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Ballast water sediment management in ports
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Ballast water sediment management in ports Lovro Maglića,⁎, Vlado Frančića, Damir Zeca, Matej Davidb a b
Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, Studentska 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Dr. Matej David Consult, Korte 13e, SI 6310 Izola, Slovenia
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Ballast water sediment Sediment management Sediment disposal Sediment reception facility Legal framework
In order to estimate the possible effects of existing ballast tank sediment management routine in ports the respective legal framework from different states was examined and the operational modes of selected Adriatic shipyards was analysed. The goal was to determine if the States' administration and ports' management are aware of risks which sediments pose to human health and environment due to possible presence of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens (HAOP) or high concentrations of heavy metals. The analysis revealed that sediments from ballast tanks after being collected, are subject to the same handling procedure as any other waste material generated during ships' repair and maintenance. In addition, measures preventing sediment drainage into the sea or procedures for analyzing the presence of heavy metals or toxics have not been identified. The paper proposes the procedures ensuring the more advanced level of protection from HAOP and potentially toxic substances from ballast sediment.
1. Introduction International Convention for the Control and Management of Ship's Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004 (BWM Convention) (IMO, 2004)1 regulates the management of ballast water and sediments in ships' ballast water tanks. The Convention has been created since ballast water and sediments have been clearly identified as a vector for the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens (HAOP) among different marine ecosystems causing harm to these environments, local economies and human health (e.g., Elton, 1958; Carlton, 1985; Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992; Wiley, 1997; Ruiz et al., 2000; Gollasch et al., 2002; Fofonoff et al., 2003; Bax et al., 2003; Davidson and Simkanin, 2012). According to the principles of the BWM Convention, HAOP includes potentially harmful non-indigenous (NIS) and cryptogenic species, harmful native species, and pathogens (David et al., 2013; Gollasch et al., 2015). When a ship takes the ballast water on board, this water usually contains small pieces of solid inorganic and organic matter. The ballast tank sediment consists of various solid particles accumulated mainly on the bottom of ballast water tanks and their inner structures. The bulk of sediment is introduced into the tank during ballasting operations, especially if conducted in ports situated in rivers or estuaries, and in shallow waters. The sediments in ballast tanks include mainly clay (2 μm or less), silt (2–63 μm) and sand (63 μm–2 mm).2 Another
important source of solid particles are by-products of various processes taking place within the ballasting system itself, i.e., tanks, piping and pumps, the most important factors are corrosion and deterioration of the protective coating (Maglić et al., 2016). During de-ballasting operations, only a part of the sediments accumulated in the ballast tanks are discharged with ballast water, hence, the rest accumulates in ballast tanks through the time of normal ship operation. Virtually, all free living and suspended aquatic organisms, bacteria and viruses that may occur in the water column and survive the ballasting process, may be found still living in the ballast tanks (e.g., Carlton et al., 1995; Gollasch et al., 2015). Further to the transfer of organisms in ballast water and as biofouling, the sediment accumulation in ballast tanks provides a specific habitat, a niche for infaunal organisms (Gollasch et al., 2015). In one of the early studies that also focused on ballast water sediments of ships arriving to Australia, Williams et al. (1988) reported that in “this mud” were found living polychaete worms and crustaceans, including and wide variety of amphipods, crabs and shrimps. Different research studies that followed confirmed that there is a variety of life in ballast water sediments; these frequently contain different stages of living, active stages and various diapausing or resting stages (e.g., Williams et al., 1988; Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992; Macdonald and Davidson, 1997; Hamer et al., 2001; Gollasch et al., 2002; Bailey et al., 2003; Wonham et al., 2005; Bailey et al., 2005, 2007; Duggan et al., 2005; Johengen et al., 2005; Drake
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Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Maglić), [email protected] (V. Frančić), [email protected] (D. Zec), [email protected] (M. David). The Convention will enter into force on 8th September 2017. 2 Particles are categorised according to ISO 14688-1: 2002. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.065 Received 14 June 2017; Received in revised form 21 September 2017; Accepted 26 September 2017 0025-326X/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Maglić, L., Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.065
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shipyards where the majority of sediment removal work is carried out. Particular attention is paid to the measures that are the most important for safe and environmentally sound sediment handling. Finally, there is proposed exemplary legal framework ensuring the proper sediment management in line with standards implied by the BWM Convention and other related IMO documents. This works aims to support more effective implementation of the BWM Convention at the regional level.
et al., 2007; Sutherland et al., 2009; Briski et al., 2011; Casas-Monroy et al., 2011; Villac et al., 2013; Branstator et al., 2015). Living organisms may have a limited time for surviving a voyage in unfavorable conditions such as dark and possible changes of the temperature. However, e.g., dinoflagellates, which have been found in several ballast water and sediment sampling studies (e.g., Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992; David et al., 2007), may develop resting stages (cysts) which may survive in sediments for months or even years. Some of those cysts forming species are capable of forming toxins, and when discharged, they may settle in the new area and cause harm (Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992). Briski et al. (2011) Canadian study focused on invertebrates and their dormant eggs in ships sediments; the active macroinvertebrates survived only up to 5 days in tanks while the length of voyage did not have any influence on the abundance or viability of invertebrate dormant eggs. Furthermore, in the ballast tanks sediment samples several NIS were identified (e.g., Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992; Gollasch et al., 2002; Bailey et al., 2007; Briski et al., 2011). Since certain species are persistive and have prolonged survivability, the possibility for hazard exists even in case of “no ballast on board” (NOBOB) vessels (MacIsaac et al., 2002; Drake et al., 2005). The effectiveness on BWM methods on organisms in sediments is also the discussion issue. Briski et al. (2011) noted that most of the sampled ships where several NIS were identified, had conducted ballast water exchange (BWE) at the open ocean on the way to Canada. Furthermore Roy et al. (2014) study reported that BWE did not result in significantly lower tank concentrations of harmful dinoflagellates. Macdonald and Davidson (1997) had even reported that after BWE was conducted the diversity of diatoms and dinoflagellates increased in more than two thirds of cases. Considering the efficacy of ballast water treatments technologies, especially the UV treatment, efficacy is susceptible to high sediment loads because organisms get shaded (David and Gollasch, 2015). Furthermore, cysts are found to be very tolerant to adverse abiotic conditions, e.g., heat, salinity, and even UV radiation, which challenge ballast water management systems (Hallegraeff, 1998; Hallegraeff and Gollasch, 2006; Gregg and Hallegraeff, 2007). Ballast tanks sediments may contain heavy and toxic metals. They may be loaded during ballast water intake in polluted areas, such as major ports or industrialised areas (Macdonald and Davidson, 1997) and repair shipyards (Oreščanin, 2014), or may be generated on board, mainly as residues of ballast tank cathode protection system and protective coatings. Sometimes, the concentration of heavy metal in the sediments may reach significantly higher levels than those naturally existing in the environment (Macdonald and Davidson, 1997; Oreščanin, 2014; Feng et al., 2016), posing significant threat to human health and marine organisms due to their toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation (DeForest et al., 2007). Sediments are removed from the ballast tanks in cases when their significant build-up interferes ship's operations. Their removal may take place during navigation (on board sediment removal and storage) or in ports or shipyards. Disposal into the sea is allowed if all BWM Convention requirements are met. If sediment is collected and delivered in a port, the measures to prevent any risk to human health and environment have to be implemented. In respect of overall efficiency of measures introduced by BWM Convention and related guidelines, in order to collect, receive, store and permanently dispose ballast sediment safely and in the environmentally sound manner, there should exist harmonized measures, responsibilities and enforcement actions, at least within the same region. By now, the most important focus regarding the implementation of the BWM Convention has been on ballast water management; only recently it has focused more on the management of the residual sediment in ships' ballast tanks (Maglić et al., 2016; Gollasch and David, 2016). Actually, this is the critical issue; there will have to be provided services and reception facilities for removing and handling ships' sediments. Consequently, the paper analyses common sediment removal, storage and disposal procedures, particularly those taking place in
2. Research method and information sources In order to analyze routine of sediment management practice, there have been contacted numerous shipyards in the Adriatic region. The selected shipyards were those offering the dry-docking service to the ships of different sizes. It was assumed that only shipyards offering drydocking service are able to manage sediments from ships' ballast tanks. Shipyards have been contacted via mail, followed by interview with person(s) responsible for maintenance/repair work in shipyard. The shipyards have been visited in three cases, all in order to estimate the size of facilities and to get impression about the work that was carried out. For the purpose of this paper, there have been contacted eight shipyards in Italy, six in Croatia and one in Montenegro. Two shipyards in Italy, three in Croatia and one in Montenegro have confirmed that sediment management (removal from ships) may be the part of their activities, if so requested. Shipyards specialized for yachts, fishing ships and small cruiser ships have been excluded because these ships only occasionally (or never) load ballast water; therefore, these shipyards do not provide sediment management as a part of standard offered services.3 Additionally, there have been collected the data on their organization, services provided, main type and sizes of serviced ships, dry-dock capacities and other principal infrastructure and superstructure and sediment handling process, all from interviews and public sources, mainly Internet web sites and publications, as available. For example, one of the largest repair shipyards in Adriatic Sea, Viktor Lenac d.d. is situated in vicinity of the port of Rijeka in Croatia. Its main activities are ship repair, conversions and building offshore objects. The shipyard has three floating docks, 1.000 m of berthing piers and a large offshore construction site. The largest dock is capable to accommodate ships of up to 285 m (160.000 DWT). The shipyard provides 60 services annually, in average. It accepts a large number of ships that routinely load/unload ballast water, meaning that significant quantities of sediments are occasionally collected. The temporary reception area is an open waste landfill situated on the quay side that, consequently, in case of improper disposal of sediments the content may end up directly to the unprotected habitat. The shipyard has several open type containers for wet sediments. No sediment water/ moisture treatment or segregation is provided nor the laboratory analysis of sediment composition. Another example is the Shipyard Bijela in Montenegro. The shipyard has two floating docks, allowing dry dockings of 120.000 DWT ships, and the total operational length of wharf 1.120 m. The outdoor wor4king area extends to 4.600 m2. The shipyard offers services in the field of ship repair and reconstruction, in average 62 services annually. Work is carried out mainly on the floating docks. The shipyard usually receives approximately 400 tons of sediment per year. It has 2 stationary land facilities (tanks), 6 mobile (containers) and 1 floating (barge) reception facility used for temporary disposal of sediments. No sediment water/moisture treatment or segregation is provided nor the laboratory analysis of sediment composition. All those shipyards providing the sediment removal as a common 3 According to the information received, in these shipyards sediment removal happens only occasionally and results in limited quantities that usually go from few tens up to few hundreds of kilograms and as such were disregarded.
