Biological Recultivation of Mine Industry Deserts

CHAPTER

BIOLOGICAL RECULTIVATION OF MINE INDUSTRY DESERTS: FACILITATING THE FORMATION OF PHYTOCOENOSIS IN THE MIDDLE URAL REGION, RUSSIA

16

T.S. Chibrik1, N.V. Lukina1, E.I. Filimonova1, M.A. Glazyrina1, E.A. Rakov1, M.G. Maleva1, M.N.V. Prasad1,2 Ural Federal University named after First President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin, Ekaterinburg, Russia1 University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana, India2

1 ­INTRODUCTION Industrial deserts or lunarscapes are large areas overloaded with technogenic waste (Peterson, 1995). Cleanup of such waste is cost prohibitive. Therefore, one emerging approach to this problem is biological recultivation (Bolshakov and Chibrik, 2007). It has been satisfactorily implemented in various countries by selecting and growing perennial grasses, trees, and bushy plant species (Bell, 2001; Bengson, 1995; Bradshaw, 1997, 2000; Frontasyeva et al., 2004). Economic and ecological aspects of land development options are important in the field of bioeconomy (Doetsch et al., 1999; Eydenzon et al., 2013). On a site-specific basis, there are two types of principal restoration options: • ameliorative: improvement of the physical and chemical nature of the site • adaptive: ecological restoration through establishing ecosystem structure and function and thus biodiversity Ecological restoration usually depends on careful selection of suitable substrates for plant growth. Species that would provide wildlife habitat (and forage for domestic animals) and improve esthetics are generally preferred. However, native species that are available as propagules often do not satisfy the above criteria. In this situation, a rapid solution to problems can be addressed by selecting species that enable colonization, facilitating ­succession and restoration of the native ecosystem. Agrostis ­capillaris L. Bioremediation and Bioeconomy. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802830-8.00016-2 Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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and Festuca rubra L. are examples. These grasses have a proven reclamation function on a variety of industrial waste-contaminated soils (Dulya et al., 2013). The revegetated contaminated area must meet two basic objectives: forage and habitat for livestock and wildlife. There is not a single best method in all circumstances for any reclamation operation. The procedures and techniques described in this chapter and in Chapter 15 by G. Lemoine (Brownfield restoration as a smart economic growth option for promoting ecotourism and leisure: Two case studies in Nord-Pas De Calais) are successful examples. Further examples in the literature indicate that a huge amount of knowledge dealing with various types of abandoned mine waste rehabilitation is available (Table 1). Table 1  Contribution to the Knowledge of Abandoned Mine Waste Rehabilitation (In Reverse Chronology—This List is Not Exhaustive) Reference

Observation

Ors et al. (2015) Bing-Yuan, and Li-Xun (2014) Channabasava et al. (2015)

Reclamation of saline sodic soils with the use of mixed fly ash and sewage sludge Mine land reclamation and eco-reconstruction in Shanxi province Mycorrhizoremediation of fly ash using Paspalum scrobiculatum L., inoculated with Rhizophagus fasciculatus Synthesis of merlinoite from Chinese coal fly ashes and its potential utilization as slow release K-fertilizer Trial construction of ground reclamation using dredged soil mixed with coal combustion products Reclamation of overburden and lowland in coal mining area with fly ash and selective plantation Ash ponds reclaimation through green cover development Geopolymer based reclamation of used sand and fly ash Reclamation of soil in coal-mining subsidence areas Biological ground recultivation and increase of soil fertility A laboratory study on amending mine soil quality Reclaimation of land by fly ash Modification of fly ash and its reclamation applications Using kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) to reclaim multi-metal contaminated acidic soil Metal elements utilization by mycorrhizal fungi in fly ash reclamation Surface mine reclamation in the appalachian coal basin Release and uptake of potassium and sodium with fly ash application in rice on reclaimed alkali soil Characterization of coal combustion byproducts Expression of self-hardening property of coal fly-ash Effects of AMF on soil enzyme activity and carbon sequestration capacity in reclaimed mine soil Use of coal combustion by-products in mine reclamation Development of a new reclamation material by hazardous waste solidification/ stabilization Tailoring fly ash activated with bentonite as adsorbent for complex wastewater treatment Fly ash adsorbents for multi-cation wastewater treatment

