 years of age. Trueman and Hartley (1996) divided students in a psychology department into three age groups (below 21, between 21 and 23, and above 25 years) and determined that students above 25 had better time management skills. In contrast to Bas¸ak et al.’s study (2008), Erdem et al. (2005), in their study with students from the School of Health Services, stated that students in the 20 and below age group were more successful in managing their time than students who were 21 and above. This difference in findings can be attributed to different sample groups. Understanding the significance of time and acquiring time management skills is very important for students. Moreover, it is essential that adolescents learn to prioritize and decide what they would like to do in the future, make short-term and long-term plans for healthy well-rounded development, and achieve their lu, 2008). Adolescents are often not aware of goals (Eldelekliog inadvisable time use, high anxiety, and the fearful thought of failure to accomplish certain tasks. As a result, their lack of self-confidence lu, 2008). influences time management negatively (Eldelekliog When nursing and midwifery students’ time management, time attitude, and time spent subscale scores were compared to their state and trait anxiety scores, it was found that these variables were significantly inversely related (p < 0.05). Similarly, it was found in the study conducted by Erdul (2005) with university students that there is a significant negative correlation between time management scores and continuous anxiety levels. Moreover, it showed that the students’ time management abilities increased as the level of continuous anxiety decreased. Lafçı and Öztunç (2009) studies showed that students who could not use time efficiently in school complained about time limitations and suffered from high anxiety. Conclusion We have identified that nursing and midwifery students have mid-level time management skills. Female students were able to manage their time better than male students, and students’ time management skills decreased as levels of anxiety increased. It is necessary to provide training and consultancy regarding time management skills to nursing and midwifery students whom we determined as having medium time management skills. These skills will allow them to learn to make efficient use of their time in various working environments where they can have different roles and responsibilities during their studies or after graduation. Considering the fact that the number of male nursing students is increasing day by day, it is vital to motivate these students to manage their time efficiently and determine their goals and priorities. Programs aimed at reducing anxiety and enhancing time management skills should be prepared as part of universities’ guidance services. However, it is important to note that time management is not only considered a benefit because it provides more efficient working hours, but also because individuals need various activities and social relationships to improve both socially and culturally. Managing time efficiently means that the individual can control his life. All of the points mentioned are of great importance for the individual to develop healthily and psychologically as well as to be successful.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank Hatice Gegin, Müge Evren, Hazal Muslu, Hanım Koyun, and the students at Istanbul University, Nursing Faculty for collecting data as well as all of the participants who participated in this study.
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Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Nurse Education in Practice journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/nepr
Assessing time-management skills in terms of age, gender, and anxiety levels: A study on nursing and midwifery students in Turkey Hatice Kaya a, *, Nurten Kaya a,1, Aylin Öztürk Pallos¸ a, 2, Leyla Küçük b, 3 a b
Istanbul University, Nursing Faculty, Department of Fundamentals of Nursing, Abide-i Hurriyet Cad, 34381 Istanbul, Turkey Istanbul University, Nursing Faculty, Department of Psychiatric Nursing, Abide-i Hurriyet Cad, 34381, Istanbul, Turkey
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Accepted 6 June 2012
Introduction: The success of university students depends on their ability to utilize time properly and completely. Students are required to learn to manage time so that they are able to apply the same degree of efficiency in the profession they choose after completing their education. Methods: This descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted to determine nursing and midwifery students’ time management skills in terms of their age, gender, and anxiety levels. The study population consisted of 1002 students, of which 584 students were selected for sampling. A Student Information Form, Time Management Inventory, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were used to collect data. Results: Among the students, 89.9% were female, and the average age was 20.58 years (SD ¼ 2.10). The average score of the Time Management Inventory was 87.79 (SD ¼ 11.78), the mean score of the State Anxiety Inventory was 40.11 (SD ¼ 10.84), and that of the Trait Anxiety Inventory was 43.95 (SD ¼ 7.98). Conclusions: Nursing and midwifery students’ time management skills are at mid-level point. Female students were able to manage time better than male students and the time management skills of the students decreased as the anxiety level increased. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Anxiety Midwifery Nursing student Time management