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marine biota that exist in the sediments and on the tanks plates (Reid, 2012). The same principle applies for the fresh water biota present in the sediments from fresh ballast water if the sea water is applied (osmotic shock). Thus, the port procedures should recognize that the water used for blasting is supposed to be of the opposite salinity than the water in the tank. If the sediment is collected while the ship is underway and if it is not allowed to dispose it overboard, it should be delivered to a shore reception facility. In that case, the collected sediment has to be properly packed and secured. Since the collected sediment may contain significant quantities of residual water, handling demands proper storage. According to the research of United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), 2013, the most used disposal method is collection in the shipyards (oil and gas tankers 37%, ferries 50%, cruise ships 72%, fishing ships 81%, and barges 78%) whilst the offshore method of disposal (overboard) is used considerably less (oil and gas tankers 37% same as the previous method, ferries 6%, cruise ships 18%, fishing ships 6%, and barges 0.8%). The rest includes all the other methods of disposal and all the vessels not using ballast on board. The current practice in the Adriatic ports and shipyards does not require formal implementation plan for sediment disposal management. In most cases, sediments are considered as just one of constituents of wastes generated during ship repairing. One of the issues that occurs during manual collection is the possible risk to human health. The usual personal protective equipment provided to shipyard personnel include helmet, cotton or synthetic coverall, gloves and ordinary boots; in many cases they are quite unsuitable. According to the interviews taken in the visited shipyards, neither the management nor the operational personnel are aware of potential health risk in case of eye or skin contact with contaminated sediment or inhalation and swallowing of small particles during its handling.
service and where its substantial quantities may be collected, do not maintain a separate reception facility for sediments disposal. All shipyards have areas for temporary storage where the sediments are drained and accumulated before their further transport to common landfill disposal areas. The same areas are also used for temporary disposal of other materials or wastes, according to the needs. The following descriptions, procedures, conclusions and recommendations are based on information collected during aforementioned contacts and visits, as well as other respective sources referred here. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Sediments' build-up, collection and removal practices Sediments' build-up in ballast tanks mainly depends on the existing conditions in the area where ships load ballast water. The quantity of sediment load is larger if ballast water is loaded in shallow waters, rivers and estuaries. Often, sediments in ballast tanks gradually harden and become denser under water pressure. The hardening process is caused by repelling of ballast water. Such hardened, particularly mudbased dense sediments, are usually difficult to remove and require intense manual work. A layer of sediments in a ballast tank can vary from the negligible one, to some that are thick more than 20 cm; it was reported that each tank can hold up to several tonnes of sediment (Drake et al., 2005) or even up to 200 t in total (Johengen et al., 2005). As contacted shipyards have reported, in most cases the height of the deposited sediment averagely reaches up to a few centimeters, rarely more. The sediment's density usually varies between 1.2 and 2.0 kg/dm3, depending on the residual water content. For the majority of mid-sized ocean-going ships, the weight of accumulated sediments typically varies between 10 and 15 tons in total. Sediment from ballast water tanks is removed if:
3.2. Sediment disposal options
− the total mass of sediments is excessive, negatively influencing the economic efficiency of the ship; − ballast tanks have to be surveyed as a part of regular maintenance/ survey process4; − ballast tanks have to undergo a repair process; and/or − suction bell in the ballast tank is obstructed/blocked and pumping of ballast water is difficult or impossible.
The main goal of the sediment disposal management is to ensure that sediment collected on ships, either during repair in shipyards or otherwise, are not disposed into sea, neither wet nor dry. After sediment removal from the ship, there may be recognized two distinctive phases: − temporary sediment storage within shipyard, and − transfer of sediments and their disposal to permanent storage facility, i.e., dedicated landfills.
Collecting sediment and its removing is tedious and demanding, work-intensive task. The space is confined, lacking natural lighting and ventilation, and area to be cleaned may be quite large with many deadlocks by tank inner structures, e.g., frames and longitudinals. Consequently, the work is expensive and requires significant resources and preparation.5 In most cases, the workers have to enter ballast tanks to reach the bottoms and other areas with entrapped sediment, and remove it manually. If the sediment has low water content, it may be collected by using hand collectors. If sediment is homogenous and hardened, it is necessary to break its structure by using water blasting devices. By doing so, additional quantity of water enters the tank, and that requires additional efforts. In such case, vacuum cleaning equipment may be used. The capability of vacuum cleaning equipment depends on its design. As it has been reported from shipyards and manufacturers, the usual volume of vacuum tanks varies from 10 to 50 m3 and the suction hose length usually varies from 15 to 30 m, rarely more. Inserting fresh water during cleaning may negatively impact the
3.2.1. Temporary sediment storage When removed from ballast tanks and disposed in appropriate impermeable containers, sediments are usually transported and unloaded in bulk in dedicated landfills within the shipyard or the port. Such landfills are used as temporary storage facility. There, the sediment is dried and accumulated before being moved to dedicated permanent reception facility, usually land waste disposal area outside the port or the shipyard. Clearly, if landfill is not properly protected, there is no guarantee that resistant live HAOP or heavy metals would not end up in the sea. The more appropriate alternative is to temporary store sediments in the impermeable containers preventing the drainage before their final transfer to the permanent disposal landfill. This approach implies a sufficient number of impermeable containers and significantly more space in case large quantities of sediments are about to be removed and stored. Equally valid alternative (that has not actually been identified during visits and interviews), may be to unload the sediments in bulk on a dedicated landfill enclosed from all sides and impermeable in a way to prevent drainage. In this case, as with the impermeable containers, the only way to remove the excessive moisture is to leave it to dry
4 According to the common requirements of the classification societies, tanks have to be surveyed at least once every five years. 5 As a consequence, there are several substances (nonionic polyacrylamides) on the market aiming to help removal of sediments from tanks by changing physical properties of the sediment.
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4. Legal framework for sediment management
Table 1 Selected elements' threshold for different landfill types according EU legislation compared to two analyses of heavy metal from ballast tank sediment samples. Element
Liquid/solid present in 2 l/kg of total waste mass [mg/kg] – Directive 1999/31/EC
Sediment analysis Mean (Max) [mg/kg]
Inert landfill
Nonhazardous landfill
Hazardous landfill
Feng et al., 2016
Macdonald and Davidson, 1997
As Cd Cr Cu
0,1 0,03 0,2 0,9
0,4 0,6 4 25
6 3 25 50
24.58 (51.4) 1.08 (3.64) 119.38 (142) 224.37 (780)
Hg Ni Pb
0,003 0,2 0,2
0,05 5 5
0,5 20 25
0.19 (0,29) N/A 146.27(523)
Zn
2
25
90
2821.8 (6270)
20.41 (136) 0.43 (16.53) 59 (550.22) 117.2 (2041.7) 0.25 (3.62) 27.42 (500) 100.68 (3269.39) 4286 (350000)
In the maritime community the legal framework dealing with ballast sediment disposal management and associated plans for sediment management, follows the BWM Convention regulations and relevant guidelines adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The BWM Convention clearly appoints specific details on sediment management in two articles and in one regulation. In Article 1 sediment is defined as matter settled out of ballast water within ships. Article 5 sets up rules on sediment reception facilities, complemented by MEPC 152(55) Guidelines for sediment reception facilities (G1) (IMO, 2006). Finally, Regulation B-5 of the BWM Convention provides requirements for sediment management on ships. According to the aforementioned provisions, “reception facilities should operate in a way not to cause unnecessary delays to ships and to provide environmentally safe sediment disposal.” In addition, each state shall report to the IMO on availability and location of any reception facilities for the environmentally safe disposal of sediments, and any inadequacy of the reception facility. Coastal states are obliged to report any requirements and procedures relating to the Ballast Water Management, including their laws, regulations, and guidelines implementing the BWM Convention. Accordingly, any specific provision related to the implementation of the Convention, including sediment disposal management, should be adequately reported. The Guidelines (G1) are intended to support the development of the standardized connection between sediment reception facilities and ships without prescribing shore side reception plans. According to Guidelines, any sediment disposal measure shall avoid unwanted side effects to environment, human health or damage to property or resources. Adequate information on accessible facility should be made available to ships. Employed personnel should receive adequate instructions and training on sediment disposal management. Based on these rules and regulations, several countries have already adopted national requirements in addition to the internationally recognized legal framework. However, the authors were not able to find any national regulations in force (2015) detailing the sediment management, except those that essentially just transfer the BWM Convention requirements into national regulations.6 In order to provide the sufficient level of protection, more detailed procedures and requirements for facilities should be provided by the national or local regulation including collection methods, handling and storage, as well as sampling and analysis of sediment, categorization upon detected toxic compounds and selection of permanent disposal landfill. The legal framework on the sediment disposal management should cover at least the following subject areas: General provisions; Sediment disposal options; Treatment, handling and disposal of sediments; Sediment reception facilities; Reporting and Training. The list is definitely not exhausted and, if found appropriate, it can be extended with additional or more detailed descriptions of particular procedures and control measures as well as enforcement actions. The part containing General provisions should provide most important definitions (if not given in other related sources), the principles to be followed in order to protect human lives and environment and other general requirements in a scope appropriate for the parent legal document. The part dealing with Sediment disposal options should provide the
naturally. The disadvantage is that evaporation may be slow, particularly in cold areas and areas with frequent rain and high humidity.
