Barrage participation and feedback in travel reality shows: The effects of media on destination image among Generation Y

Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 12 (2019) 27–36

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Research Paper

Barrage participation and feedback in travel reality shows: The effects of media on destination image among Generation Y

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Xiaofei Hao, Shuojing Xu, Xiaoming Zhang∗ School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen University, PR China

ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Keywords: Barrage East Asia Effects of media Tourism destination image Travel reality show Iceland Young generation

Barrage, also known as "bullet screen," is a new, instantly updated interactive commenting system attached and synchronized with online videos, that has recently become widespread in East Asia. This paper analyses the content and emotion of barrages on the Korean reality show Youth Over Flowers in Iceland. Exploring the effects of the reality show on the audience's cognitive, affective and conative image of Iceland, the paper finds that the young viewer's image of Iceland is consistent with the destination's local tourism characteristics and is related to their travel intentions. The paper also proposes a media effect classification framework to provide a reference for the joint marketing of media and tourism destinations to young viewers. The paper suggests that barrages may help researchers identify the exact moment when viewers are experiencing something in a destination-themed multimedia show, which will further develop the theoretical and practical aspects of tourism destination image.

1. Introduction Travel reality shows have become popular in recent years on television and online video platforms. They are considered to have greater emotional resonance with audiences than traditional films and television series (Riley & Van Doren, 1992; Tessitore, Pandelaere, & Kerckhove, 2014). By presenting refined, integrated and packaged “image elements” of tourism destinations, they enable viewers to establish perceptions and emotions about the destinations. The outdoor features and the fluidity of shots in travel reality shows represent the tourism destination image comprehensively, showing a more interesting and authentic alternative than traditional films and TV series. Reality shows thus reach a wider target audience and can generate interest in a particular destination among individuals who are not in the traditional advertising target group (Riley & Doren, 1992). Compared to traditional films and TV series, reality shows have different ways of presenting the destination. Such shows fulfil the audience's pursuit of authenticity, since the audience perceives the image of the destination in the reality show as “real”. Thus, the audience shows a higher degree of cognitive participation and expands its understanding of the destination (Hall, 2009). Moreover, reality shows are a more cost-effective way to promote destination activities than films and television shows (Hudson, Wang, & Moreno, 2011). Current research on travel reality shows has focused mostly on the macro effects, such as economic promotion; however, there is a dearth of research on media effects at

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the micro level. The detailed effects of reality shows on viewers' cognition, emotion and behavior are not yet clearly understood in media assessment and destination marketing. In communication studies, the effects of the media is a core topic. From bullet theory to moderate effects theory, researchers have shown that the audience can actually influence the media effects and can thus deviate the communication intention. Some researchers have shown that if the audience can achieve synchronous feedback on the state of mental selection when exposed to tourism information, it will optimize of the elements of tourism information dissemination (Sun, 2009). The audience's synchronous feedback offers an important opportunity to study the effects of information dissemination. In recent years, "barrage" has emerged as an information carrier that can embody audience synchronization feedback. It is thus an important research topic for studying media effects. Barrage (弹 (dàn) 幕 (mù) ), also referred to as a ‘bullet screen,’ is a new way of commenting and interacting online. It usually refers to the numerous, short, fast-moving comments that overlap and scroll across the screen, resembling densely populated bullets. The bullet screen originated from NicoNico animation, a Japanese video-sharing website (Fig. 1), which soon spread to mainland China, where it was first applied to the AcFun.com and Bilibili.com websites. In recent years, it has begun to appear on almost all Chinese mainstream video platforms. Different from comments outside the text, the barrage flows and attaches to the image, and is highly synchronized with the image of the

Corresponding author. 135 Xingangxi Road, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, PR China E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2019.02.004 Received 27 August 2018; Received in revised form 24 January 2019; Accepted 5 February 2019 2212-571X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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2. Literature review 2.1. Destination image Tourist destination image is a highly abstract and complex concept with a relatively long research history that can be traced back to the pioneering works by Hunt (1975) and Crompton (1977). After a comparative and critical review of more than 20 papers, Echtner and Ritchie (1991, 1993) suggested a framework for measuring destination image that included components such as attribute-based images, holistic impressions, and functional, psychological, unique and common characteristics. Though this is a conceptual framework, it combines both structured and unstructured methodologies to measure destination image; the much more popular framework is only defined by the subjective reactions of tourists, such as the individuals' understanding, feelings and mental representations of the overall image (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). Thus, destination image is typically considered to contain dimensions of cognitive and affective images. For cognitive images, cognition represents the understanding, beliefs and knowledge held by the individual about the destination. The affective image represents the individual's affection toward the destination (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997). In an early attempt to understand destination image, Gartner et al. (1993) posited a “three-dimensional structure” – which included cognitive, affective and conative image – in which the conative image refers to the tourist's intention, action or possibility of visiting the destination within a certain period of time. Conation is determined by the establishment of the destination image in the cognitive stage and the evaluation of the affection stage of tourists, and is comparable to tourists' behavioral tendency. Some scholars have explored the relationship between destination image and behavioral tendencies. Hong (2006) found that the more positive the attitude of potential tourists towards the destination image, the more likely they are to visit. Based on the theory of emotional assessment, Tu et al. (2017) concluded that the positive emotions generated by the cognitive evaluation of a destination could significantly positively affect tourists' behavioral intention. Some scholars have also shown that tourists' affection affiliated with some cognitive components towards the destination image has become increasingly important in recent years. Questionnaires were mainly used to measure tourists' affection towards the destination image; however, this approach ignores the immediacy and dynamics of emotion. Studies have shown that the audience's perception of the destination image can be regarded as a process of information processing. Their processing of media information influences the strength of the media effects. The audience can furthermore take subjective initiative both in perception of destination image and dissemination of information. Thus, the effects of media must be studied from the audience's perspective.