Li et al. (2014) Shin et al. (2014) Srivastava et al. (2014) Das et al. (2013) Guo et al. (2013) Hu et al. (2013) Kovshov (2013) Liu and Lal (2013) Liu et al. (2013) Wang et al. (2013) Yang et al. (2013) Yu et al. (2013) Free (2012) Lal et al. (2012) Martin et al. (2012) Phommachanh et al. (2012) Qian et al. (2012) Skousen et al. (2012) Vacenovska and Drochytka (2012) Visa (2012) Visa et al. (2012)

1 ­ INTRODUCTION

391

Table 1  Contribution to the Knowledge of Abandoned Mine Waste Rehabilitation (In Reverse Chronology—This List is Not Exhaustive)—Cont'd Reference

Observation

Wang et al. (2012)

Co-detoxification of transformer oil-contained PCBs and heavy metals in medical waste incinerator fly ash under sub- and supercritical water Feasibility of fly ash-based composite coagulant for coal washing wastewater treatment Integrated coagulation-trickling filter-ultrafiltration processes for domestic wastewater treatment and reclamation Reclamation technology in complex matrix of Vesicular Arbuscular [VA] mycorrhiza on coal mine abandoned wasteland Utilization of fly ash materials as an adsorbent of hazardous chemical compounds Coal ash mixtures as backfill materials Inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizae with phosphate solubilizing fungi contributes revevetation of fly ash ponds Reclamation of asphalt pavements using coal combustion byproducts Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi associated with plants growing in fly ash pond and their potential role in ecological restoration Artificial soil mixture with coal combustion byproduct Variation of microbial activity in reclaimed soil in mining area An environmentally sound usage of both coal mining residue and sludge Environmental impact of APC residues from municipal solid waste incineration: Reuse assessment based on soil and surface water protection criteria Physical characterisation of fly ash from coal fired thermal power plants, Jharia Coalfield, Jharkhand Effect of coal ash contents on the acceleration of settling and self-weight consolidation of clayey ground Study on the contents of heavy metal in soil and vegetation in filling reclaimed land in Xuzhou Jiuli mining area Improving the mechanical characteristics and restraining heavy metal evaporation from sintered municipal solid waste incinerator fly ash by wet milling Reclamation of wasteland for cultivation of cotton crop through application of pond ash and its leachate Conditions of waste and waste mixture utilization in technical land reclamation. Research on modified fly ash for high iron and high manganese acid mine drainage treatment Research progress of ecological restoration for wetlands in coal mine areas Growth and metal accumulation potential of Vigna radiata L. grown under fly-ash amendments Recycling utilization patterns of coal mining waste in China Resources Kinetic and equilibrium studies of Cr(VI) from wastewater with modified fly ashes Reclamation of coal mine spoil dump through fly ash and biological amendments Effects of ameliorants addition on Cd contents and yield of crop in Cd-rich reclaiming substrates Municipal sewage sludge used as reclaiming material for abandoned mine land

Yan et al. (2012) Zhao et al. (2012) Zhou and Xu (2012) Abdelhadi et al. (2011) Awang et al. (2011) Babu and Reddy (2011) Butalia and Kirch (2012) Babu and Reddy (2011) Park et al. (2011) Qian et al. (2011a,b) Qian et al. (2011a,b) Qian et al. (2011a,b) Rai and Paul (2011) Shin et al. (2011) Shou et al. (2011) Sun et al. (2011) Tripathi et al. (2011) Viestová et al. (2011) Zhang et al. (2011a,b) Zhang et al. (2011a,b) Chaudhary et al. (2011) Haibin and Zhenling (2010) Ren et al. (2010) Srivastava and Ram (2010) Zhao et al. (2010) Ouyang et al. (2010)

(Continued)

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CHAPTER 16  BIOLOGICAL RECULTIVATION OF MINE INDUSTRY DESERTS

Table 1  Contribution to the Knowledge of Abandoned Mine Waste Rehabilitation (In Reverse Chronology—This List is Not Exhaustive)—Cont'd Reference

Observation

Tanhan et al. (2007)