3.2.2. Permanent storage facility The final phase in the sediment disposal process is the disposal at the permanent storage facility i.e. at dedicated landfills. Since in most cases the sediments' composition is not analyzed (no one shipyard interviewed ever considered composition analyses), the contaminated sediments may be disposed in an unsuitable area where the toxic elements may impact the environment. In many countries the legal requirements regulating waste disposal landfills, in particular type of acceptable waste, are in force. For example, EU member States have to follow the Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste that deals with municipal waste, inert waste (which does not undergo significant physical, chemical or biological transformations like construction waste), hazardous waste and non-hazardous waste. All categories should fulfil the certain criteria set up in aforementioned and other associated directives, or should be disposed or treated in specialized reception facilities (e.g. medical waste, flammable waste, etc.). For EU member States, the acceptable quantities of selected elements present in waste for different waste landfills are given in Table 1. The same table compares the thresholds to outcomes of two researches where the concentrations of heavy metals from the ballast tank sediment samples have been analyzed. Results from the Table 1 show that the concentration of heavy metals in the ballast tank sediments may be significantly higher than allowed to dispose at the “usual” landfills and even at those dedicated for hazardous waste. Consequently, if dried ballast sediment, usually looking like mud or sand, is disposed on landfills like it is done with inert or non-hazardous waste, than heavy metals (if present) may enter the ecosystems. Therefore, it is necessary that sediment collected from ships, during collection or whilst disposed at the temporary storage within the shipyard, is subject to sampling and analysis for determining the concentration of heavy metals and toxic elements. If the sediments from different ships are disposed in bulk in the same temporary storage facility, the sampling and analysis should be carried out for each ship's sediment pile. This is necessary because the sediment content may be significantly different. The results of the sediment analysis should be critical for decision on how and where permanent disposal should take place. The whole process is outlined on the Fig. 1 and includes both ship and port options.
6
Examples include:
a) U.S. Code of Federal Regulation (CFR), 2016. Title 33: Navigation and navigable area, Chapter I, Subchapter O: Pollution, Part 151: Vessels carrying oil, noxious liquid substances, garbage, municipal or commercial waste, and ballast water. b) Washington Administrative Code, 2017. Title 220: Fish and Wildlife, Department of (Fisheries), WAC 220-650-110 - Ballast tank sediment. c) Transport Canada, 2012. A Guide to Canada's Ballast Water Control and Management Regulations – TP 13617 E, Part A: Guidelines for Ballast Water Management.
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Fig. 1. The sediment collection, storage and disposal process.
Plan(s) in order to ensure uniform implementation. The part entitled Reporting should outline reporting procedures and information recording. The Training requirements should be also defined, including in particular personnel who should have appropriate training, the content of the training program and associated responsibilities. The simplified rules and regulations dealing with sediment disposal are presented in Annex 1.
basic options for disposal and should outline the most important restrictions to be observed by legal entities responsible for sediment disposal, including ships and entities taking care for the sediment after it has been unloaded. The part entitled Treatment, handling and disposal of sediments should contain the essential protective measures to be followed during sediment removal and its handling. It should also include requirements dealing with sediment sampling and compound analysis, their frequencies and scopes. The part entitled Port reception facilities should provide requirements for temporary and permanent storage facilities. If found appropriate, the facilities may be required to follow approved Sediment Disposal
5. Conclusions Sediments are removed from ballast tanks on regular basis, mostly 5
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laws regulating waste disposals. (XX) The sediment compound analysis may be conducted only by one of the recognized institutions approved by the Administration.
when their build-up is such that impacts commercial effectiveness or when thorough inspection and repair of ballast tanks is required. In most cases, sediment collection and removal is carried out at repairing shipyards by shore-based personnel and only occasionally underway or in ports, by ships' crews. When sediment is removed and unloaded in ports or shipyards, it is necessary to ensure that neither water content nor dry sediment finds its way into the sea. Unloaded sediment has to be dried at temporary storage facilities, sufficiently distant from nearest shoreline and properly protected to allow evaporation but prevent leakages into the sea. Sufficiently dry sediment may and should be permanently disposed at waste disposal facilities (landfill) where similar materials are stored. A significant concentration of heavy metals or toxic compounds may be present in the sediments. Therefore, it is necessary to take samples and analyze the sediment accumulation from each source (ship). Based on the results of the analysis, sediment should be categorized as nonhazardous or hazardous waste and disposed at a suitable and permissible landfill provided for permanent disposal. Unfortunately, it seems that importance of the proper sediment management is not yet fully recognized at national levels. In respect of that, the coastal states should further develop rules and regulations standardizing procedures and requirements for facilities where the removal, transport as well as temporary and permanent disposal of the sediment takes place. Finally, in order to ensure the overall efficiency of measures introduced through BWM Convention and related guidelines (G1), the measures, responsibilities and enforcement actions in respect of the safe collection, reception, storage and permanent disposal of ballast sediment in the environmentally sound manner, should be harmonized at least within the same region.
Sediment disposal options (XX) Sediments may be removed from the ship under controlled arrangements in port, at anchorage or in shipyard. (XX) Sediments may be collected manually or by using appropriate and approved equipment. (XX) During process of sediments' removal, temporary or permanent disposal the sediments or ballast water mixed with sediments shall not be released into sea. (XX) Any sediment disposal, handling and treatment measures and options used shall be carried out as to effectively reduce the risk of nonindigenous species, toxic compounds or heavy metals from sediment to be discharged into sea or in any other way impair or damage the environment, human health, property or resources of the disposal area. (XX) Each port or shipyard where cleaning or repair of ballast tanks takes place shall ensure appropriate sediment reception facilities and shall follow the approved Sediment Disposal Plan. Treatment, handling and disposal of sediments (XX) Before any person enters the ballast tank, the tank shall be ventilated, checked for oxygen level and existence of any toxic or flammable gas. (XX) Workers employed to collect sediment, removal and disposal shall be provided with suitable personal protective clothing and equipment including at least the following:
Acknowledgments − − − −
This publication has been produced with the financial assistance of the IPA Adriatic Cross-Border Cooperation Programme (1° STR/0005) strategic project Ballast Water Management System for Adriatic Sea Protection (BALMAS). The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of authors and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of the IPA Adriatic Cross-Border Cooperation Programme Authorities.
protective clothing, eyes protection, impermeable gloves, impermeable high boots.
(XX) During sediment collection and removal from the ballast tank, the atmosphere shall be continuously monitored and tank continuously ventilated. If there is any suspect on deterioration of the atmosphere in tank, the person operating in tank shall be equipped with personal selfcontained breathing apparatus.
Annex 1 Simplified legal framework for sediment management in ports
Sediment reception facilities General provisions (XX) Sediment reception facility may be temporary or permanent. (XX) The sediment reception facility shall provide disposal capacity of sediments in a quantity of at least X% of volume of largest ballast tank on a largest ship to be accommodated.7 (XX) Sediment reception facility shall provide:
(XX) The Sediment means any matter settled out of ballast water within ships including solid residues in ballast tanks and residues of filtering ballast water. (XX) The Ship shall remove and dispose sediments in accordance with these provisions, in accordance with ship's Ballast Water Management Plan and in accordance with additional requirements on waste disposal of the coastal state, if any. (XX) It is prohibited to discharge sediments outside the areas identified by BWM Convention or designated ballast water exchange areas (BWM Convention Regulation B-4). (XX) Sediments sampling and compound analysis shall be carried out before or during disposal process, before transport to permanent disposal area (landfill). If the sampling and analysis shall be organized before the collection process, the master (owner, operator, agent, or person in charge of the ship) must provide access to the ship to any authorized person in order to collect and take samples of sediments, examine documents and make other appropriate inquiries. (XX) The appropriate permanent disposal area (landfill) for sediments shall be determined after the analysis depending on the concentration of toxic compounds and heavy metals according to relative
− landfill, open tank or other suitable arrangement for temporary disposal of sediments, − place, landfill or methods for permanent safe and environmentally acceptable disposal of sediments. (XX) The following information shall be provided in the Sediment Disposal Plan for each sediment reception facility: − place (pier, berth, dry-dock) where sediment removal may take place,
7 According to this research, the reasonable capacity of the sediment reception facility is estimated to be at least 2% of the largest ballast tank on a largest ship to be accommodated.
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− positions, duties and contact details of personnel responsible for implementation of sediment disposal, − graphical presentation of temporary disposal areas, − description of methods applied for collection, removal and transportation of sediments, − maximum quantity (volume and weight) of sediment that may be disposed, − maximum and minimum moisture content of the sediment that may be handled, for temporary and permanent storage, − maximum rates of collection and disposal, − description of use of any equipment to off load sediments from ships (i.e. crane, container, box, vacuum cleaner …), − requirements for sampling sediments, − procedure for sediment analysis of toxic compounds and heavy metals − list of recognized institutions approved for sediment analysis and categorization − any operational limitations, − any additional special requirements for ships.