Fig. 1. A screenshot from Niconico animation – the bullet text as instant interactive feedback scrolling across the screen (http://www.nicovideo.jp/ watch/sm6090958).

video. Therefore, along with the development of information technology, barrage provides a way to analyze viewers' perspectives in the new media environment. As barrage has diffused phenomenally throughout East Asian online culture, especially in the Chinese context, it has evoked increasing research interest. Barrage users are believed to be mostly between the ages of 18 and 30 (Zhou, 2016a) and identify with Generation Y (i.e. groups mainly from the early 1980s to the end of the 1990s in the Chinese context, Chen & He, 2014; or people born during 1977–1992 in the Western context, Glass, 2007). As the most homogenous and influential spending generation that will soon surpass the Baby Boomers (Benckendorff, Moscardo & Pendergast, 2010), the most prominent feature of this group is that they were born in an era of electronic information technology. Some scholars have noticed this group's demands in tourism development, such as their spending and traveling more than previous generations, and acquiring information through numerous channels prior to booking to ensure that consumption of an experience is worthwhile (Benckendorff, , Moscardo, , & Pendergast, 2010; Bilgihan, Okumus, & Cobanoglu, 2013; Semrad & Rivera, 2016). Young viewers' enthusiasm for barrage demonstrates their demand for online participation and interaction (Long & Wang, 2015). Himmelweit and Swift (2010) proposed that people's taste for media continues throughout their lives, and based on empirical study, Generation Y is very likely to provide positive marketing for the destination (Semrad & Rivera, 2016). In recent years, travel reality shows on Chinese video websites, most often celebrity-casted, have been equipped with barrage, which has solidified their popularity among Generation Y of mainland China. Based on the popularity of barrage, reality shows are re-edited and made into short videos for a second broadcasting. Barrage has thus become an important channel for studying media effects, and it is unlikely that the synchronized audience feedback will be replaced any time soon. Numerous travel reality shows decompose, process, synthesize and represent destination images. They convey various kinds of information about the destination, such as the landscape, accommodation and transportation options. Therefore, it is important for tourism destination managers to gain a comprehensive understanding about what will trigger young generation's travel intention. Moreover, the ability of China's Generation Y to travel and consume should not be underestimated. This study thus explores young audiences' perceptions and uses of barrage texts, particularly attached to travel-themed online reality shows, to analyze their perceptions and affection towards tourist destinations. It focuses on viewers' feedback and uses barrage to dynamically capture the cognition and emotion of young viewers. In short, this study aims to identify the relationship among online reality shows, barrage, and the effects on destination images of contemporary youth in order to support to predictions of future market developments.

2.2. Information sources for destination image formation The tourist's perception of the destination image is based on the processing of different information sources over a period of time (Court & Lupton, 1997). Baloglu and McCleary (1999) examined various types of information source for destination image formation. They found that variety and type of information sources influence only perceptual/ cognitive evaluations, whereas sociopsychological motivations influence only affect. Moreover, they highly suggested that affect is more likely to serve as an intervening variable between perceptual/cognitive evaluations and overall image. Beerli and Martín (2004) argued that primary and secondary sources of information influence both tourists' perception of the destination image before travel and their evaluation of it after. Secondary information includes inducing information sources, such as advertisements and spontaneous information sources such as movies and television.

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The past decade has witnessed the rapid growth of a new information source: user-generated content (UGC). People also make good use of UGC to realize interpersonal interaction in their tourism related experiences. Typical social media websites such as Facebook, Flickr, and Twitter, as well as interest-oriented communities such as blogs or YouTube, allow tourists to share their travel experiences with others by uploading verbal, acoustic, and visual materials online, an activity that has gained popularity among Internet users (Chi, Wu, Morrison, Zhang, & Chen, 2015; Stepchenkova & Zhan, 2013). Schmallegger and Carson (2009) conducted a case study that analyzed blogs, review sites and special-interest forums, in comparison to official images promoted by the destination marketing organization, in order to assess the destination images presented by two different markets. This revealed that different types of consumer-generated contents (CGC) websites encourage different levels of information exchange. Tourists who contribute to the online information sources of a destination, as agents in the image-formation processes (Camprubí, Guia, & Comas, 2013), tend to avoid using of the formal elements of the traditional or official brands (Munar, 2011). Although some reviews consider how UGC on the Internet has increasingly been regarded as a credible form of word-of-mouth (see Stepchenkova & Zhan, 2013), and although the related contents have been repeatedly proved to be especially useful for destination analyses or renewal in marketing and management (Chi et al., 2015; Kim, Lee, Shin, & Yang, 2017; Llodrariera, Martínezruiz, Jiménezzarco, & Izquierdoyusta, 2015b, 2015a; Mak, 2017; Yan, Yao, Ping, & Wang, 2015), the actually practical value of UGC or more information sources from new media remains unclear. For instance, a questionnaire-based survey shows that a communication-mix strategy, which combines both traditional/offline and online sources, could be designed to more effectively manage tourist destination image perceptions (McCartney, Butler, & Bennett, 2008), whilst another study based on a multicultural sample of 592 tourists shows that destination image is worse when tourists use a travel agency and the Internet together than when they use a travel agency alone (Frías, Rodríguez, & Castañeda, 2008). What is certain, however, is that the technological changes represented by UGC have recently encouraged some researchers to consider the destination-image-formation process from a holistic perspective that may perceive and classify acquired information or knowledge in this field (Hyangmi & Chen, 2016) and to develop a framework to conceptualize destination image formation considering sociocultural, political, historical and technological influences (Kislali, Kavaratzis, Saren, & Dioko, 2016). Particularly, the enormous growth of online travel reviews, presented and accumulated in various forms in websites and virtual communities every day, requires operationalization through computerized methods (Gurung & Goswami, 2017; Marine-Roig & Clavé, 2016), which also requires new understanding of research data and detailed methods for downloading, arranging, cleaning, debugging and analyzing.