Introduction Time management refers to planning the time available in line with personal goals and lifestyles, while keeping individual preferences, likes, and dislikes in mind. The criterion for efficient time management lies not only in achieving set goals, but also in attaining them in the minimum time possible (Özgen, 2000; lan, 2006; Eldelekliog lu, 2008). The Yes¸ilyaprak, 2003; Karaog important point is how to use the available time most efficiently lan, 2006). Those who are able to use their and effectively (Karaog time efficiently are individuals who do not focus on a single subject within the given time, but those who distribute their time among various activities, such as work, private life, and individual fields of interest (Sayan, 2005). By prioritizing activities, one can use time appropriately. Planning includes the two most important steps
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 212 4400000x27018; fax: þ90 212 224 49 90. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H. Kaya), [email protected] (N. Kaya), [email protected] (A.Ö. Pallos¸), [email protected] (L. Küçük). 1 Tel.: þ90 212 4400000x27066; fax: þ90 212 224 49 90. 2 Tel.: þ90 212 4400000x27086; fax: þ90 212 224 49 90. 3 Tel.: þ90 212 4400000x27074; fax: þ90 212 224 49 90. 1471-5953/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2012.06.002
involved in the organization of human life: how to arrive from the present point to the target point and how to achieve a goal within the shortest time (Özgen, 2000; Yes¸ilyaprak, 2003; Waterworth, lu, 2008). 2003; Eldelekliog Inadequate time planning reduces the scope of academic achievement, causes insufficient time allocation for other personal and social activities, decreases individual satisfaction, increases stress levels, and leads to an inability to acquire positive personality traits, such as decision making, leadership, and critical thinking (Campbell and Svenson, 1992; Simpson and Courtney, 2002; Granlan, 2006). According to Smith Moravec and Hughes, 2005; Karaog (1998), the way individuals handle time determines whether they lu and will become psychologically tense or depressed. Sabuncuog Tüz (1998) suggest that those who cannot organize their time well inevitably experience stress, and the majority of those who complain about having little amounts of time do not know how to use and manage their time. University students’ success depends on their ability to utilize time properly and most efficiently. Thus, students are required to learn how to manage their time so that they are able to apply the same degree of efficiency in the profession they choose after completing their education. This is an extremely important skill that nursing students must acquire during their academic life so that they can enhance their competence and quality of service.
H. Kaya et al. / Nurse Education in Practice 12 (2012) 284e288
Indeed, a positive correlation has been found among issues related to time management and academic achievement (Britton and lu and Tüz, 1998; Alay, 2000; Alay and Tesser, 1991; Sabuncuog lan, Koçak, 2002, 2003; Sayan, 2005; Erdem et al., 2005; Karaog 2006; Demirtas¸ and Özer, 2007; Bas¸ak et al., 2008). Based on this fact, the present study was conducted with a focus on Turkish nursing and midwifery students to understand the correlation between time management skills and factors, such as age, gender, and anxiety levels and thereby make further recommendations on time management. Methods Purpose and type of study This descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted with Turkish nursing and midwifery students to determine how factors such as age, gender, and anxiety levels influence the ability to manage time. Research questions What are students’ time management skills? What is the state-trait anxiety level of students? What is the correlation between students’ age, gender, and anxiety levels and the ability to manage time? Study subjects and sample selection The research study involved 1002 students from the Istanbul University Florence Nightingale School of Nursing, Istanbul University Bakırkoy Health Sciences School of Nursing, and Trakya University Health Sciences School of Midwifery in Turkey during the 2009e10 academic year. A total of 584 students were selected for sampling. A stratified sampling method was used, and the sample was stratified according to the three schools included in the study population. Male students accounted for 15% of the study population; the number of male students included in sample group was representative of the study population. Table 1 shows the total number of students in each school and the number of students used for sampling. Data collection tools The data were collected using a Student Information Form, Time Management Inventory (TMI), and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Student information form The Student Information Form was prepared as an instrument to collect relevant information on intervening variables, including the students’ age, gender, and the school they were attending (Bas¸ak lu, 2008). et al., 2008; Eldelekliog