(XX) Personnel employed on sediment disposal shall receive adequate familiarization on safety procedures, tank entry procedures, human health risks and use of personal protective clothes and equipment. (XX) Managing authority of the shipyard should ensure adequate training and familiarization for personnel involved in sediment disposal. References Bailey, S.A., Duggan, I.C., van Overdijk, C.D.A., Jenkins, P.T., MacIsaac, H.J., 2003. Viability of invertebrate diapausing eggs collected from residual ballast sediment. Limnol. Oceanogr. 48 (4), 1701–1710. Bailey, S.A., Duggan, I.C., Jenkins, P.T., MacIsaac, H.J., 2005. Invertebrate resting stages in residual ballast sediment of transoceanic ships. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 62, 1090–1103. Bailey, S.A., Duggan, I.C., Nandakumar, k., MacIsaac, H.J., 2007. Sediments in ships: Biota as biological contaminants. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag. 10 (1), 93–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14634980701193870. Bax, N., Williamsona, A., Aguerob, M., Gonzalezb, E., Geeves, W., 2003. Marine invasive alien species: a threat to global biodiversity. Mar. Policy 27, 313–323. Branstator, D.K., Westphal, K.L., King, B.K., 2015. Analysis of invertebrate resting eggs and their biota in ballast tank sediment of domestic Great Lakes cargo ships. J. Great Lakes Res. 41 (1), 200–207. Briski, E., Bailey, S., MacIsaac, H.J., 2011. Invertebrates and their dormant eggs transported in ballast sediments of ships arriving to the Canadian coasts and the Laurentian Great Lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 56 (5), 1929–1939. Carlton, J.T., 1985. Transoceanic and interoceanic dispersal of coastal marine organisms: the biology of ballast water. Annu. Rev. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 23, 313–374. Carlton, J.T., Reid, D., van Leeuwen, H., 1995. Shipping study, The role of shipping in the introduction of nonindigenous aquatic organisms to the coastal waters of the United States (other than the Great Lakes) and an analysis of control options. The National Sea Grant College Program/Connecticut Sea Grant Project R/ES-6, Report No. CG-DII-95. pp. 373. Casas-Monroy, O., Roy, S., Rochon, A., 2011. Ballast sediment-mediated transport of nonindigenous species of dinoflagellates on the East Coast of Canada. Aquat. Invasions 6 (3), 231–248. David, M., Gollasch, S., 2015. Ballast water management systems for ships. pp. 109–132. In: David, M., Gollasch, S. (Eds.), Global Maritime Transport and Ballast Water Management – Issues and Solutions. Invading Nature. Springer Series in Invasion Ecology 8 Springer Science + Business Media, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 306. David, M., Gollasch, S., Cabrini, M., Perkovič, M., Bošnjak, D., Virgilio, D., 2007. Results from the first ballast water sampling study in the Mediterranean Sea - the Port of Koper study. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 54, 53–65. David, M., Gollasch, S., Leppäkoski, E., 2013. Risk assessment for exemptions from ballast water management – the Baltic Sea case study. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 75, 205–217. Davidson, I.C., Simkanin, C., 2012. The biology of ballast water 25 years later. Biol. Invasions 14, 9–13. DeForest, D.K., Brix, K.V., Adams, W.J., 2007. Assessing metal bioaccumulation in aquatic environments: the inverse relationship between bioaccumulation factors, trophic transfer factors and exposure concentration. Aquat. Toxicol. 84 (2), 236–246. Drake, L.A., Jenkins, P.T., Dobbs, F.C., 2005. Domestic and international arrivals of NOBOB (no ballast on board ships to lower Chesapeake Bay). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50 (5), 560–565. Drake, L.A., Doblin, M.A., Dobbs, F.C., 2007. Potential microbial bioinvasions via ships' ballast water, sediment, and biofilm. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 55, 333–341. Duggan, I.C., van Overdijk, C.D.A., Bailey, S.A., Jenkins, P.T., Limén, H., MacIsaac, H.J., 2005. Invertebrates associated with residual ballast water and sediments of cargocarrying ships entering the Great Lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 62, 2463–2474. Elton, C., 1958. The ecology of invasions by plants and animals. Methuen, London. Feng, D., Chen, X., Tian, W. et.al, 2016. Pollution characteristics and ecological risk of heavy metals in ballast tank sediment. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1–8. http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s11356-016-8113-z. Fofonoff, P.W., Ruiz, G.M., Steves, B., Carlton, J.T., 2003. In Ships or on Ships? Mechanisms of Transfer and Invasion for Non-native Species to the Coasts of North America. Invasive Species. Island Press, Washington DC, USA, pp. 152–182. Gollasch, S., David, M., 2016. Prevention of Marine Pollution Caused by Ship-Sourced Wastes, Report on Ballast Tank Sediment Management. Gollasch, S., MacDonald, E., Belson, S., Botnen, H., Christensen, J.T., Hamer, J.P., Houvenaghel, G., Jelmert, A., Lucas, I., Masson, D., McCollin, T., Olenin, S., Persson, A., Wallentinus, I., Wetsteyn, L.P.M.J., Wittling, T., 2002. Life in ballast tanks. In: Leppäkoski, E., Gollasch, S., Olenin, S. (Eds.), Invasive Aquatic Species of Europe Distribution, Impact and Management. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 217–231. Gollasch, S., Minchin, D., David, M., 2015. The transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens with ballast water and their impacts. In: David, M., Gollasch, S. (Eds.), Global Maritime Transport and Ballast Water Management - Issues and Solutions. Invading Nature. Springer Series in Invasion Ecology 8 Springer Science + Business Media, Dordrecht, Netherlands (306 pp.). Gregg, M.D., Hallegraeff, G.M., 2007. Efficacy of three commercially available ballast water biocides against vegetative microalgae, dinoflagellate cysts and bacteria. Harmful Algae 6, 567–584. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2006.08.009. Hallegraeff, G.M., 1998. Transport of toxic dinoflagellates via ships' ballast water:
(XX) The ship should be informed on: − − − − − −
methods of ship-to-shore sediment transfer details, information required to provide, in particular on: approximate quantity of sediment, moisture content if possible, plan of the ballast tanks, other information required from the ship.
(XX) Collection and removal of sediment to reception facilities shall not cause unnecessary delays of ships, and shall ensure safe removal of such sediments, without disturbing or endangering the environment, human health, property or resources, in conformity with other positive environmental protection legislation. (XX) The sediment reception facility and the Sediment Disposal Plan shall be approved by the responsible authority and should take into consideration provisions of the BWM Convention and “Guidelines for sediment reception facilities - G1” (IMO Resolution MEPC. 152(55), as amended). Reporting (XX) Information on the availability and location of sediment reception facilities for the environmentally safe disposal of sediments shall be reported to the International Maritime Organization and shall be available for ships arriving in the port/shipyard. (XX) The ship shall report to the intended discharge port/shipyard for disposal of sediment upon entry into the jurisdictional area of the coastal State with the approximate quantity of sediments to be discharged. (XX) The port/shipyard shall record all activities on sediments disposal including quantities removed from ships, quantities disposed on permanent disposal facility, all analysis reports and sediment categorization of each source ship. (XX) Ship shall record the quantity of sediment unloaded as well as name and location of the facility where sediments were disposed. Training (XX) Personnel in charge for sediment reception facility shall receive training including information on international and national provisions on BWM including principles of the BWM Convention, risk to the environment and human health associated to sediment disposal process, equipment and process used for sediment collection and disposal, the ship/port communication interface and understanding of local disposal requirements. 7
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Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation, U.S. Department of Transportation. Roy, S., Parenreau, M., Casas-Monroy, O., Rochon, A., 2014. Introduction of harmful dinoflagellates through ship traffic: Differences between the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of Canada. In: Kim, H.G., Reguera, B., Hallegraeff, G.M., Lee, C.K., Han, M.S., Choi, J.K. (Eds.), Harmful Algae 2012, Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Harmful Algae. International Society for the Study of Harmful Algae 2014, pp. 223–226. Ruiz, G.M., Rawlings, T.K., Dobbs, F.C., Drake, L.A., Mullady, T., Huq, A., Colwell, R.R., 2000. Global spread of microorganisms by ships. Nature 408, 49–50. Sutherland, T.F., Levings, C.D., Wiley, C., 2009. Quantifying Aquatic Invasive species in Accumulated Ballast Sediment Residuals – “Swish”: Preliminary Results. DFO-UBC Centre for Aquaculture and Environmental Research, Canada, pp. 36. Transport Canada, 2012. A Guide to Canada's Ballast Water Control and Management Regulations – TP 13617 E, Part A: Guidelines for Ballast Water Management. U.S. Code of Federal Regulation (CFR), 2016. Title 33: Navigation and Navigable Area, Chapter I, Subchapter O: Pollution, Part 151: ships Carrying Oil, Noxious Liquid Substances, Garbage, Municipal or Commercial Waste, and Ballast Water. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2013. Summary of the VGP ship Universe: Information Submitted by Ship Owner/Operators for Coverage Under the 2008 ship General Permit (VGP). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. Villac, M.C., Kaczmarska, I., Ehrman, J.M., 2013. The diversity of diatom assemblages in ships' ballast sediments: colonization and propagule pressure on Canadian ports. J. Plankton Res. 35 (6), 1267–1282. Washington Administrative Code, 2017. Title 220: Fish and Wildlife, Department of (Fisheries), WAC 220-650-110 - Ballast Tank Sediment. Wiley, C., 1997. Aquatic nuisance species: nature, transport, and regulation. In: Frank, M., D'Itri (Eds.), Zebra Mussels and Aquatic Nuisance Species. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, MI, pp. 55–63. Williams, R.J., Griffiths, F.B., Van der Wal, E.J., Kelly, J., 1988. Cargo vessel ballast water as a vector for the transport of non-indigenous marine species. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 26, 409–420. Wonham, J.M., Bailey, S.A., MacIsaac, H.J., Lewis, M.A., 2005. Modelling the invasion risk of diapausing organisms transported in ballast sediments. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 62, 2386–2398.
bioeconomic risk assessment and efficacy of possible ballast water management strategies. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 168, 297–309. Hallegraeff, G.M., Bolch, C.J., 1992. Transport of diatom and dinoflagellate resting spores in ships' ballast water: implications for plankton biogeography and aquaculture. J. Plankton Res. 14, 1067–1084. Hallegraeff, G., Gollasch, S., 2006. Anthropogenic introductions of microalgae. 379-390. In: Granéli, E., Turner, J.T. (Eds.), Ecology of Harmful Algae. Ecological Studies. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp. 189. Hamer, J.P., Lucas, I.A.N., McCollin, T.A., 2001. Harmful dinoflagellate resting cysts in ships' ballast tank sediments; potential for introduction into English and Welsh waters. Phycologia 40, 246–255. IMO, 2004. International Convention on the Control and Management of Ship's Ballast Water and Sediments. International Maritime Organization, London. IMO, 2006. Guidelines for Sediment Reception Facilities (G1), Annex 4. Resolution MEPC.152. International Maritime Organization, London, pp. 55. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 14688-1, 2002. Geotechnical Investigation and Testing – Identification and Classification of Soil – Part 1: Identification and Description. Johengen, T., Reid, D., Fahnenstiel, G., MacIsaac, H., Dobbs, F., Doblin, M., Ruiz, G., Jenkins, P., 2005. Assessment of Transoceanic NOBOB Ships and Low-Salinity Ballast Water as Vectors for Non-indigenous Species Introductions to the Great Lakes. A Final Report for the Project. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Macdonald, E., Davidson, R., 1997. Ballast Water Project - Final Report. FRS Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen. MacIsaac, H.J., Robbins, T.C., Lewis, M.A., 2002. Modeling ships' ballast water as invasion threats to the Great Lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 59 (7), 1245–1256. Maglić, L., Zec, D., Frančić, V., 2016. Ballast water sediment elemental analysis. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 103 (1–2), 93–100. Official Journal of the European Communities, 1999. Council Directive 1999/31/EC. April 1999 on the Landfill of Waste. Oreščanin, V., 2014. Inertizacija zagađenih sedimenata različitim kemijskim metodama. Hrvatske vode 89, 227–238. Reid, D.F., 2012. The Role of Osmotic Stress (Salinity Shock) in Protecting the Great Lakes from Ballast-Associated Aquatic Invaders. Technical Report prepared for the U.S.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Marine Pollution Bulletin journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul
Ballast water sediment management in ports Lovro Maglića,⁎, Vlado Frančića, Damir Zeca, Matej Davidb a b
Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, Studentska 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Dr. Matej David Consult, Korte 13e, SI 6310 Izola, Slovenia
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Ballast water sediment Sediment management Sediment disposal Sediment reception facility Legal framework
In order to estimate the possible effects of existing ballast tank sediment management routine in ports the respective legal framework from different states was examined and the operational modes of selected Adriatic shipyards was analysed. The goal was to determine if the States' administration and ports' management are aware of risks which sediments pose to human health and environment due to possible presence of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens (HAOP) or high concentrations of heavy metals. The analysis revealed that sediments from ballast tanks after being collected, are subject to the same handling procedure as any other waste material generated during ships' repair and maintenance. In addition, measures preventing sediment drainage into the sea or procedures for analyzing the presence of heavy metals or toxics have not been identified. The paper proposes the procedures ensuring the more advanced level of protection from HAOP and potentially toxic substances from ballast sediment.