considered an important factor impacting on the strength of media effects. Theories such as media persuasion (see McGuire, 1968; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986), social cognitive theory (see Bandura, 2001) and priming effects (see Domke, Shah, & Wackman, 1998) consider the audience's cognitive reflections on media information. Klapper (1960) showed that the audience has selective attention, understanding and memory of media information. Lowery (2009) argued that the audience evolved from individuals passively receiving media stimuli to individuals actively selecting and using information. Current research on the effects of Chinese domestic media tends to study Weibo, micromovies and product placement, as well as reality shows. Reality shows center on the participants and their real activities, presenting the journey through the participants' travel activities and actual experiences (Zeng, 2015). In contrast to traditional advertising placement, travel reality shows can have a longer-term effect on viewers as they have a number of episodes and seasons (Tessitore et al., 2014). Existing research has focused on the fact that travel reality shows influence the destination image (e.g. Hall, 2009; Hudson et al., 2011). This type of study, however, offers only a preliminary analysis and in-depth research on the effects of reality shows remains rare. A "barrage" is a randomly arrayed foreground consisting of instantly emerging texts that target to load some previous audience's comments and/or respond to the ongoing multimedia flow of the original show. Its characteristics of participation, immediacy and emotionality distinguish it from traditional commentary texts (Li, 2016). Chinese scholars have focused primarily on the origin and development of barrage, the category of barrage and how barrage websites operate (Chen & He, 2014; Ma, 2015). Scholars have also increasingly considered its unique language system. Zhou (2016b) studied the forms and specific contents of the color, length and symbols of barrages. Zhou argued that the barrage audience creatively decodes and reproduces the meaning of the video. Zhou (2016a) studied the discourse structure and style of barrages, and noted the fragmentation and non-linearity of the text. Teenagers deconstructed and rebelled against authority through barrage. Zheng, Xu and Xiao (2015) conducted an emotion analysis and visual processing on barrages and found that emotional data can be applied as emotional tags for videos. In all, barrage can be properly understood as a special type of UGC characterized as massively interactive, screen-centered, and real-time. Scholars have focused on the barrage audience as a unique subculture due to its increasing prominence in East Asian contemporary network culture. Some scholars have studied the motives of barrage users and found that instantly shared barrages satisfy their needs for social expression, emotional catharsis and mutual inspiration (Endo, 2015; Li, 2016). Participants can send, read and communicate through barrages and thereby also capture each other's attention, further stimulating a rich emotional exchange and helping to create a unique symbol for the group (Deng, 2015, pp. 14-19). The audience constructs productive symbolized texts through barrages, interacts with the original text in the discourse through struggle or compromise, and creates meaning by sharing the subcultural circle (Zhou, 2016a). According to Dijck (2009), with the advent of Web 2.0, audiences were empowered to participate in the dissemination of culture, which can be viewed as a type of participatory culture. In terms of research on media effects, the strengthening of the audience's participation through barrage makes barrage texts a worthy topic for further study.

2.3. Media effects and barrage studies “Media effects” refer to the changes of individuals or social entities influenced by mass media after being exposed to mass media information (Potter, 2011). Early studies, represented by Schramm (1954), introduced the idea that information dissemination was like shooting a gun: when the bullets hit the audience, they have the same effect on any individual. Limited effects theory, posited by Klapper (1960), claims that the content of media reaches the audience through the interference of mediating factors. Thus, the disseminators’ expected communication intentions deviate in terms of both the direction and intensity of the dissemination. In the 1980s, the powerful effect hypothesis returned, and in contrast to the bullet theory, the moderate effects theory was indirect, complex, long-term, macroscopic and social (Severin & Tankard, 2001). In the process of theoretical development, the audience was

3. Methodology This study focused on the Korean travel reality show Youth Over Flowers in Iceland. This show was broadcast on tvN in South Korea in January 2016 and won the Best Content Award (Variety) in the 2016 tvN10 Awards. Tencent Video bought the copyright and allowed it to be broadcast in China. With an average of nearly 800,000 broadcasts for each episode per season, the sample size available for this research was large. After a comparative study on the sampling of travel reality shows, 29