Table 1 Universe of the study and sample distribution. Universe, N
School of Nursing Health Sciences School of Nursing Health Sciences School of Midwifery Total
580 212 210 1.002
285
Time management inventory (TMI) The Time Management Inventory was developed by Britton and Tesser (1991). It was developed to determine the time management skills of university students. Validity and reliability studies for the TMI in Turkish society were performed by Alay and Koçak (2002). They adapted the inventory to the variables existing in Turkish society and conducted a principal components analysis and factor analysis. Three subscales of different sizes as well as twenty-seven items were determined. These sub-dimensions were grouped under the following headings: ‘time planning’, ‘time attitudes’, and ‘time spent’. The time planning subscale in the TMI represents long-term and short-term (daily or weekly) planning. There are sixteen questions, and one of them is calculated inversely. The students who scored high on this subscale spend their time better than other students, which indicate that they have control over how their time is spent. The time attitudes subscale defined how an individual managed their time. There were seven questions, four of which were calculated directly and three (items 2, 6, and 7) of which were calculated indirectly. According to the scores of this subscale, it was evident that students who had high scores could manage their time well by adapting their needs to the time available. The time spent subscales portrayed how students spend their time in a negative way. The activities consisted of four questions, and ‘time spenders’ referred to everything that distracted the students. The students who scored high on this subscale did not waste their time, while those who scored low seemed to spend their time in negative ways. The sum of the scores obtained from these three sections gave the TMI. The minimum possible TMI score was 27, and the lu, 2008). maximum score was 135 (Bas¸ak et al., 2008; Eldelekliog State-trait anxiety inventory (STAI FORM TX-I, STAI FORM TX-II) This scale, developed by Spielberger, was implemented by Öner and Le Compte et al. for the Turkish population in 1995. This scale measures the anxiety level of individuals aged 14 and above. The STAI consists of two subscales: State and Trait Anxiety. The State-Anxiety scale consisted of twenty statements that evaluated how the respondent felt at that moment. The TraitAnxiety scale consisted of twenty statements that determined how the respondent felt ‘in general’. When responding to the StateAnxiety scale, the subjects chose the number that best described the intensity of their feelings: (A) not at all, (B) somewhat, (C) moderately, or (D) very much so. When responding to the TraitAnxiety scale, subjects rated the frequency of their feelings based on the following four-point scale: (A) almost never, (B) sometimes, (C) often and (D) almost always. Each STAI item was given a weighted score of 1e4. Points between 0 and 19 derived from both subscales indicated no anxiety points between 20 and 39 and indicated low-level of anxiety; points between 40 and 59 indicated mid-level anxiety; and points between 60 and 79 indicated severe anxiety levels (Öner and Le Compte, 1998). In the studies conducted in Turkey, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the State Anxiety Scale was 0.83e0.92, and for the Trait Anxiety Scale, it was between 0.86 and 0.92. However, in this study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the State Anxiety Scale was 0.92, while that of the Trait Anxiety Scale was 0.85. Ethics
Sample n
%
321 139 124 584
55.34 65.57 59.05 58.28
Prior to the study; written permission was obtained from Istanbul University Florence Nightingale School of Nursing, Istanbul University Bakırkoy Health Sciences School of Nursing, and Trakya University Health Sciences School of Midwifery. The researchers informed the students about the purpose and scope of the study,
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H. Kaya et al. / Nurse Education in Practice 12 (2012) 284e288
both verbally and in written form, to assure the protection of human rights. Students were free to refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at any time. The data obtained from the students were used only for study purposes. Students were informed that all findings would be reported as group results and would be submitted for publication.