Uptake and accumulation of cadmium, lead and zinc by Siam weed [Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robinson] Subcellular distribution of rare earth elements and characterization of their binding species in a newly discovered hyperaccumulator Pronephrium simplex Plants growing in abandoned mines of Portugal are useful for biogeochemical exploration of arsenic, antimony, tungsten and mine reclamation Manganese toxicity thresholds for restoration grass species The effect of soil amendments on plant performance in an area affected by acid mine drainage Molecular mechanisms in bio-geo-interactions: From a case study to general mechanisms Acid mine drainage remediation options: a review Biological manganese removal from acid mine drainage in constructed wetlands and prototype bioreactors Municipal compost-based mixture for acid mine drainage bioremediation Performance and use of Piptatherum miliaceum (Smilo grass) in Pb and Zn phytoremediation Analysis of rhizobacterial communities in perennial Graminaceae from polluted water meadow soil, and screening of metal-resistant, potentially plant growthpromoting bacteria Metal transfer to plants grown on a dredged sediment: use of radioactive isotope 203 Hg and titanium Effect of acid mine drainage on the chemical composition and fall velocity of fine organic particles Effects of iron on arsenic speciation and redox chemistry in acid mine water Selenium volatilization in vegetated agricultural drainage sediment from the San Luis Drain Phytoremediation: novel approaches to cleaning up polluted soils Phytoremediation of metals and radionuclides in the environment: The case for natural hyperaccumulators, metal transporters, soil amending chelators and transgenic plants Pinus pinaster Aiton (maritime pine): a reliable indicator for delineating areas of anomalous soil composition for biogeochemical prospecting of As (Arsenic), Sb (Antimony) and W (Tungsten) Revegetating fly ash landfills with Prosopis juliflora L.: impact of different amendments and Rhizobium inoculation Role of EDTA on solubility of cadmium, zinc, and lead and their uptake by rainbow pink and vetiver grass Prospects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils

Lai et al. (2006) Pratas et al. (2005) Paschke et al. (2005) Neagoe et al. (2005) Kothe et al. (2005) Johnson and Hallberg (2005) Hallberg and Johnson (2005) Gilbert et al. (2005) García et al. (2004) Dell'Amico et al. (2005)

Caille et al. (2005) Bethwell and Mutz (2005) Bednar et al. (2005) Banuelos et al. (2005) Kramer (2005) Prasad (2004)

Pratas et al. (2004)

Rai et al. (2004) Lai and Chen (2004) Gaur and Adholeya (2004) Freitas et al. (2004)

Analysis of serpentinophytes from north-east of Portugal for trace metal accumulation—relevance to the management of mine sites

1 ­ INTRODUCTION

393

Table 1  Contribution to the Knowledge of Abandoned Mine Waste Rehabilitation (In Reverse Chronology—This List is Not Exhaustive)—Cont'd Reference

Observation

Chen et al. (2004)

The use of vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) in the phytoremediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals Ecological restoration of mine degraded soils, with emphasis on metal contaminated soils Physiological aspects of vetiver grass for rehabilitation in abandoned metalliferous mine wastes Effects of inoculation with Glomus intraradices on lead uptake by Zea mays L. and Agrostis capillaris L Greenhouse studies on the phyto-extraction capacity of Cynodon nlemfuensis for lead and cadmium under irrigation with treated wastewater Influence of liming and phosphate fertilisation on revegetation arsenic contaminated soils using Pteris vittata The use of vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) in the phytoremediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals Metal hyperaccumulation in plants—biodiversity prospecting for phytoremediation technology Plant community tolerant to trace elements growing on the degraded soils of São Domingos mine in the south east of Portugal: environmental implications Lead, zinc and copper accumulation and tolerance in populations of Paspalum distichum and Cynodon dactylon Phytoremediation: European and American trends Revegetation of the acidic, As contaminated Jales mine spoil tips using a combination of spoil amendments and tolerant grasses Zinc hyperaccumulating weeds from temperate Russia Bioremediation potential of Amaranthaceae The role of root exudates in aluminium resistance and silicon-induced amelioration of aluminium toxicity in three varieties of maize (Zea mays L.) Metal distribution and environmental problems related to sulfide oxidation in the Libiola copper mine area (Ligurian Apennines, Italy) An integrative assessment of a watershed impacted by abandoned mined land discharges Arsenic, copper and zinc release from the Wangaloa coal mine, southeast Otago, New Zealand Metals in the environment: analysis by biodiversity Plant responses to abiotic stresses: heavy metal-induced oxidative stress and protection by mycorrhization Current approaches to the revegetation and reclamation of metalliferous mine wastes A bioavailability-based rationale for controlling metal and metalloid contamination of agricultural land in Australia and New Zealand