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Youth Over Flowers was chosen for several reasons: (1) it presents a comprehensive description of the destination; (2) it receives a high degree of praise, especially among young audiences; (3) it is traveloriented, and there is no competitive element or obvious storyline deliberately arranged by the program group; and (4) its broadcast platform was Tencent Video (with a total paying member over 65,290,000 in 2018, Tencent Video is ranked No.1 paying online video platform in China, and active clients reaches 150 million each day), with barrage available for young audiences to participate.

information includes data on attractions, traffic, accommodations, climate and other factors (Chen, 2003). Based on this definition, these data were combined with the content of the program to delete, merge and subdivide the above elements, establishing the typical video clips for research. These clips were aired from 17–21 February 2017. Collected manually, the materials included seven elements: natural landscapes, cultural landscapes, accommodations, diet, transportation, climate and tourist activities. In total, 28 video clips were collected with a total of 1620 barrages, including natural landscapes (14 clips), cultural landscapes (four clips), diet (two clips), accommodations (two clips), transportation (one clip), climate (one clip), and tourist activities (four clips). The authors also assorted the barrages of 28 video clips per episode for further correlation analysis: 296 barrages in the clips from the first episode, 342 from the second episode, 313 from the third, 329 from the fourth, 139 from the fifth, and 201 from the sixth.

3.1. Analysis of content and emotion Content analysis is a method of analyzing texts by coding, establishing data and performing calculations, summarizing, and comparing texts to make descriptions, explanations and inferences (Peng, 2012). Thus, content analysis is seen as a research method for making replicable and valid inferences from data to their context, with the purpose of providing knowledge, new insights, a representation of facts and a practical guide to action (Krippendorff, 1980, 2004). It has been applied mainly to the fields of library and information science, journalism and communication, computer science (Bos & Tarnai, 1999), geography, tourism and culture-related research (see Hall & Valentin, 2005; Stepchenkova, Kirilenko, & Morrison, 2009), and in recent years especially in the analysis of new media such as blogs (Sun, Ryan, & Pan, 2014), websites (Brejla & Gilbert, 2014) as well as other visuals (Hunter, 2013). Content analysis is a method of analyzing information and changes of document content to infer actual meaning, based on specific meaningful words and phrases (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). It is neither quantitative nor qualitative: content analysis was born with “mixed blood” (Bauer, 2000; Krippendorff, 1980). Content analysis thus represents a very broad-based methodology, with many potential perspectives to develop, for example, when the content relates to “emotion”. The analysis of emotion refers to the process of identifying and processing texts that contain emotional tendencies and analyzing the attitudes and opinions of reviewers (Chen, 2012). In this study, the analysis of emotion was used to process textual data. Analysis of emotion usually involves an emotion dictionary-based method and a machine-based learning method. The machine-based learning method is suitable for large-scale corpora and long texts, and incudes the main steps of text structuring, selection of classifiers, and training and evaluation of models (see Paltoglou & Thelwall, 2010; Pang & Lee, 2002). Since barrages are scattered, short texts (usually no more than 10 words) with a simple sentence structure and involve the direct communication of emotions, the machine-based learning method is not suitable. However, the emotion dictionary-based method is applicable to word- and sentence-level short texts, which makes it a good fit for barrage text. The main steps include establishing emotional dictionaries and rules, disassembling of texts, and searching, annotating and assigning emotional words (see Turney, 2002; Wan, 2008; Wei & Pal, 2010). Many different methods are applied in the field of emotion analysis, including commentary analysis and public-opinion monitoring. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, there has been only one study on the emotional analysis of barrage in China (Zheng, Xu, & Xiao, 2015). This study fails to take into consideration the degree of emotions, however, and the application of the results is limited to emotional tags and video retrieval. The present study strengthens the emotional analysis and conducts subsequent mining of the data. As barrage texts have the characteristics of direct emotion, simple structure, and limited size, this study employs the emotion dictionary-based analysis method.

3.3. Data analysis 3.3.1. Establishing the catalogue of barrage data This study used inductive reasoning to establish categories for comparing and inducing data. Categories were established when there were enough cases to support these characteristics (Peng, 2012). The first and second authors conducted the collection together and discussed the selection of video clips. The barrages in the video clips were then manually collected as a text transcript on the Tencent Video platform. Establishing a catalogue of barrage data involved the following steps. First, the barrages were collected for intensive reading, whereby the researchers became familiar with the research subject and determined the representative information for each category. This study divided the barrages into two categories: destination-relevant (650 barrages) and destination-irrelevant (970 barrages). The evaluation of destination-irrelevant barrages was further divided into the following aspects: evaluation of the guests, evaluation of the means of processing the reality show, evaluation of the reality show itself, evaluation of the same kinds of reality shows, discussion of the films and TV shows in which the guests had been engaged and interaction among viewers. Adding the aspect of evaluation of destination from the destination-relevant barrages, a total of five aspects of barrages were obtained for categorization. While the first coding process was detailed and comprehensive, it was ultimately redundant as the categories overlapped. By sorting the first coding information points and comparing them to the primary coding segments, overlapping information was merged and renamed. The second coding process distinguished between five types of barrages: those related to the destination, to the guests, to the show itself, to artistic processing and to the audience's extensive interaction. After all the barrage comments were coded, samples were read to ensure that the information points were intact and no overlap existed among categories. Five categories of barrages were elaborated: those related to the destination (e.g. “It is so beautiful and I will visit Iceland for sure in the future”); those related to guests (e.g. “Ha Neul seems very cold”); those related to the show itself (e.g. “I like the reality show very much”); those related to the artistic processing (e.g. “The background music is so good”); and those related to the audience's extensive interaction (e.g. “There is also aurora in Mohe in Heilongjiang province”) (see Table 1). 3.3.2. Construction of emotion dictionary and the algorithm design of barrage data The barrage texts contained significant information on emotions that were real, direct, dynamic, and important factors in the audience's attitude towards the destination. This study conducted an emotional analysis of 650 barrages related to the destination, using the emotion analysis path shown in Fig. 2. The widely recognized HowNet (知网) Emotion Dictionary (Zhang & Cao, 2015) and the Chinese Emotion Dictionary of the National Taiwan University (NTUSD, Yang, Feng, Wang, Yang, & Yu, 2010) were