1. Introduction International Convention for the Control and Management of Ship's Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004 (BWM Convention) (IMO, 2004)1 regulates the management of ballast water and sediments in ships' ballast water tanks. The Convention has been created since ballast water and sediments have been clearly identified as a vector for the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens (HAOP) among different marine ecosystems causing harm to these environments, local economies and human health (e.g., Elton, 1958; Carlton, 1985; Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992; Wiley, 1997; Ruiz et al., 2000; Gollasch et al., 2002; Fofonoff et al., 2003; Bax et al., 2003; Davidson and Simkanin, 2012). According to the principles of the BWM Convention, HAOP includes potentially harmful non-indigenous (NIS) and cryptogenic species, harmful native species, and pathogens (David et al., 2013; Gollasch et al., 2015). When a ship takes the ballast water on board, this water usually contains small pieces of solid inorganic and organic matter. The ballast tank sediment consists of various solid particles accumulated mainly on the bottom of ballast water tanks and their inner structures. The bulk of sediment is introduced into the tank during ballasting operations, especially if conducted in ports situated in rivers or estuaries, and in shallow waters. The sediments in ballast tanks include mainly clay (2 μm or less), silt (2–63 μm) and sand (63 μm–2 mm).2 Another
important source of solid particles are by-products of various processes taking place within the ballasting system itself, i.e., tanks, piping and pumps, the most important factors are corrosion and deterioration of the protective coating (Maglić et al., 2016). During de-ballasting operations, only a part of the sediments accumulated in the ballast tanks are discharged with ballast water, hence, the rest accumulates in ballast tanks through the time of normal ship operation. Virtually, all free living and suspended aquatic organisms, bacteria and viruses that may occur in the water column and survive the ballasting process, may be found still living in the ballast tanks (e.g., Carlton et al., 1995; Gollasch et al., 2015). Further to the transfer of organisms in ballast water and as biofouling, the sediment accumulation in ballast tanks provides a specific habitat, a niche for infaunal organisms (Gollasch et al., 2015). In one of the early studies that also focused on ballast water sediments of ships arriving to Australia, Williams et al. (1988) reported that in “this mud” were found living polychaete worms and crustaceans, including and wide variety of amphipods, crabs and shrimps. Different research studies that followed confirmed that there is a variety of life in ballast water sediments; these frequently contain different stages of living, active stages and various diapausing or resting stages (e.g., Williams et al., 1988; Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992; Macdonald and Davidson, 1997; Hamer et al., 2001; Gollasch et al., 2002; Bailey et al., 2003; Wonham et al., 2005; Bailey et al., 2005, 2007; Duggan et al., 2005; Johengen et al., 2005; Drake
⁎
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Maglić), [email protected] (V. Frančić), [email protected] (D. Zec), [email protected] (M. David). The Convention will enter into force on 8th September 2017. 2 Particles are categorised according to ISO 14688-1: 2002. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.065 Received 14 June 2017; Received in revised form 21 September 2017; Accepted 26 September 2017 0025-326X/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Maglić, L., Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.065
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shipyards where the majority of sediment removal work is carried out. Particular attention is paid to the measures that are the most important for safe and environmentally sound sediment handling. Finally, there is proposed exemplary legal framework ensuring the proper sediment management in line with standards implied by the BWM Convention and other related IMO documents. This works aims to support more effective implementation of the BWM Convention at the regional level.
et al., 2007; Sutherland et al., 2009; Briski et al., 2011; Casas-Monroy et al., 2011; Villac et al., 2013; Branstator et al., 2015). Living organisms may have a limited time for surviving a voyage in unfavorable conditions such as dark and possible changes of the temperature. However, e.g., dinoflagellates, which have been found in several ballast water and sediment sampling studies (e.g., Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992; David et al., 2007), may develop resting stages (cysts) which may survive in sediments for months or even years. Some of those cysts forming species are capable of forming toxins, and when discharged, they may settle in the new area and cause harm (Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992). Briski et al. (2011) Canadian study focused on invertebrates and their dormant eggs in ships sediments; the active macroinvertebrates survived only up to 5 days in tanks while the length of voyage did not have any influence on the abundance or viability of invertebrate dormant eggs. Furthermore, in the ballast tanks sediment samples several NIS were identified (e.g., Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1992; Gollasch et al., 2002; Bailey et al., 2007; Briski et al., 2011). Since certain species are persistive and have prolonged survivability, the possibility for hazard exists even in case of “no ballast on board” (NOBOB) vessels (MacIsaac et al., 2002; Drake et al., 2005). The effectiveness on BWM methods on organisms in sediments is also the discussion issue. Briski et al. (2011) noted that most of the sampled ships where several NIS were identified, had conducted ballast water exchange (BWE) at the open ocean on the way to Canada. Furthermore Roy et al. (2014) study reported that BWE did not result in significantly lower tank concentrations of harmful dinoflagellates. Macdonald and Davidson (1997) had even reported that after BWE was conducted the diversity of diatoms and dinoflagellates increased in more than two thirds of cases. Considering the efficacy of ballast water treatments technologies, especially the UV treatment, efficacy is susceptible to high sediment loads because organisms get shaded (David and Gollasch, 2015). Furthermore, cysts are found to be very tolerant to adverse abiotic conditions, e.g., heat, salinity, and even UV radiation, which challenge ballast water management systems (Hallegraeff, 1998; Hallegraeff and Gollasch, 2006; Gregg and Hallegraeff, 2007). Ballast tanks sediments may contain heavy and toxic metals. They may be loaded during ballast water intake in polluted areas, such as major ports or industrialised areas (Macdonald and Davidson, 1997) and repair shipyards (Oreščanin, 2014), or may be generated on board, mainly as residues of ballast tank cathode protection system and protective coatings. Sometimes, the concentration of heavy metal in the sediments may reach significantly higher levels than those naturally existing in the environment (Macdonald and Davidson, 1997; Oreščanin, 2014; Feng et al., 2016), posing significant threat to human health and marine organisms due to their toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation (DeForest et al., 2007). Sediments are removed from the ballast tanks in cases when their significant build-up interferes ship's operations. Their removal may take place during navigation (on board sediment removal and storage) or in ports or shipyards. Disposal into the sea is allowed if all BWM Convention requirements are met. If sediment is collected and delivered in a port, the measures to prevent any risk to human health and environment have to be implemented. In respect of overall efficiency of measures introduced by BWM Convention and related guidelines, in order to collect, receive, store and permanently dispose ballast sediment safely and in the environmentally sound manner, there should exist harmonized measures, responsibilities and enforcement actions, at least within the same region. By now, the most important focus regarding the implementation of the BWM Convention has been on ballast water management; only recently it has focused more on the management of the residual sediment in ships' ballast tanks (Maglić et al., 2016; Gollasch and David, 2016). Actually, this is the critical issue; there will have to be provided services and reception facilities for removing and handling ships' sediments. Consequently, the paper analyses common sediment removal, storage and disposal procedures, particularly those taking place in
2. Research method and information sources In order to analyze routine of sediment management practice, there have been contacted numerous shipyards in the Adriatic region. The selected shipyards were those offering the dry-docking service to the ships of different sizes. It was assumed that only shipyards offering drydocking service are able to manage sediments from ships' ballast tanks. Shipyards have been contacted via mail, followed by interview with person(s) responsible for maintenance/repair work in shipyard. The shipyards have been visited in three cases, all in order to estimate the size of facilities and to get impression about the work that was carried out. For the purpose of this paper, there have been contacted eight shipyards in Italy, six in Croatia and one in Montenegro. Two shipyards in Italy, three in Croatia and one in Montenegro have confirmed that sediment management (removal from ships) may be the part of their activities, if so requested. Shipyards specialized for yachts, fishing ships and small cruiser ships have been excluded because these ships only occasionally (or never) load ballast water; therefore, these shipyards do not provide sediment management as a part of standard offered services.3 Additionally, there have been collected the data on their organization, services provided, main type and sizes of serviced ships, dry-dock capacities and other principal infrastructure and superstructure and sediment handling process, all from interviews and public sources, mainly Internet web sites and publications, as available. For example, one of the largest repair shipyards in Adriatic Sea, Viktor Lenac d.d. is situated in vicinity of the port of Rijeka in Croatia. Its main activities are ship repair, conversions and building offshore objects. The shipyard has three floating docks, 1.000 m of berthing piers and a large offshore construction site. The largest dock is capable to accommodate ships of up to 285 m (160.000 DWT). The shipyard provides 60 services annually, in average. It accepts a large number of ships that routinely load/unload ballast water, meaning that significant quantities of sediments are occasionally collected. The temporary reception area is an open waste landfill situated on the quay side that, consequently, in case of improper disposal of sediments the content may end up directly to the unprotected habitat. The shipyard has several open type containers for wet sediments. No sediment water/ moisture treatment or segregation is provided nor the laboratory analysis of sediment composition. Another example is the Shipyard Bijela in Montenegro. The shipyard has two floating docks, allowing dry dockings of 120.000 DWT ships, and the total operational length of wharf 1.120 m. The outdoor wor4king area extends to 4.600 m2. The shipyard offers services in the field of ship repair and reconstruction, in average 62 services annually. Work is carried out mainly on the floating docks. The shipyard usually receives approximately 400 tons of sediment per year. It has 2 stationary land facilities (tanks), 6 mobile (containers) and 1 floating (barge) reception facility used for temporary disposal of sediments. No sediment water/moisture treatment or segregation is provided nor the laboratory analysis of sediment composition. All those shipyards providing the sediment removal as a common 3 According to the information received, in these shipyards sediment removal happens only occasionally and results in limited quantities that usually go from few tens up to few hundreds of kilograms and as such were disregarded.