Wong (2003) Pang et al. (2003) Malcová et al. (2003) Madyiwa et al. (2003) Caille et al. (2004) Chen et al. (2004) Prasad and Freitas (2003) Freitas et al. (2004) Shu et al. (2002) Schwitzguébel et al. (2002) Bleeker et al. (2002) Bashmakov et al. (2002) Prasad (2001a) Kidd et al. (2001) Dinelli et al. (2001) Cherry et al. (2001) Black and Craw (2001) Prasad (2001b) Schutzendubel and Polle (2002) Tordoff et al. (2000) McLaughlin et al. (2000) Simon et al. (1999) Prasad and Freitas (1999)

Pollution of soils by the toxic spill of a pyrite mine (Aznalco´llar, Spain) Feasible biotechnological and bioremediation strategies for serpentine soils and mine spoils (Continued)

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CHAPTER 16  BIOLOGICAL RECULTIVATION OF MINE INDUSTRY DESERTS

Table 1  Contribution to the Knowledge of Abandoned Mine Waste Rehabilitation (In Reverse Chronology—This List is Not Exhaustive)—Cont'd Reference

Observation

Glass (1999) Vangronsveld and Cunningham (1998) Panin (1998)

U.S. and international markets for phytoremediation Metal-contaminated soils: in-situ inactivation and phytorestoration

Lan et al. (1998) Brooks (1998) Rao and Tarafdar (1998) Kraemer et al. (1997) Leblanc et al. (1996) Singh (1996) Gonsalves et al. (1997) Mesjasz-Przybylowicz et al. (1994) Baker et al. (1991) Brooks (1987) Smith and Bradshaw (1979)

Influence of antropogenic activity and human argochemical activity on migration of heavy metals in system “soil-plant” Reclamation of Pb/Zn mine tailings at Shaoguan, Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China: the role of river sediment and domestic refuse Plants that hyperaccumulate heavy metals Selection of plant species for rehabilitation of gypsum mine spoil in arid zon Nickel localization in leaves of the hyperaccumulator plant Alyssum lesbiacum by micro-PIXE technique Accumulation of arsenic from acidic mine waters by ferruginous bacterial accretions (stromatolites) Prosopis juliflora in an alkali soil Mycorrhizae in a portuguese serpentine community Proton microprobe and X-ray fluorescence investigation of nickel distribution in serpentine flora from South Africa In situ heavy metal decontamination of polluted soils using crops of metalaccumulating crops Serpentine vegetation The use of metal tolerant plant populations for the reclamation of metalliferous waste

The Middle Ural is one of the oldest mining regions of Russia (Figure 1). It is also one of the largest territories of mineral resources in Russia. This has led to intensive development of metallurgy, construction, chemical industry, and mining operations, including gold mining (Khokhryakov, 2003; Koptsik, 2014). These lands have lost their economic value due to mining and mineral exploration. The mining industry areas have had a harmful impact on the environment because of soil damage and changes in hydrological conditions (Belskaya and Vorobeichik, 2013; Belskii and Belskaya, 2009; Brooks et al., 2005). The environmental impacts of mining-related activities in and around middle Ural region including Karabash are extremely severe (Williamson et al., 2004a,b, 2008). The area has been affected by gaseous and particulate emissions from a copper smelter, acid drainage from abandoned mine workings, and leachates and dusts from waste dumps (Chukanov et al., 1993; Udachin et al., 2003; Spiro et al., 2004; Williamson et al., 2008; Spiro et al., 2012). The extent of environmental pollution in Russia is shown in Figure 2. In this chapter, some results of biological recultivation of various mine industry damaged sites, including fly ash dumps and dumps from coal mining and iron ore mining, are presented. The generalized procedures for establishing and revegetating mine industry waste-contaminated sites are shown in Figure 3. The emerging practices of reclamation of mine waste are depicted in Figure 4.

1 ­ INTRODUCTION

395

FIGURE 1 Sverdlovsk region is in the middle of Euro Asiatic continent. There is central part of the Ural Mountains from the north to the south of Sverdlovsk region. The border of Europe-Asia lays at the watershed of the Urals. The area of Sverdlovsk region is about 194 km2. Sverdlovsk region is one of the oldest mining regions in Russia—it has great amount of mineral resources; there are about 200 deposits of ferrous metals, nonferrous metals, rare metals, noble metals, nonmetal ores and others. Some power plants work on Ural coal and lignite; some deposits are at the closing stage. Sverdlovsk region has one of the biggest deposits of chrysotile-asbestos in the world (Asbest town). Sverdlovsk region territory is 1% of Russian total territory. At the same time area of destructed territories is 5.3% of Russian total technogenic loads in Sverdlovsk region are higher than mean Russian.