3.2. Data collection Using purposive sampling, this study drew barrages from only those video clips where travel-related information was presented. Tourist 30

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Table 1 The example of barrage collection: categories and text examples. Clip element：Aurora（Natural landscape） Clip duration：4th episode 53:57–56:02 Barrage category

Barrage text (examples)

Barrage number

A. Barrage related to the destination

i.e..It is so beautiful and I will visit Iceland for sure in the future i.e..I can't stop smiling when I see the aurora i.e..I must go there! i.e..Ha Neul seems very cold. i.e..Fortune favours fools … i.e. I like the reality show very much. i.e. Producer Luo's program is too good! i.e. The post production is really good at BGM(background music) i.e. BGM_Just the way you are … i.e. ‘There is also aurora in Mohe in Heilongjiang province.(in China)

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B. Barrage related to the guests C. Barrage related to the show itself D. Barrage related to the artistic processing E. Barrage related to the audience's extensive interaction

integrated and duplicated to establish a new basic emotion dictionary. Since network terms were frequently used in the barrages, data from Weibo1 and other social networks were gleaned, and popular network terms with emotional connotations were tagged and added. At the same time, the ROST CM6 (Content Mining 6)2 was used to segment the words and count the frequency of certain words in barrages. High-frequency words that did not appear in the basic emotion dictionary were extracted and their polarity was determined according to context, which is one of the sources of the emotional lexicon. Negative words changed the polarity of the emotional words. There were 28 negative words introduced in this study, including no (不, bu), cannot (不能, bu neng), don't (不要, bu yao), without (没有, mei you), don't (别, bie), no (没, mei), without (无, wu), hard (难以, nan yi), and haven't (未曾, wei ceng) (Zhang, 2000). Degree adverbs affected the degree of emotional tendency. This study referred to the HowNet degree adverbs dictionary3 and divided degree adverbs into four indicators: extreme, very, more and -ish. According to the HowNet emotion dictionary, five values were given to each indicator. Colloquial expressions that appeared in the barrages, such as “It is so gorgeous that I got goose bumps”, were also added to the degree adverbs dictionary, after being judged for degree. This study used Python4 to design a specific emotion analysis algorithm (see Table 2). Assessment of emotional orientation included two dimensions: whether the semantic meanings of the emotional words were positive or negative, and the intensity of the emotional words. The specific process and rules were as follows:

14 7 4 14

Table 2 Semantic rules of emotion analysis and examples for algorithm. Combination

Calculation rules

Algorithm in Python

Sentiment words

S=V （V = 1/—1） S = M*V （M = 2.5/2/1/0.5） S = （-1）N1 *V （N1 = the number of negative words） S=V*2N2 （N2 = the number of exclamation marks）

If word in posdict: Poscount+ = 1 If word in mostdict: Poscount * = 2.5 If judgeodd(c) = ’odd’: Poscount * = —1.0

Degree adverb &sentiment word NegativeWord &sentiment word Sentiment Word &exclamation Mark

Elif word = ’!’: If word in posdict: Poscount+ = 2

(4) Identify the degree adverbs before the emotional words, set the values for degree adverbs and multiply by the emotional values; (5) Identify negative words before the emotional words. If the number of negative words is odd, the polarity of emotions is reversed. If the number is even, the polarity of emotions is not changed; (6) Identify exclamation marks after emotional words. An exclamation mark intensifies the degree of emotion, making the value of the sentences two times stronger; and (7) Read and record the emotional tendency values. 3.3.3. Test of emotion analysis algorithms To test the performance of the above algorithm, three researchers manually marked the emotional polarity of the barrages in advance and extracted a portion of the barrages to test whether results were consistent. For controversial barrages, the study followed the principle of “the minority is subordinate to the majority”. The final result was used as a reference to test the performance of the above algorithm. This study used the index of accuracy to evaluate the performance. “Accuracy rate” refers to the probability that the algorithm correctly judges the emotional tendencies of certain barrages. It was used to measure the algorithm's consistency with the manual labeling results

(1) Import into Python the barrages and dictionaries that were used for emotional analysis; (2) Read the barrage data and import the word segmentation module to segment the barrages; (3) Match emotional words in the barrage after the word segmentation with the emotion dictionaries to judge their emotional polarities, wherein positive emotional words are assigned +1 and negative emotional words are assigned −1;

Fig. 2. Technology path of emotion analysis. 31

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0.4 1.2 1.5

58.48 69.88 66.67 40 0

New accommodation Accommodation in Reykjavik Car renting Snowstorm Taking pictures,dancing and performing Walking along road Playing with snow Feeding swan