2
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marine biota that exist in the sediments and on the tanks plates (Reid, 2012). The same principle applies for the fresh water biota present in the sediments from fresh ballast water if the sea water is applied (osmotic shock). Thus, the port procedures should recognize that the water used for blasting is supposed to be of the opposite salinity than the water in the tank. If the sediment is collected while the ship is underway and if it is not allowed to dispose it overboard, it should be delivered to a shore reception facility. In that case, the collected sediment has to be properly packed and secured. Since the collected sediment may contain significant quantities of residual water, handling demands proper storage. According to the research of United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), 2013, the most used disposal method is collection in the shipyards (oil and gas tankers 37%, ferries 50%, cruise ships 72%, fishing ships 81%, and barges 78%) whilst the offshore method of disposal (overboard) is used considerably less (oil and gas tankers 37% same as the previous method, ferries 6%, cruise ships 18%, fishing ships 6%, and barges 0.8%). The rest includes all the other methods of disposal and all the vessels not using ballast on board. The current practice in the Adriatic ports and shipyards does not require formal implementation plan for sediment disposal management. In most cases, sediments are considered as just one of constituents of wastes generated during ship repairing. One of the issues that occurs during manual collection is the possible risk to human health. The usual personal protective equipment provided to shipyard personnel include helmet, cotton or synthetic coverall, gloves and ordinary boots; in many cases they are quite unsuitable. According to the interviews taken in the visited shipyards, neither the management nor the operational personnel are aware of potential health risk in case of eye or skin contact with contaminated sediment or inhalation and swallowing of small particles during its handling.
service and where its substantial quantities may be collected, do not maintain a separate reception facility for sediments disposal. All shipyards have areas for temporary storage where the sediments are drained and accumulated before their further transport to common landfill disposal areas. The same areas are also used for temporary disposal of other materials or wastes, according to the needs. The following descriptions, procedures, conclusions and recommendations are based on information collected during aforementioned contacts and visits, as well as other respective sources referred here. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Sediments' build-up, collection and removal practices Sediments' build-up in ballast tanks mainly depends on the existing conditions in the area where ships load ballast water. The quantity of sediment load is larger if ballast water is loaded in shallow waters, rivers and estuaries. Often, sediments in ballast tanks gradually harden and become denser under water pressure. The hardening process is caused by repelling of ballast water. Such hardened, particularly mudbased dense sediments, are usually difficult to remove and require intense manual work. A layer of sediments in a ballast tank can vary from the negligible one, to some that are thick more than 20 cm; it was reported that each tank can hold up to several tonnes of sediment (Drake et al., 2005) or even up to 200 t in total (Johengen et al., 2005). As contacted shipyards have reported, in most cases the height of the deposited sediment averagely reaches up to a few centimeters, rarely more. The sediment's density usually varies between 1.2 and 2.0 kg/dm3, depending on the residual water content. For the majority of mid-sized ocean-going ships, the weight of accumulated sediments typically varies between 10 and 15 tons in total. Sediment from ballast water tanks is removed if:
3.2. Sediment disposal options
− the total mass of sediments is excessive, negatively influencing the economic efficiency of the ship; − ballast tanks have to be surveyed as a part of regular maintenance/ survey process4; − ballast tanks have to undergo a repair process; and/or − suction bell in the ballast tank is obstructed/blocked and pumping of ballast water is difficult or impossible.
The main goal of the sediment disposal management is to ensure that sediment collected on ships, either during repair in shipyards or otherwise, are not disposed into sea, neither wet nor dry. After sediment removal from the ship, there may be recognized two distinctive phases: − temporary sediment storage within shipyard, and − transfer of sediments and their disposal to permanent storage facility, i.e., dedicated landfills.
Collecting sediment and its removing is tedious and demanding, work-intensive task. The space is confined, lacking natural lighting and ventilation, and area to be cleaned may be quite large with many deadlocks by tank inner structures, e.g., frames and longitudinals. Consequently, the work is expensive and requires significant resources and preparation.5 In most cases, the workers have to enter ballast tanks to reach the bottoms and other areas with entrapped sediment, and remove it manually. If the sediment has low water content, it may be collected by using hand collectors. If sediment is homogenous and hardened, it is necessary to break its structure by using water blasting devices. By doing so, additional quantity of water enters the tank, and that requires additional efforts. In such case, vacuum cleaning equipment may be used. The capability of vacuum cleaning equipment depends on its design. As it has been reported from shipyards and manufacturers, the usual volume of vacuum tanks varies from 10 to 50 m3 and the suction hose length usually varies from 15 to 30 m, rarely more. Inserting fresh water during cleaning may negatively impact the
3.2.1. Temporary sediment storage When removed from ballast tanks and disposed in appropriate impermeable containers, sediments are usually transported and unloaded in bulk in dedicated landfills within the shipyard or the port. Such landfills are used as temporary storage facility. There, the sediment is dried and accumulated before being moved to dedicated permanent reception facility, usually land waste disposal area outside the port or the shipyard. Clearly, if landfill is not properly protected, there is no guarantee that resistant live HAOP or heavy metals would not end up in the sea. The more appropriate alternative is to temporary store sediments in the impermeable containers preventing the drainage before their final transfer to the permanent disposal landfill. This approach implies a sufficient number of impermeable containers and significantly more space in case large quantities of sediments are about to be removed and stored. Equally valid alternative (that has not actually been identified during visits and interviews), may be to unload the sediments in bulk on a dedicated landfill enclosed from all sides and impermeable in a way to prevent drainage. In this case, as with the impermeable containers, the only way to remove the excessive moisture is to leave it to dry
4 According to the common requirements of the classification societies, tanks have to be surveyed at least once every five years. 5 As a consequence, there are several substances (nonionic polyacrylamides) on the market aiming to help removal of sediments from tanks by changing physical properties of the sediment.
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4. Legal framework for sediment management
Table 1 Selected elements' threshold for different landfill types according EU legislation compared to two analyses of heavy metal from ballast tank sediment samples. Element
Liquid/solid present in 2 l/kg of total waste mass [mg/kg] – Directive 1999/31/EC
Sediment analysis Mean (Max) [mg/kg]
Inert landfill
Nonhazardous landfill
Hazardous landfill
Feng et al., 2016
Macdonald and Davidson, 1997
As Cd Cr Cu
0,1 0,03 0,2 0,9
0,4 0,6 4 25
6 3 25 50
24.58 (51.4) 1.08 (3.64) 119.38 (142) 224.37 (780)
Hg Ni Pb
0,003 0,2 0,2
0,05 5 5
0,5 20 25
0.19 (0,29) N/A 146.27(523)
Zn
2
25
90
2821.8 (6270)
20.41 (136) 0.43 (16.53) 59 (550.22) 117.2 (2041.7) 0.25 (3.62) 27.42 (500) 100.68 (3269.39) 4286 (350000)
In the maritime community the legal framework dealing with ballast sediment disposal management and associated plans for sediment management, follows the BWM Convention regulations and relevant guidelines adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The BWM Convention clearly appoints specific details on sediment management in two articles and in one regulation. In Article 1 sediment is defined as matter settled out of ballast water within ships. Article 5 sets up rules on sediment reception facilities, complemented by MEPC 152(55) Guidelines for sediment reception facilities (G1) (IMO, 2006). Finally, Regulation B-5 of the BWM Convention provides requirements for sediment management on ships. According to the aforementioned provisions, “reception facilities should operate in a way not to cause unnecessary delays to ships and to provide environmentally safe sediment disposal.” In addition, each state shall report to the IMO on availability and location of any reception facilities for the environmentally safe disposal of sediments, and any inadequacy of the reception facility. Coastal states are obliged to report any requirements and procedures relating to the Ballast Water Management, including their laws, regulations, and guidelines implementing the BWM Convention. Accordingly, any specific provision related to the implementation of the Convention, including sediment disposal management, should be adequately reported. The Guidelines (G1) are intended to support the development of the standardized connection between sediment reception facilities and ships without prescribing shore side reception plans. According to Guidelines, any sediment disposal measure shall avoid unwanted side effects to environment, human health or damage to property or resources. Adequate information on accessible facility should be made available to ships. Employed personnel should receive adequate instructions and training on sediment disposal management. Based on these rules and regulations, several countries have already adopted national requirements in addition to the internationally recognized legal framework. However, the authors were not able to find any national regulations in force (2015) detailing the sediment management, except those that essentially just transfer the BWM Convention requirements into national regulations.6 In order to provide the sufficient level of protection, more detailed procedures and requirements for facilities should be provided by the national or local regulation including collection methods, handling and storage, as well as sampling and analysis of sediment, categorization upon detected toxic compounds and selection of permanent disposal landfill. The legal framework on the sediment disposal management should cover at least the following subject areas: General provisions; Sediment disposal options; Treatment, handling and disposal of sediments; Sediment reception facilities; Reporting and Training. The list is definitely not exhausted and, if found appropriate, it can be extended with additional or more detailed descriptions of particular procedures and control measures as well as enforcement actions. The part containing General provisions should provide most important definitions (if not given in other related sources), the principles to be followed in order to protect human lives and environment and other general requirements in a scope appropriate for the parent legal document. The part dealing with Sediment disposal options should provide the
naturally. The disadvantage is that evaporation may be slow, particularly in cold areas and areas with frequent rain and high humidity.