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CHAPTER 16  BIOLOGICAL RECULTIVATION OF MINE INDUSTRY DESERTS

FIGURE 2 Extent of from environmental pollution in Russia (%) by industry and federal district wise. Drill seeding Hydro seeding Mulching Seed broadcasting Transplanting of live plants and plant propagules

Revegetation package of practices

Seed technology Seed procurement, preparing a seed bed and seedlings, seasonal grasses, good shrub, under tree and tree seeds preferable nitrogen fixers

Surface stabilization

Management of vegetation (husbandry)

Weed control

Monitoring

Slash/burn to enhance vegetation

FIGURE 3 Approaches for restoration of mine industry ravaged sites.

Sodding

Grazing

2 ­THE PURPOSE AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

397

Natural attenuation Reclamation of mine waste Emerging bio-ecotechnologies Biocoenoses Back filling

Biological recultivation

Use of hydrogels

Use of fly ash

Engineered vegetative caps Use of geopolymers

Use of transformed red mud

FIGURE 4 The emerging practices of reclamation of mine waste.

Key components of biological recultivation of an area include: • • • • • • • •

structure and functioning of technogenic ecosystems monitoring of the ecological situation of the mine industry-ravaged lands development of biological recultivation floristic composition, which indicates conditions of the environment structure of the plant populations (finding the dominant species) dynamics and structure of populations (mycorrhiza show the community preparedness) productivity, chemical compounds, and the quality of phytoproducts Transformation of ash dumps to phytocoenose that are sterile substrata

2 ­THE PURPOSE AND METHODS OF RESEARCH The aim of this work is to assess the success of biological recultivation and transformation of plant communities on the Verkhnetagilskaya power plant ash dump, located in the Sverdlovsk region (eastern slope of the Middle Urals, taiga zone, subzone of the southern taiga). The total area is 125 ha. Biological recultivation on the ash dump started in 1968-1970 (i.e., 3 years after the end of ash feeding) and continued in subsequent years. Biological recultivation quickly restored vegetation on the ash dump and controlled wind erosion of the substrate. The end result was the creation of vegetation with economic importance. Clay strips, ranging in thickness from 10 cm to 15 cm were laid to regulate erosion. Most of the bands were sown with perennial grasses (Agropyron cristatum (L.) Beauv., Bromopsis inermis (Leyss.) Holub., Festuca rubra L., Medicago media Pers., Onobrychis arenaria (Kit.) DC, etc.). Portion of area was left for the self-overgrowing. As a result of this, a diverse group of ecotopes were formed. The study of the formation of vegetation on the ash dump was carried out according to conventional techniques for 30 years. Researchers began studying 10-year-old plant communities in 1980, and followed them to the age of 40 years.