0.67 1.31 0.44 −1.28 0

16.13 21.62 26.67 81.82 63.33 71.43 Flea market Reykjavic Church Live café Christmas streetscape Expensive seafood Local seafood

−1 1.17 1.5 1.62 −0.85 −0.26

The ratio of barrage related to the destination (%)

11.76 13.89 19.23

This study constructed three indicators: the ratio of destination-related barrages to the total number of barrages in certain video clips; the emotional tendency value of the barrages associated with the destination; and the ratio of barrages expressing the audience's intention to visit the destination to the total number of barrages in a certain episode. Through these three indicators, the study examined the media effects of the reality show on the audience's perception of the destination, emotion and perception of conation, respectively. 4.1. The influence of the reality show on the cognitive image of the destination The ratio of destination-related barrages to the total number of barrages in certain video clips was used to extract the audience's perception of Iceland. It was also used to measure the audience's attention to the destination image. This study combined definitions of “involvement” from tourism and communication studies. It used the above indicator to measure the extent to which the audience was motivated by the travel information and measured whether the audience generated interest and participated in interpreting clues directly related to the tourist information. Among the clips focusing on natural landscape, accommodations and transportation, the audience posted a higher proportion of barrages related to destinations, including the following topics: diet (67.2%) > transportation (66.67%) > accommodation (63.79%) > natural landscape (40.80%) > climate (40%) > cultural landscape (31.29%) > activities (8.39%). This showed that the audience showed a high degree of attention to the food, accommodations and natural scenery of Iceland; thus, it was easy to establish awareness of the destination through such elements. In terms of the natural landscape, the highest proportion of the eight elements in the 14 landscape elements was the direct evaluation of the destination, which could be regarded as a prominent factor in the audience's perception of Iceland in the reality show. More than 50% of destination-related barrages were for Thingvellir National Park, the ice caves, Gullfoss and the two auroras, indicating that the audience was particularly aware of these elements. In terms of the cultural landscape, only the proportion of the barrages associated with the destination in the Christmas street scene exceeded 50%, reaching 81.82%. For others, including the flea market, Reykjavik Church, and the live concert in a café, the ratio of destination-related barrages was less than 30%. The audience was not actively aware of these elements, indicating low sensitivity. In terms of food, transportation and accommodations, the proportion of barrages related to the destination was more than 50%, indicating that the audience was highly aware of these elements. Through these elements, the audience established or reinforced their understanding of the destination and further expressed their feelings towards it. In terms of the destination's climate, the proportion of barrages did not exceed 50%. However, it ranked first in terms of the ratio of

1.50 1.53 1.68 54.43 57.50 75.16 Ice cave Gullfoss waterfall Aurora（first time）

Traffic Climate Leisure &recreation

Accommodation

1.15 1.17 1.22 1.38 1.45 36.59 40.9 41.86 50.00 53.45

Diet

Cultural landscape

0.56 0.80 0.89 1.03 1.08 1.13 7.55 15.58 20.31 21.74 29.63 35.29 Natural landscape

Jokulsarlon Ring road Columnar joint Reennis black beach Forest waterfall Hot spring around snow mountain Black beach Panoramic Geyser’ fountain Thingvellir park Aurora（2nd time）

Specific scenery

The ratio of barrage related to the destination (%)

when making certain judgments. The algorithm's accuracy was 67.13%, which was better than that of 54.23% obtained by ROST_EA5. However, to improve the accuracy of the subsequent analysis, the Python algorithm and manual error correction were used to artificially assign the sentences in the barrages that were emotionally introverted and difficult for algorithm to recognize. It manually corrected the barrages that had been wrongly judged or missed. For example, in the case of the barrage “How can it be called expensive? If you think it is expensive, then you go to Southeast Asia,” the original meaning of the barrage was that the price of accommodations in Iceland was reasonable, but the algorithm only recognized the word ‘expensive’ and defined it as a negative emotion. Thus, in this situation, its assignment was manually modified to +1. 4. Results

Element category

Table 3 Audiences’ perception intensity and emotional attitudes towards the destination.

Emotional tendency

Element category

Specific scenery

Emotional tendency

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television but an active processor of information. The audience might experience the scene depicted in the movie (Kim & Richardson, 2003). Furthermore, this willingness to express tourism as a symbol of an alternative experience is closely related to the intensity of the audience's emotional tendencies.

barrages discussing the guests. The specific clip in the reality show about climate referred to guests returning in a snowstorm. Although the audience was somewhat distracted from the bad weather by desperation of the guests, the climate was still a prominent perception factor in the destination image. 4.2. The influence of reality shows on the affective image of the destination

4.4. The media effect framework of reality shows in youth audience's perception of the destination image

The emotional tendency value of the barrages associated with the destination was used to examine the audience's perception of Iceland and measure their recognition of information related to the destination image. The affective image of the destination refers to the audience's affection for the destination. Emotional analysis was used to assess the audience's affection in the barrages. This included assessments such as “it is so beautiful”, and the audience's perceptions, such as “I feel so happy”, “I feel so excited” and other expressions of mood. Table 3 shows that the audience generally had positive emotions about Iceland's natural landscape, accommodations and transportation but had negative emotions about its climate and diet as a whole.