3.2.2. Permanent storage facility The final phase in the sediment disposal process is the disposal at the permanent storage facility i.e. at dedicated landfills. Since in most cases the sediments' composition is not analyzed (no one shipyard interviewed ever considered composition analyses), the contaminated sediments may be disposed in an unsuitable area where the toxic elements may impact the environment. In many countries the legal requirements regulating waste disposal landfills, in particular type of acceptable waste, are in force. For example, EU member States have to follow the Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste that deals with municipal waste, inert waste (which does not undergo significant physical, chemical or biological transformations like construction waste), hazardous waste and non-hazardous waste. All categories should fulfil the certain criteria set up in aforementioned and other associated directives, or should be disposed or treated in specialized reception facilities (e.g. medical waste, flammable waste, etc.). For EU member States, the acceptable quantities of selected elements present in waste for different waste landfills are given in Table 1. The same table compares the thresholds to outcomes of two researches where the concentrations of heavy metals from the ballast tank sediment samples have been analyzed. Results from the Table 1 show that the concentration of heavy metals in the ballast tank sediments may be significantly higher than allowed to dispose at the “usual” landfills and even at those dedicated for hazardous waste. Consequently, if dried ballast sediment, usually looking like mud or sand, is disposed on landfills like it is done with inert or non-hazardous waste, than heavy metals (if present) may enter the ecosystems. Therefore, it is necessary that sediment collected from ships, during collection or whilst disposed at the temporary storage within the shipyard, is subject to sampling and analysis for determining the concentration of heavy metals and toxic elements. If the sediments from different ships are disposed in bulk in the same temporary storage facility, the sampling and analysis should be carried out for each ship's sediment pile. This is necessary because the sediment content may be significantly different. The results of the sediment analysis should be critical for decision on how and where permanent disposal should take place. The whole process is outlined on the Fig. 1 and includes both ship and port options.
6
Examples include:
a) U.S. Code of Federal Regulation (CFR), 2016. Title 33: Navigation and navigable area, Chapter I, Subchapter O: Pollution, Part 151: Vessels carrying oil, noxious liquid substances, garbage, municipal or commercial waste, and ballast water. b) Washington Administrative Code, 2017. Title 220: Fish and Wildlife, Department of (Fisheries), WAC 220-650-110 - Ballast tank sediment. c) Transport Canada, 2012. A Guide to Canada's Ballast Water Control and Management Regulations – TP 13617 E, Part A: Guidelines for Ballast Water Management.
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Fig. 1. The sediment collection, storage and disposal process.
Plan(s) in order to ensure uniform implementation. The part entitled Reporting should outline reporting procedures and information recording. The Training requirements should be also defined, including in particular personnel who should have appropriate training, the content of the training program and associated responsibilities. The simplified rules and regulations dealing with sediment disposal are presented in Annex 1.
basic options for disposal and should outline the most important restrictions to be observed by legal entities responsible for sediment disposal, including ships and entities taking care for the sediment after it has been unloaded. The part entitled Treatment, handling and disposal of sediments should contain the essential protective measures to be followed during sediment removal and its handling. It should also include requirements dealing with sediment sampling and compound analysis, their frequencies and scopes. The part entitled Port reception facilities should provide requirements for temporary and permanent storage facilities. If found appropriate, the facilities may be required to follow approved Sediment Disposal
5. Conclusions Sediments are removed from ballast tanks on regular basis, mostly 5
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laws regulating waste disposals. (XX) The sediment compound analysis may be conducted only by one of the recognized institutions approved by the Administration.
when their build-up is such that impacts commercial effectiveness or when thorough inspection and repair of ballast tanks is required. In most cases, sediment collection and removal is carried out at repairing shipyards by shore-based personnel and only occasionally underway or in ports, by ships' crews. When sediment is removed and unloaded in ports or shipyards, it is necessary to ensure that neither water content nor dry sediment finds its way into the sea. Unloaded sediment has to be dried at temporary storage facilities, sufficiently distant from nearest shoreline and properly protected to allow evaporation but prevent leakages into the sea. Sufficiently dry sediment may and should be permanently disposed at waste disposal facilities (landfill) where similar materials are stored. A significant concentration of heavy metals or toxic compounds may be present in the sediments. Therefore, it is necessary to take samples and analyze the sediment accumulation from each source (ship). Based on the results of the analysis, sediment should be categorized as nonhazardous or hazardous waste and disposed at a suitable and permissible landfill provided for permanent disposal. Unfortunately, it seems that importance of the proper sediment management is not yet fully recognized at national levels. In respect of that, the coastal states should further develop rules and regulations standardizing procedures and requirements for facilities where the removal, transport as well as temporary and permanent disposal of the sediment takes place. Finally, in order to ensure the overall efficiency of measures introduced through BWM Convention and related guidelines (G1), the measures, responsibilities and enforcement actions in respect of the safe collection, reception, storage and permanent disposal of ballast sediment in the environmentally sound manner, should be harmonized at least within the same region.
Sediment disposal options (XX) Sediments may be removed from the ship under controlled arrangements in port, at anchorage or in shipyard. (XX) Sediments may be collected manually or by using appropriate and approved equipment. (XX) During process of sediments' removal, temporary or permanent disposal the sediments or ballast water mixed with sediments shall not be released into sea. (XX) Any sediment disposal, handling and treatment measures and options used shall be carried out as to effectively reduce the risk of nonindigenous species, toxic compounds or heavy metals from sediment to be discharged into sea or in any other way impair or damage the environment, human health, property or resources of the disposal area. (XX) Each port or shipyard where cleaning or repair of ballast tanks takes place shall ensure appropriate sediment reception facilities and shall follow the approved Sediment Disposal Plan. Treatment, handling and disposal of sediments (XX) Before any person enters the ballast tank, the tank shall be ventilated, checked for oxygen level and existence of any toxic or flammable gas. (XX) Workers employed to collect sediment, removal and disposal shall be provided with suitable personal protective clothing and equipment including at least the following:
Acknowledgments − − − −
This publication has been produced with the financial assistance of the IPA Adriatic Cross-Border Cooperation Programme (1° STR/0005) strategic project Ballast Water Management System for Adriatic Sea Protection (BALMAS). The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of authors and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of the IPA Adriatic Cross-Border Cooperation Programme Authorities.
protective clothing, eyes protection, impermeable gloves, impermeable high boots.
(XX) During sediment collection and removal from the ballast tank, the atmosphere shall be continuously monitored and tank continuously ventilated. If there is any suspect on deterioration of the atmosphere in tank, the person operating in tank shall be equipped with personal selfcontained breathing apparatus.
Annex 1 Simplified legal framework for sediment management in ports
Sediment reception facilities General provisions (XX) Sediment reception facility may be temporary or permanent. (XX) The sediment reception facility shall provide disposal capacity of sediments in a quantity of at least X% of volume of largest ballast tank on a largest ship to be accommodated.7 (XX) Sediment reception facility shall provide:
(XX) The Sediment means any matter settled out of ballast water within ships including solid residues in ballast tanks and residues of filtering ballast water. (XX) The Ship shall remove and dispose sediments in accordance with these provisions, in accordance with ship's Ballast Water Management Plan and in accordance with additional requirements on waste disposal of the coastal state, if any. (XX) It is prohibited to discharge sediments outside the areas identified by BWM Convention or designated ballast water exchange areas (BWM Convention Regulation B-4). (XX) Sediments sampling and compound analysis shall be carried out before or during disposal process, before transport to permanent disposal area (landfill). If the sampling and analysis shall be organized before the collection process, the master (owner, operator, agent, or person in charge of the ship) must provide access to the ship to any authorized person in order to collect and take samples of sediments, examine documents and make other appropriate inquiries. (XX) The appropriate permanent disposal area (landfill) for sediments shall be determined after the analysis depending on the concentration of toxic compounds and heavy metals according to relative
− landfill, open tank or other suitable arrangement for temporary disposal of sediments, − place, landfill or methods for permanent safe and environmentally acceptable disposal of sediments. (XX) The following information shall be provided in the Sediment Disposal Plan for each sediment reception facility: − place (pier, berth, dry-dock) where sediment removal may take place,
7 According to this research, the reasonable capacity of the sediment reception facility is estimated to be at least 2% of the largest ballast tank on a largest ship to be accommodated.
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− positions, duties and contact details of personnel responsible for implementation of sediment disposal, − graphical presentation of temporary disposal areas, − description of methods applied for collection, removal and transportation of sediments, − maximum quantity (volume and weight) of sediment that may be disposed, − maximum and minimum moisture content of the sediment that may be handled, for temporary and permanent storage, − maximum rates of collection and disposal, − description of use of any equipment to off load sediments from ships (i.e. crane, container, box, vacuum cleaner …), − requirements for sampling sediments, − procedure for sediment analysis of toxic compounds and heavy metals − list of recognized institutions approved for sediment analysis and categorization − any operational limitations, − any additional special requirements for ships.