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CHAPTER 16  BIOLOGICAL RECULTIVATION OF MINE INDUSTRY DESERTS

Ash dumps are also formed from the heat power stations working on high-ash content coals. Structurally these ash dumps include the presence of slag and are characterized by different sized particles. The thickness of ashes varies from 2 to 20 m. Ashes are light or dark gray in color with black inclusions of the not burned coal particles. The fine-grained ash factions contain coarse particles of physical sand (1-0.05 mm) and dust (0.05-0.001 mm). Mechanical ash substratum structure (account in % of air to dry probe) is shown in Table 2, and the chemical structure of the ash substratum is shown in Table 3. The analytical chemistry of water extract of ash substratum is shown in Table 4. The total chemical composition of the ash dump substratum corresponds to aluminosilicate formations (SiO2, 40.5-60.3%; Al2O3, 12.9-32.4%). Ashes contain practically no nitrogen or organic substance. The particles of the not burned coal (potential humus) are connected with the silicate of the ashes and are subjected to slow physicochemical and biochemical transformations that play a crucial role in restoration of substratum fertility. The content of mobile phosphorus changes from 1.25 up to 32.5 P2O5 mg/100 g of ashes; exchangeable potassium changes from 1.6 up to 25.0 mg/100 g of ashes. Coal ashes have a small absorption capacity, similar to the structure of soils, because of the low content of highly dispersed organic substance and silt particles. The absorption ability of the external layers of ash dumps can be enhanced by the covering with peat and soil, on the surface of ash dumps, as well as by introducing mineral fertilizers and the neutralized wastewater. The (pH) of ashes changes from low acid (pH = 5.9) up to alkaline (pH = 8.5), but in the ranges suitable for growth and development of plants. The ash dump’s substratum contains a large macro- and microelements spectrum. On a temperature mode, the coal ashes belong to low thermally conductive substratum with sharp oscillation frequencies of temperature from surface to depth. The water-physical properties of the substratum of ashes are rather peculiar. The coal ashes have a good porosity and good air and water penetrability, from deep to middle at level of sandy loam and sandy soils. The unfavorable conditions arise during the germination of seeds and in the first period of plant life. At this time, the roots are located in a stratum of 0-10 cm, which is subjected to rapid drying. Thus, on water-physical properties and chemical structure, the coal ashes can be related to substratum suitable for the existence of plants. However, for the creation of a long, productive culturphytocoenosis, the agrotechnical measures for improving the properties of coal ashes as a substratum for the cultivation of plants is necessary.

3 ­PHYTOCOENOSIS FORMATION ON ASH DUMPS The ashes were released by the hydraulic method via pipelines. The recultivation using the strips of a ground was conducted on part of ash dump after the termination of release of ashes. The ground was seeded by the perennial grass. Twenty years after the recultivation work on the ash dumps, a rather diverse ecotope spectrum was observed. This caused formation of unique biotope and vegetative communities. The recultivation ­actions influenced this process.

Amount of Particles Sand (Diameter, mm) Average

SmallSized

The Sum of Fractions

Dust (Diameter, mm) Large

Average

SmallSized

Silt

Physical— Sand

Physical— Clay

<0.001

(<0.01)

(>0.01)

Substratum Mechanical Structure

4.91

60.84

19.69

Soup

Ash Dump Zone

Hygroscopical Moisture

1-0.25

0.25-0.05

0.05-0.01

0.01-0.005

0.0050.001

Ash dump in the forest zone

–

0.53

4.23

56.08

5.45

9.33

3 ­ PHYTOCOENOSIS FORMATION ON ASH DUMPS

Table 2  Mechanical Ash Substratum Structure

399

400

The Contents of Mobile Elements

The Total Contents of Basic Elements (% in Calcinated Probe) The Name of Ash Dump Ash dump forest zone

P2O5 Loss at Calcinations (%) 2.4

SiO2

Al2O3

Fe2O3

CaO

MgO

MnO

P2O5

SO3

K2O

Na2O

Nitrogen (%)

48.4

23.4

14.2

4.9

2.9

–

–

3.8

–

–

Trace

K2O

mg/100 g ashes 23.5

7.0

pH (KCl) 8.5

CHAPTER 16  BIOLOGICAL RECULTIVATION OF MINE INDUSTRY DESERTS

Table 3  Ash Substratum Chemical Structure

3 ­ PHYTOCOENOSIS FORMATION ON ASH DUMPS

401

Table 4  The Analysis of the Water Extract of Ash Substratum The Contents (% from Absolute Dry Probe)

The Name of Ash Dump

Dense Residual (%)