Statistical analyses were conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences program (SPSS Version 10.0 for Windows). Ordinal variables were rated for the mean and standard deviation, minimum, maximum and median values; the nominal variables were rated for frequency and percentage. Spearman’s correlation technique was used to determine the relationship between the students’ age and TMI, STAI Form TX-I, and STAI Form TX-II mean scores. To analyze the normality of the data obtained from the group, KolmogoroveSmirnov goodness-of-fit-tests were applied, and it was determined that some distributions were not normal. Therefore, to compare the means of two groups, the ManneWhitney U method was used, while the KruskaleWallis method was implemented for more than two groups. Results Nursing and midwifery students who composed the samples consisted primarily of females (n ¼ 525, 89.9%). It was determined that 56.5% (n ¼ 330) of them were between 20 and 22 years old and that the mean age was 20.58 years (SD ¼ 2.10, min ¼ 17, max ¼ 40). Student time management skills The students’ Time Management Inventory mean score was 87.79 11.78, the Time Planning subscale mean score was 50.52 9.61, the Time Attitude subscale mean score was 23.09 3.34 and the Time Spending subscale mean score was 14.17 2.64 (Table 2). Student state and trait anxiety levels The first set of figures in Fig. 1 refers to state anxiety levels, which are as follows: 50.5% of the students (n ¼ 295) had mild state anxiety, 45.0% (n ¼ 263) had mid-level state anxiety, and 4.5% (n ¼ 26) had severe state anxiety. The second set of figures in Fig. 1 refers to trait anxiety levels, which are as follows: 28.8% of the students (n ¼ 168) had mild trait anxiety, 68.3% (n ¼ 399) had midlevel trait anxiety and 2.9% (n ¼ 17) had severe trait anxiety. Additionally, the students’ state anxiety mean score was 40.11 (SD ¼ 10.84, Min ¼ 20, Max ¼ 75), and the trait anxiety mean score was 43.95 (SD ¼ 7.98, Min ¼ 23, Max ¼ 66).
Table 2 Time management skills for students (N ¼ 584).
Time planning scoresa Time attitude scoresb Time spender scoresc Total time management skill scoresd a
c d
Scores Scores Scores Scores
60 50
Percent
Analysis
b
70
ranges ranges ranges ranges
16e80. 7e35. 4e20. 27e135.
Median
Minimume maximum
Mean SD
51.00 23.00 15.00 88.00
24e76 10e35 4e20 49e125
50.52 23.09 14.17 87.79
9.61 3.34 2.64 11.78
40 State Anxiety Trait Anxiety
30 20 10 0 Zero Level
Mild Level
Mid-Level
Severe Level
Fig. 1. State and trait anxiety scores of students (N ¼ 584).
Relationship between students’ gender characteristics, age, anxiety levels, and time management skills When factors affecting the students’ time management skills were examined, it was found that gender significantly influenced the overall TMI scores of the students, particularly the time attitude and time spent scores. The female students’ average subscale score was higher than that of the male students (p < 0.05) (Table 3). The age and age group of students did not affect the average TMI score. Moreover, there was no statistically significant difference between TMI scores by different ages (p > 0.05) (Tables 4 and 5). The results also showed a statistically significant negative correlation between the students’ overall and subscale TMI scores and the state anxiety and trait anxiety scores (Table 6). Based on these results, it can be concluded that time management skills improved as students’ anxiety levels decreased. Discussion Student time management skills It is vitally important for students to realize the importance of the concept of time and acquiring time management skills. Moreover, it is of great significance that adolescents determine their priorities, decide what to do in the future, make short- and longterm plans, develop healthily and achieve their goals lu, 2008). (Eldelekliog Table 3 The relationship between students’ gender characteristics and anxiety states and time management skill scores of students (N ¼ 584). Gender
Median
Mean SD
Mean rank
Za
p
Time planning scores
Female Male
51.00 50.00
50.61 9.45 49.78 11.00
294.48 274.92
0.85
0.40
Time attitude scores
Female Male
23.00 22.00
23.19 3.39 22.20 2.74
298.32 240.67
2.50
0.01
Time spender scores
Female Male
15.00 13.00
14.35 2.54 12.59 2.99
302.62 202.49
4.36
0.00
Total time management skill scores
Female Male
88.00 85.00
88.15 11.66 84.58 12.51
298.13 242.36
2.41
0.02
State anxiety
Female Male
39.00 45.00
39.65 10.68 44.19 11.47
285.52 354.64
2.99
0.00
Trait anxiety
Female Male
44.00 46.00
43.91 8.05 44.34 7.35
291.10 305.00
0.60
0.55
a
ManneWhitney U.