(XX) Personnel employed on sediment disposal shall receive adequate familiarization on safety procedures, tank entry procedures, human health risks and use of personal protective clothes and equipment. (XX) Managing authority of the shipyard should ensure adequate training and familiarization for personnel involved in sediment disposal. References Bailey, S.A., Duggan, I.C., van Overdijk, C.D.A., Jenkins, P.T., MacIsaac, H.J., 2003. Viability of invertebrate diapausing eggs collected from residual ballast sediment. Limnol. Oceanogr. 48 (4), 1701–1710. Bailey, S.A., Duggan, I.C., Jenkins, P.T., MacIsaac, H.J., 2005. Invertebrate resting stages in residual ballast sediment of transoceanic ships. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 62, 1090–1103. Bailey, S.A., Duggan, I.C., Nandakumar, k., MacIsaac, H.J., 2007. Sediments in ships: Biota as biological contaminants. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag. 10 (1), 93–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14634980701193870. Bax, N., Williamsona, A., Aguerob, M., Gonzalezb, E., Geeves, W., 2003. Marine invasive alien species: a threat to global biodiversity. Mar. Policy 27, 313–323. Branstator, D.K., Westphal, K.L., King, B.K., 2015. Analysis of invertebrate resting eggs and their biota in ballast tank sediment of domestic Great Lakes cargo ships. J. Great Lakes Res. 41 (1), 200–207. Briski, E., Bailey, S., MacIsaac, H.J., 2011. Invertebrates and their dormant eggs transported in ballast sediments of ships arriving to the Canadian coasts and the Laurentian Great Lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 56 (5), 1929–1939. Carlton, J.T., 1985. Transoceanic and interoceanic dispersal of coastal marine organisms: the biology of ballast water. Annu. Rev. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 23, 313–374. Carlton, J.T., Reid, D., van Leeuwen, H., 1995. Shipping study, The role of shipping in the introduction of nonindigenous aquatic organisms to the coastal waters of the United States (other than the Great Lakes) and an analysis of control options. The National Sea Grant College Program/Connecticut Sea Grant Project R/ES-6, Report No. CG-DII-95. pp. 373. Casas-Monroy, O., Roy, S., Rochon, A., 2011. Ballast sediment-mediated transport of nonindigenous species of dinoflagellates on the East Coast of Canada. Aquat. Invasions 6 (3), 231–248. David, M., Gollasch, S., 2015. Ballast water management systems for ships. pp. 109–132. In: David, M., Gollasch, S. (Eds.), Global Maritime Transport and Ballast Water Management – Issues and Solutions. Invading Nature. Springer Series in Invasion Ecology 8 Springer Science + Business Media, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 306. David, M., Gollasch, S., Cabrini, M., Perkovič, M., Bošnjak, D., Virgilio, D., 2007. Results from the first ballast water sampling study in the Mediterranean Sea - the Port of Koper study. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 54, 53–65. David, M., Gollasch, S., Leppäkoski, E., 2013. Risk assessment for exemptions from ballast water management – the Baltic Sea case study. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 75, 205–217. Davidson, I.C., Simkanin, C., 2012. The biology of ballast water 25 years later. Biol. Invasions 14, 9–13. DeForest, D.K., Brix, K.V., Adams, W.J., 2007. Assessing metal bioaccumulation in aquatic environments: the inverse relationship between bioaccumulation factors, trophic transfer factors and exposure concentration. Aquat. Toxicol. 84 (2), 236–246. Drake, L.A., Jenkins, P.T., Dobbs, F.C., 2005. Domestic and international arrivals of NOBOB (no ballast on board ships to lower Chesapeake Bay). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50 (5), 560–565. Drake, L.A., Doblin, M.A., Dobbs, F.C., 2007. Potential microbial bioinvasions via ships' ballast water, sediment, and biofilm. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 55, 333–341. Duggan, I.C., van Overdijk, C.D.A., Bailey, S.A., Jenkins, P.T., Limén, H., MacIsaac, H.J., 2005. Invertebrates associated with residual ballast water and sediments of cargocarrying ships entering the Great Lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 62, 2463–2474. Elton, C., 1958. The ecology of invasions by plants and animals. Methuen, London. Feng, D., Chen, X., Tian, W. et.al, 2016. Pollution characteristics and ecological risk of heavy metals in ballast tank sediment. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1–8. http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s11356-016-8113-z. Fofonoff, P.W., Ruiz, G.M., Steves, B., Carlton, J.T., 2003. In Ships or on Ships? Mechanisms of Transfer and Invasion for Non-native Species to the Coasts of North America. Invasive Species. Island Press, Washington DC, USA, pp. 152–182. Gollasch, S., David, M., 2016. Prevention of Marine Pollution Caused by Ship-Sourced Wastes, Report on Ballast Tank Sediment Management. Gollasch, S., MacDonald, E., Belson, S., Botnen, H., Christensen, J.T., Hamer, J.P., Houvenaghel, G., Jelmert, A., Lucas, I., Masson, D., McCollin, T., Olenin, S., Persson, A., Wallentinus, I., Wetsteyn, L.P.M.J., Wittling, T., 2002. Life in ballast tanks. In: Leppäkoski, E., Gollasch, S., Olenin, S. (Eds.), Invasive Aquatic Species of Europe Distribution, Impact and Management. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 217–231. Gollasch, S., Minchin, D., David, M., 2015. The transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens with ballast water and their impacts. In: David, M., Gollasch, S. (Eds.), Global Maritime Transport and Ballast Water Management - Issues and Solutions. Invading Nature. Springer Series in Invasion Ecology 8 Springer Science + Business Media, Dordrecht, Netherlands (306 pp.). Gregg, M.D., Hallegraeff, G.M., 2007. Efficacy of three commercially available ballast water biocides against vegetative microalgae, dinoflagellate cysts and bacteria. Harmful Algae 6, 567–584. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2006.08.009. Hallegraeff, G.M., 1998. Transport of toxic dinoflagellates via ships' ballast water:
(XX) The ship should be informed on: − − − − − −
methods of ship-to-shore sediment transfer details, information required to provide, in particular on: approximate quantity of sediment, moisture content if possible, plan of the ballast tanks, other information required from the ship.
(XX) Collection and removal of sediment to reception facilities shall not cause unnecessary delays of ships, and shall ensure safe removal of such sediments, without disturbing or endangering the environment, human health, property or resources, in conformity with other positive environmental protection legislation. (XX) The sediment reception facility and the Sediment Disposal Plan shall be approved by the responsible authority and should take into consideration provisions of the BWM Convention and “Guidelines for sediment reception facilities - G1” (IMO Resolution MEPC. 152(55), as amended). Reporting (XX) Information on the availability and location of sediment reception facilities for the environmentally safe disposal of sediments shall be reported to the International Maritime Organization and shall be available for ships arriving in the port/shipyard. (XX) The ship shall report to the intended discharge port/shipyard for disposal of sediment upon entry into the jurisdictional area of the coastal State with the approximate quantity of sediments to be discharged. (XX) The port/shipyard shall record all activities on sediments disposal including quantities removed from ships, quantities disposed on permanent disposal facility, all analysis reports and sediment categorization of each source ship. (XX) Ship shall record the quantity of sediment unloaded as well as name and location of the facility where sediments were disposed. Training (XX) Personnel in charge for sediment reception facility shall receive training including information on international and national provisions on BWM including principles of the BWM Convention, risk to the environment and human health associated to sediment disposal process, equipment and process used for sediment collection and disposal, the ship/port communication interface and understanding of local disposal requirements. 7
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Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation, U.S. Department of Transportation. Roy, S., Parenreau, M., Casas-Monroy, O., Rochon, A., 2014. Introduction of harmful dinoflagellates through ship traffic: Differences between the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of Canada. In: Kim, H.G., Reguera, B., Hallegraeff, G.M., Lee, C.K., Han, M.S., Choi, J.K. (Eds.), Harmful Algae 2012, Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Harmful Algae. International Society for the Study of Harmful Algae 2014, pp. 223–226. Ruiz, G.M., Rawlings, T.K., Dobbs, F.C., Drake, L.A., Mullady, T., Huq, A., Colwell, R.R., 2000. Global spread of microorganisms by ships. Nature 408, 49–50. Sutherland, T.F., Levings, C.D., Wiley, C., 2009. Quantifying Aquatic Invasive species in Accumulated Ballast Sediment Residuals – “Swish”: Preliminary Results. DFO-UBC Centre for Aquaculture and Environmental Research, Canada, pp. 36. Transport Canada, 2012. A Guide to Canada's Ballast Water Control and Management Regulations – TP 13617 E, Part A: Guidelines for Ballast Water Management. U.S. Code of Federal Regulation (CFR), 2016. Title 33: Navigation and Navigable Area, Chapter I, Subchapter O: Pollution, Part 151: ships Carrying Oil, Noxious Liquid Substances, Garbage, Municipal or Commercial Waste, and Ballast Water. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2013. Summary of the VGP ship Universe: Information Submitted by Ship Owner/Operators for Coverage Under the 2008 ship General Permit (VGP). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. Villac, M.C., Kaczmarska, I., Ehrman, J.M., 2013. The diversity of diatom assemblages in ships' ballast sediments: colonization and propagule pressure on Canadian ports. J. Plankton Res. 35 (6), 1267–1282. Washington Administrative Code, 2017. Title 220: Fish and Wildlife, Department of (Fisheries), WAC 220-650-110 - Ballast Tank Sediment. Wiley, C., 1997. Aquatic nuisance species: nature, transport, and regulation. In: Frank, M., D'Itri (Eds.), Zebra Mussels and Aquatic Nuisance Species. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, MI, pp. 55–63. Williams, R.J., Griffiths, F.B., Van der Wal, E.J., Kelly, J., 1988. Cargo vessel ballast water as a vector for the transport of non-indigenous marine species. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 26, 409–420. Wonham, J.M., Bailey, S.A., MacIsaac, H.J., Lewis, M.A., 2005. Modelling the invasion risk of diapausing organisms transported in ballast sediments. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 62, 2386–2398.
bioeconomic risk assessment and efficacy of possible ballast water management strategies. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 168, 297–309. Hallegraeff, G.M., Bolch, C.J., 1992. Transport of diatom and dinoflagellate resting spores in ships' ballast water: implications for plankton biogeography and aquaculture. J. Plankton Res. 14, 1067–1084. Hallegraeff, G., Gollasch, S., 2006. Anthropogenic introductions of microalgae. 379-390. In: Granéli, E., Turner, J.T. (Eds.), Ecology of Harmful Algae. Ecological Studies. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp. 189. Hamer, J.P., Lucas, I.A.N., McCollin, T.A., 2001. Harmful dinoflagellate resting cysts in ships' ballast tank sediments; potential for introduction into English and Welsh waters. Phycologia 40, 246–255. IMO, 2004. International Convention on the Control and Management of Ship's Ballast Water and Sediments. International Maritime Organization, London. IMO, 2006. Guidelines for Sediment Reception Facilities (G1), Annex 4. Resolution MEPC.152. International Maritime Organization, London, pp. 55. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 14688-1, 2002. Geotechnical Investigation and Testing – Identification and Classification of Soil – Part 1: Identification and Description. Johengen, T., Reid, D., Fahnenstiel, G., MacIsaac, H., Dobbs, F., Doblin, M., Ruiz, G., Jenkins, P., 2005. Assessment of Transoceanic NOBOB Ships and Low-Salinity Ballast Water as Vectors for Non-indigenous Species Introductions to the Great Lakes. A Final Report for the Project. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Macdonald, E., Davidson, R., 1997. Ballast Water Project - Final Report. FRS Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen. MacIsaac, H.J., Robbins, T.C., Lewis, M.A., 2002. Modeling ships' ballast water as invasion threats to the Great Lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 59 (7), 1245–1256. Maglić, L., Zec, D., Frančić, V., 2016. Ballast water sediment elemental analysis. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 103 (1–2), 93–100. Official Journal of the European Communities, 1999. Council Directive 1999/31/EC. April 1999 on the Landfill of Waste. Oreščanin, V., 2014. Inertizacija zagađenih sedimenata različitim kemijskim metodama. Hrvatske vode 89, 227–238. Reid, D.F., 2012. The Role of Osmotic Stress (Salinity Shock) in Protecting the Great Lakes from Ballast-Associated Aquatic Invaders. Technical Report prepared for the U.S.
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