CO3

HCO3−1

Cl−1

SO4−2

Ca+2

Mg+2

Forest zone

0.200

Not present

0.023

0.004

0.118

0.034

Not present

−2

It is possible to describe the initial ecotopes with the following scheme: I. Nonrecultivated area Ia. initial ecotope: dry ash dump, “pure ashes” Ib. moderate moistering, “pure ashes”, favorable conditions for drift seeds; Ic. residual depressions periodically flooded by water (thawed waters, filtration from ash dumps, etc.) II. The area with the strips of a soil deposited during the primary recultivation: IIa. ashes with deposition of a ground and crop of perennial grasses; IIb. ashes with placement of ground and without any seeding; IIc. space between bands of substratum III. Second phase of recultivation: – bushes sawing, full covering by the stratum of peat. The scheme of phytocoenosis formation on ash dump depending on ecotope is shown in Table 5 and Figure 5. Concerning phytocenosis formation, the following is understood: development of a vegetative grouping takes place from a stage of a settlement of separate to its grouping with the certain density irrespective of the phytocoenosis dynamic status. In the formation of communities on industrially disturbed lands with rather mentioned process of self-overgrowing, the following stages are selected: ecotopic groups (projective cover 0.1%); simple groups (0.1-5%); complicated groups (6-50%); and phytocoenosis (projective cover more than 50%). The scheme of phytocoenosis formation on ash dumps, depending on ecotope, was constructed on the basis of actual dated of geobogtanical descriptions, which were done on selected ecotopes. Through the generalization of given and similar material from other ash dumps, the creation of a generalized model of phytocenosis formation on ash dumps became possible. This model was used for the phytocoenosises located in different zones and climatic conditions. Phytocoenosis is considered to be a main component of industrial ecosystems that were formed from conditions of thermal power station ash dumps (Figure 6). Ten years after biological reclamation in dry areas, the “clean” ash Chenopodium album L. (Ia) dominates. Areas with sufficient moisture ash substrate (Ib) are formed by Puccinella groups (Puccinella distans (Jacq.) Parl., P. hauptiana Krecz.). On recultivated areas (IIa), cultural phytocenosis is formed with the domination of seeded grasses, such as Agropyron cristatum (L.) Beauv., Bromopsis inermis (Leyss.) Holub., F. rubra L., Medicago media Pers., and others. At overgrown reclaimed territory on strips of soil and grass, forb plant communities (IIb) formed with a predominance of Elytrigia repens (L.) Nevski, Poa pratensis L., Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv., and Artemisia vulgaris L. At the space of “pure” fly ash, there is depleted species composition, sparse

402

Table 5  The Scheme of Phytocoenosis Formation on the Ahs Dump Age (Years) 5

Ia

Ib

10

15

•••••

25

Ecotopical different-grass vegetative grouping (EG)

Simple diverse-herbaciouscereal or diverse-herbaciouscereal vegetative grouping (payload)

→→

EG: – water-plant-moss; diverse-herbaciouscereal

Complicated vegetative grouping (CG): – cereal; – diverce-grass-cereal; – bean -cereal

→→→→

Single islands Vegetative groupings of a hydro-hydrophit type Diverse-herbacious-cereal phytocoenosis with growing woods

→→

Over with sparse of willows and birches (P) Dense were over of willows with impurity of birches and aspens (P) Meadow with growth of birches Fluffy and willows (P) Dense bushes atussock grass meadow (P) White clover-rough meadow grass (P) Various variants of coastal vegetation

Payload: – diverse-herbaciouscereal

Ic

IIa

Culture phytocoenosis + woodsapofites

IIb

Payload: – diverse-herbaciouscereal with wood

IIc

EG: – diverse-herbaceous

CG: – highgrass-cereal; – diverse-herbaciouscereal from a large share (long) of cultural kinds CG: – diverse-herbaceouscereal also grow up—volume of trees and bushes Payload: – diverse-herbaceous; – diverse-herbaciouscereal; – young growth wood

→→

Wood phytocoenosis with the rather produced circles: wood—sparse of a pine, birches, aspens; grassy— different grass cereal (P)

Woodphytocoenosis: were over wood with poorly produced grass-bush with a circle

→→

Wood phytocoenosis with clearly expressed wood, bush, grassy, and moss by circles (P)

CG: – diverse-herbaceous with wood young growth – diverse-herbaceous-cereal – power young growth and wood young growth

→→

Were over of deciduous breeds with poorly produced grassy-bush with a circle, strong moss (P)

EG, ecotopical vegetative grouping—0.1%; payload, simple vegetative grouping—0.1-5%; CG, complicated vegetative grouping—6-50%; P, phytocoenosis—more than 50%. Percent means projective cover of ash dump surface by plants.

CHAPTER 16  BIOLOGICAL RECULTIVATION OF MINE INDUSTRY DESERTS

Ecotope

3 ­ PHYTOCOENOSIS FORMATION ON ASH DUMPS

403

plant communities (IIc) with a high abundance of Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall. and M. albus Medik. and significant participation of D. cespitosa (L.) Beauv. and F. rubra L. The appearance of regrowth of trees and shrubs was noted. On “pure ashes” (Ia), the overgrowth of Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth was generated in 20 years, with minor participation of other species. Salix and Betula were sparse and there was very dense overgrowth of Salix (6 species) with impurities of Betula pendula Roth., Betula pubescens Ehrh., and Populus tremula L. At favorable humidity (Ib) that makes a substratum stable, the formation of communities is accelerated. Within 10 years, a tussock grass meadow (= dominant grass Deschampsia cespitosa (L) Beauv), dense bushes, an atussock grass meadow, and white clover (rough meadow grass) (Amoria repens L. C. Presl Poa trivialis L.) were generated over many hectares. Development of moss cover (20-40%) was observed everywhere. Nearby the lowerings, filled with water (Ic), has been colonized by Equisetum palustre L.