H. Kaya et al. / Nurse Education in Practice 12 (2012) 284e288 Table 4 The relationship between students’ age groups and anxiety states and time management skill scores of students (N ¼ 584). Mean SD
(x2)a
Median
Time planning scores
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
51.00 50.00 52.00
50.96 9.32 50.11 9.39 51.28 11.05
294.90 286.84 310.05
1.31
Time attitude scores
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
23.00 23.00 23.00
23.23 3.18 22.97 3.15 23.29 4.26
302.53 284.65 303.05
1.66
0.44
Time spender scores
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
15.00 14.00 15.00
14.48 2.53 14.00 2.63 14.22 2.86
310.47 281.57 298.92
3.51
0.17
Total time management skill scores
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
88.00 87.00 91.00
88.67 11.55 87.08 11.34 88.78 13.77
299.94 282.59 316.56
3.16
0.21
State anxiety
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
38.00 40.00 41.00
38.74 10.56 40.51 10.56 41.34 12.26
270.63 299.76 308.69
4.25
0.12
Trait anxiety
17e19 20e22 23 ve [
44.00 44.00 44.00
43.81 8.35 44.11 7.44 43.63 9.25
289.87 296.87 280.56
0.68
0.71
Students need to follow their courses, prepare for exams systemically, attend extra-curricular activities and make good use of time for their remaining activities (Erdem et al., 2005). According to research findings, the total TMI scores of students varied between 49 and 125, and the average score was 87.79 (SD ¼ 11.78). Similar to our study findings, the study conducted by Bas¸ak et al. (2008) showed that the average TMI score for nursing school students was 89.41 (SD ¼ 12.71); Erdul (2005) found an average TMI score for university students of 85.14 (SD ¼ 11.46) in his study. Lafçı and Öztunç (2009) determined that the average TMI score of nursing school students was 74.10 (SD ¼ 12.40). The results of our study revealed that because nursing and midwifery students had not begun their professional life, they had not gained sufficient experience in time management. It was observed that there is room for improvement in terms of time management skills. Relationship between students’ gender characteristics, age, anxiety levels, and time management skills From the data acquired, it was ascertained that gender is one of the factors that influences students’ time management skills; the average scores of female students were higher than those of male students (p < 0.05). Similar to our research findings, Erdul (2005) determined that female students were more successful
Table 5 The relationship between students’ age (year) and anxiety states and time management skill scores of students (N ¼ 584). Age (year) ra
p
0.003 0.014 0.049 0.004 0.079 0.024
0.945 0.729 0.240 0.917 0.056 0.560
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). a Nonparametric correlations Spearman’s rho.
State anxiety
Trait anxiety
Time planning scores
r p
0.094* 0.024
0.182** 0.000
Time attitude scores
r p
0.295** 0.000
0.411** 0.000
Time spender scores
r p
0.202** 0.000
0.189** 0.000
Total time management skill scores
r p
0.203** 0.000
0.307** 0.000
0.52
Kruskal Wallis Test.
Time planning scores Time attitude scores Time spender scores Total time management skill scores State anxiety Trait anxiety
Table 6 Correlation between students’ anxiety states and time management skill scores (N ¼ 584).