The audience's perceived intensity differed from the emotion of different elements of the destination image. Likewise, the audience's attention and recognition of different travel messages also differed. This indicated the different coverage and persuasion effects of different tourist messages. This research builds on a media effect classification framework based on the audience's attention to and recognition of different travel information. It measured the media effects of the reality show in shaping and propagating the destination image. In the measure of the persuasion effect, the emotional tendency value of the barrage associated with the destination was taken as the indicator. In the measurement of the coverage effect, the ratio of destination-related barrages to the total number of the barrages in certain video clips multiplied by the ordered weight of the destination-related barrage was taken as an indicator.

4.3. The influence of reality shows on the conative image of the destination The ratio of the barrages expressing a desire to visit was used to measure the audience's intention to visit Iceland. The evaluation of the audience's willingness to travel in the barrages included “I must go there one time in my life”, “I really want to go to Iceland”, etc. Studies have shown that the more positively people perceived destinations, the more willing they were to visit (e.g. Chen & Kerstetter, 1999; Court & Lupton, 1997; Goodrich, 1978; Yuksel, Yuksel, & Bilim, 2010). The ratio of barrages expressing the audience's desire to visit to the total number of barrages in a certain episode was used as an indicator. The mean value of the emotional tendencies of the clips in each episode was statistically measures and the relationship between the audience's emotional tendencies and their desire to visit explored, as shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3 indicates that while the fluctuations of the two were slightly different, the overall trend was more consistent. The correlation between the two datasets using SPSS 21.0 was analyzed. The significance value was less than 0.05 at 95% significance level, and the R-value reached 0.876, showing a clear correlation. As the barrages cannot determine whether there was consistency between viewers expressing their desire to visit and those expressing emotional tendencies to the destination, the attitudes and behaviors discussed here show only a phenomenological correlation. At the same time, attitudes and behaviors can change and are unpredictable. Moreover, barrages such as “I really want to go” and “I must go there one time in my life” can also be seen as expressions of alternative experiences. Some scholars have argued that the audience is not a bystander when watching film or

4.4.1. Strong effect area In this area, the audience's attention and recognition of the message was high. This type of information was mainly related to Iceland's uniqueness and well-known natural landscapes (i.e. Aurora and Gullfoss) and local accommodations and transportation. Such messages were novel, important, enjoyable and self-related to the audience, enabling the audience to maximize the establishment of a sense and emotion of destination. The elements in this area can be regarded as the core competitiveness of the destination image, suggesting that the media should adopt a more comprehensive, detailed and life-oriented mode of presentation. 4.4.2. Low coverage - strong persuasion effect area In this area, the audience's attention to the message was low, but their recognition was high. This type of information involved Iceland's cultural landscape and some natural landscapes. The audience had limited consciousness and external stimuli must reach a certain intensity to be recognized and produce corresponding behavior. Elements in this area can be viewed as opportunities for the promoting of the destination image, as the media can use novel, interesting and repetitive methods of presentation to enhance the stimulating intensity for tourists.

Fig. 3. The relationship between audience's emotion tendencies and audience's willingness to visit the destination under the reality show. 33

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Fig. 4. The media effect classification model (Light grey dot = diet; Dark grey dot = transportation; Yellow dot = accommodations; Blue dot = natural landscape; Light yellow dot = climate; Red dot = cultural landscape; Green dot = activities). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

transportation and climate, they had a weak perception of Iceland's cultural landscape. The positive perceptions of the audience included beautiful and magical natural landscapes, cultural landscapes that were full of unique, Scandinavian style and value-for-money accommodation, and expensive but convenient rental cars. Negative perceptions included high-priced and unpalatable food, and extreme climate. At the same time, young viewers were interested in visiting the destination. The more positive their perception of the destination, the stronger they expressed their desire to visit. This result is in line with the relationship found in previous studies. Second, the audience's expression of desire to visit the destination can also be regarded as the empathy phenomenon in tourism. Kim and Richardson (2003) argued that the audience is a positive information processor. In the process of watching a film about a destination, they will experience the scene depicted in the film. This empathic alternative experience is also reflected in reality shows and is closely related to the emotional intensity of the audience, especially in terms of magical and unique natural landscapes. Third, viewers have a selective mechanism for the travel information disseminated by the media. The media does not always allow the audience to pay attention to and receive persuasive information, which supports the finding in communication studies that the subjective initiative of the audience influences the effect of media. Based on the viewer's selective attention, they will regard some messages disseminated by the media more highly than others. These may be novel and meet their expectations (i.e. Iceland's natural landscape), may be important and highly relevant to self (i.e. food, accommodation and transportation), or may deviate from their normal conditions (i.e. Iceland's cold climate and high prices compared to China). To some extent, these results correspond to previous findings that the degree of involvement can be regarded as a multidimensional structure consisting of importance/interest, self-expression, centrality, risk possibility and risk outcome, among others (Llodràriera, Martínezruiz, Jiménezzarco, & Izquierdoyusta, 2015a). Research on tourists tends to focus on their behavioral aspects. Little attention has been paid to the process of their