p
Age groups
a
Mean rank
287
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
at time management than male students. In another study conducted by Demirtas¸ and Özer (2007) to determine the correlation between teacher candidates’ time management skills and their academic achievement with 891 teacher candidates attending fourth grade, the authors found that female students often managed their time better than males. Similarly, in studies conducted by Trueman and Hartley (1996), Misra and McKean lu (2008), it was (2000), Alay and Koçak (2002) and Eldelekliog shown that the average TMI score of female students was higher than that of male students and that the difference was significant. These results show that female students generally manage their time better than male students. In this case, considering the fact that the number of male students is increasing day by day, a plan must be formulated to enhance male students’ time management skills. It was demonstrated that the time attitude subscale scores of female students were significantly higher than those of the male lu (2008) with high students. Likewise, in the studies by Eldelekliog school students and by Erdul (2005) and Andıç (2009) with university students, it was found that female students’ average time attitude subscale points were higher than those of male students and that the difference was statistically significant. These results show that female students generally manage their time better than male students and that they are able to incorporate all of the tasks that they would have thought would require a long time period within a the given, shorter time frame. Compared to male students, female students also showed a significant difference in the time spent subscales. Similarly, in the lu (2008) and Andıç studies conducted by Erdul (2005), Eldelekliog (2009), female students showed higher mean scores in terms of mean time spenders. The students who received high scores on this subscale did not waste their time, while students with low scores indicated that they spent their time in a negative way. These results suggest that female students used time more effectively and did not waste their time compared to male students. Similar to Andıç’s (2009) findings, our study also indicated that there was no significant difference between the genders for the time planning subscales. Because the study was conducted with university students, who on one hand have the responsibility to complete their courses and on the other hand have to learn to live alone, particularly if they study in another city away from their parents, time planning was very important. However, in the present study, gender differences did not play a major role. In lu contrast, Erdul (2005), Demirtas¸ and Özer (2007), and Eldelekliog (2008) found positive differences favoring female students in terms of time management. It is inferred that the differences between these findings and those of the present study were due to the use of different sample groups for the studies.
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According to this study, the age group of students and the average age of students did not affect average time management scores (p > 0.05). Parallel to this study, the findings obtained from lu (2008) on high school another study conducted by Eldelekliog students revealed that the age factor was not related to time management skills. In their study with nursing students, Bas¸ak et al. (2008) found that students in the 21e23 age group managed their time better compared than those between 17 and 20 years of age. Trueman and Hartley (1996) divided students in a psychology department into three age groups (below 21, between 21 and 23, and above 25 years) and determined that students above 25 had better time management skills. In contrast to Bas¸ak et al.’s study (2008), Erdem et al. (2005), in their study with students from the School of Health Services, stated that students in the 20 and below age group were more successful in managing their time than students who were 21 and above. This difference in findings can be attributed to different sample groups. Understanding the significance of time and acquiring time management skills is very important for students. Moreover, it is essential that adolescents learn to prioritize and decide what they would like to do in the future, make short-term and long-term plans for healthy well-rounded development, and achieve their lu, 2008). Adolescents are often not aware of goals (Eldelekliog inadvisable time use, high anxiety, and the fearful thought of failure to accomplish certain tasks. As a result, their lack of self-confidence lu, 2008). influences time management negatively (Eldelekliog When nursing and midwifery students’ time management, time attitude, and time spent subscale scores were compared to their state and trait anxiety scores, it was found that these variables were significantly inversely related (p < 0.05). Similarly, it was found in the study conducted by Erdul (2005) with university students that there is a significant negative correlation between time management scores and continuous anxiety levels. Moreover, it showed that the students’ time management abilities increased as the level of continuous anxiety decreased. Lafçı and Öztunç (2009) studies showed that students who could not use time efficiently in school complained about time limitations and suffered from high anxiety. Conclusion We have identified that nursing and midwifery students have mid-level time management skills. Female students were able to manage their time better than male students, and students’ time management skills decreased as levels of anxiety increased. It is necessary to provide training and consultancy regarding time management skills to nursing and midwifery students whom we determined as having medium time management skills. These skills will allow them to learn to make efficient use of their time in various working environments where they can have different roles and responsibilities during their studies or after graduation. Considering the fact that the number of male nursing students is increasing day by day, it is vital to motivate these students to manage their time efficiently and determine their goals and priorities. Programs aimed at reducing anxiety and enhancing time management skills should be prepared as part of universities’ guidance services. However, it is important to note that time management is not only considered a benefit because it provides more efficient working hours, but also because individuals need various activities and social relationships to improve both socially and culturally. Managing time efficiently means that the individual can control his life. All of the points mentioned are of great importance for the individual to develop healthily and psychologically as well as to be successful.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank Hatice Gegin, Müge Evren, Hazal Muslu, Hanım Koyun, and the students at Istanbul University, Nursing Faculty for collecting data as well as all of the participants who participated in this study.
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