4.4.3. Strong coverage - low persuasion effect area In this area, the audience gave high attention to the message but low recognition. This type of information related to Iceland's diet and climate, which was a relatively negative but prominent image for tourism. The display of such information can reduce the uncertainty of the audience but may also reduce their recognition of the destination. If this reality is concealed, the audience will become aware when they shift from being a potential to an actual visitor, and the discrepancy may reduce their overall satisfaction. The media's dissemination of such information will subtly weaken and transfer the negative emotions and existing impressions of the audience on the basis of reality, and enhance the perceived value. Feelings could achieve persuasive purposes. 4.4.4. Weak effect area Elements in this area had low attention and low recognition for the audience. Only the flea market was included in this study. DMOs can considered enhancing the features of the flea market. The media may consider reducing the duration of these clips when the propagation time is limited. 5. Conclusions and discussion With reality shows booming and barrages becoming more popular, it is important to study their media effects in order to more effectively promote travel destinations. Through content analysis and emotion analysis of the barrages in reality shows, this study established related indicators to examine the effects of reality shows on the cognitive, emotional and conative perception of the youth viewers. 5.1. Audience, reality show, and destination image First, this research has suggested that young viewers' perception of the destination image in reality shows is more consistent with Iceland's tourism characteristics. While the audience had a strong perception of Iceland's natural landscape and its local accommodations, 34

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psychological involvement. This paper has integrated the concepts of information involvement and potential tourist involvement, providing a deeper psychological perspective into the involvement of tourists in research. Fourth, the advantages and characteristics of the destination (e.g. unique and high-profile natural landscape) were consolidated through the reality show. However, prominent negative images of the destination (e.g. high prices, cold climate) could not be easily reversed by media persuasion. This paper argued that the limited effects of the media on the destination image may be due to several causes: (1) objective factors of the destination itself; (2) propaganda by other media and (3) perceptual constancy. Iceland is a Nordic country with high welfare and high prices. It has unique ice and snow, and geothermal resources. The beautiful natural scenery, with many fountains, waterfalls and lakes, is the main tourist feature. Based on the official tourism website, Ctrip.com, Mafengwo.com and other news, the media focuses primarily on Iceland's natural scenery. Some scholars have shown that the greater the information on the topic, the higher the frequency of transmission, and the greater the audience's awareness of the topic and its attributes (Su, 2010). At the same time, psychological research has found that perception is characterized by integrity, selectivity, intelligibility and constancy. A tourist's perception of the destination image is not easily changed by short-term stimulation. Establishing of the destination image is a long-term, relatively stable process. Change in the destination image occurs gradually, and the formation of induced images requires a concentrated long-term effect (Gartner et al., 1993).

influence is multimodal: one viewer of a barraged travel reality show is apt to be drawn into the kaleidoscopic spectacle intertwined with visual, acoustic, and verbal materials, and even the text itself can be modified in glaring colors to attract viewers' attention. This may lend barrage some potential as new data for research. In the past, researchers of destination image have made use of questionnaires or interviews questions to reconstruct participants' perceptions or attitudes; the data is collected both off the site and off the time, and many informants suffer from poor recall and represent their lived experiences in abstract words. Barraged shows offer a much freer and private context for watching, expressing and interacting, which may also greatly help researchers to pinpoint the exact moment when a viewer is actually experiencing something in a destination-themed multimedia show. 6. Research limitations This study aimed to combine the computer algorithm with the artificial method to analyze the emotions of barrages. While this method was accurate, it should still be further tested and improved. As Chinese semantics is complex, some sentences are difficult to calculate accurately in the dictionary. Given the increasing sample size, text-based barrages were mined using an emotion-analysis method based on machine learning. Using this method, multiple case studies were studied comparatively. Reality shows are a kind of media with strong infectivity and audio-visual integration. Sending barrages makes it possible for the audience to actively and instantly express their cognition and emotions while interacting in real time and sharing the fun of communication. In the future, it is worth exploring whether barrages can strengthen viewers’ personal participation and deepen their memory of the destination. Notes:

5.2. Audience, barrage and destination image formation Barrages differ from traditional commentary text and are characterized by impulsivity, immediacy, self-interactivity and interactivity. Barrages give viewers more room to interpret media messages. Now the audience - not just the producer - has the right to interpret codes. Anonymous barrage producers carry different ideologies into the space without any allowance, to change, supplement, weaken or distort the producer's communication intention (Zhou, 2016a). For example, some of the well-known and unique natural landscapes in Iceland (e.g. Jokulsarlon and Ring Road) received a little attention from the audience. This was not necessarily because they were not new or did not meet the expectations of the audience; it may be due to the double interaction of the form, as a barrage sent by one person may resonate with others. For example, when someone launches a barrage about background music, other users may respond at the same plot point. This shifts their attention to the tourism destination under the media representation. From a different perspective, it is also possible that people expressing a desire to visit the destination in a barrage will also affect others. Thus, like a whirlpool, the effects of the media can spread to the entire group. There is also a close connection and interdependence between barrage groups, sharing a set of symbols and subculture systems. The characteristics of barrages enable viewers to share in the fun of communication and interpret the media messages in various ways. Much work will be needed to assess comprehensively the employment and effects of barrage-focused studies in destination image formation and destination marketing. As a newly noticed form of UGC, at least two theoretical/methodological issues have great potential for future studies. First, how can barrage materials change the dimensioncharacterized structure of tourism destination image? The tripartite structure of destination image, cognition-affection-conation is very convenient for processing barrage texts, as it has been proved efficient in the past studies; however, a piece of “affective” barrage text is most often intimately connected to the "content" shown on screen; it is just not only “affective” but also “cognitive”. Thus, barrage text analysis can be one of the first steps towards providing a much more holistic destination image, as suggested by Echtner and Ritchie (1993) and more recently Kislali et al. (2016) and Hyangmi and Chen (2016). The other is that, through a barrage consists of text, the whole process of its

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