FIGURE 5 Scheme-map of ash dump of Verkhnetagilskaya power station: (a) 1971 and (b) 2012.

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Explanation to sybmols in Figure 5

FIGURE 5—CONT'D

On a primary recultivated territory, on strips with a deposited organic debris and perennial grass (IIa), at the first year, partial cutting was carried out. As a result, the diverse herbaceous-cereal and herbaceous-­ vegetative communities with sparse Pinus sylvestris L. and Betula sp. were generated in 20 years. These trees strengthened their role in establishing phytocoenose. On strips with organic debris without crops of grass (IIb), the formation of woody phytocoenosis was accelerated. These reasons exclude cutting, retarding of the sodding of a surface and formation of grassy communities of a meadow type. It is necessary to take into account that the delivered organic debris contained certain propagules of wood phytocoenosis species. As a result, a mixed forest with a prevalence of Pinus, and less often with Betula pendula was formed. On the “pure ashes” between the sod strips, the forest communities composed of Betula, sparse Salix, and Populus tremula formed with a delay of 5-10 years (IIc). A layer of grassy bushes was

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405

Physical and chemical properties of the substrate Topography, soil features

Algal cenosis

Features of biogeocoenosis

Microbial cenosis

Hydrological regime

Zoocenosis

Phytocenosis

Dynamics and structure

Structure and vitality of cenopopulation

Floristic composition

Ecological characters of species

Productivity

Phytochemistry

Mycotrophic species

FIGURE 6 Scheme of phytocenosis investigations at mine industry ravaged sites.

poorly produced. It is possible that the formation of this phytocoenosis ash dump was connected with the receipt of seeds from an adjacent, earlier overgrowth. It is natural that improving ash properties by proper management controlled wind erosion. The opposite process, drift of ashes by wind on bands of a ground, also takes place. The bushes sowing, continuous plotting of a stratum of peat, crop of long-term grass was conducted on the second time recultivated area. With the use of a complex organic and mineral fertilizer, productive moving and grazing fields were created. By 2013, on the ash dump of the Verkhnetagilskaya power plant (40 years after biological recultivation), at site of the “clean” ash Calamagrostis epigeios, (L.) Roth thickets of vegetation had been formed (Figures 7–10) (Ia), with codominants of Cirsium setosum (Willd.), Bess, and Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv, with tree groups of Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh. Deschampsia meadows were formed (IIb) dominated by Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv., with codominants: Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth., Poa pratensis L., Hieracium umbellatum L., and Chamaenerion angustifolium (L.) Holub. Tree species are classified as undergrowth (up to 1.5 m) Populus tremula L., Betula pendula Roth, Pinus sylvestris L., and Salix myrsinifolia Salisb. On the ashes along the periphery, a small-leaved forest was formed, characterized by a relatively high canopy cover of trees and a complex vertical structure. The upper tree layer is dominated by small-leaved species, such as Populus tremula, Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh., Salix caprea L., coniferous species—Pinus sylvestris L., and Picea

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(a)

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(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

FIGURE 7 (a) Bazhenovsky asbestos mine over 100 years (mining from 1889) (Asbest). (b) Ash dump of Bogoslovskaya power station 37 years (Krasnoturyinsk, small “islands” of vegetation at located organic debris. Betula pendula Roth, Pinus sylvestris L., Salix sp., Festuca rubra L., Melilotus albus Medik.). (c) Ash dump of Bogoslovskaya power station 37 years (Krasnoturyinsk, overwatered territory, self over growing with Betula pendula Roth, Pinus sylvestris L., Salix sp., Festuca rubra L., Melilotus albus Medik. at located organic debris). (d) Agrophytocenosis of Bromopsis inermis (Leyss.) Holub at the Verkhnetagilskaya power station ash dump 20 years (Verhniy Tagil). (e) Agrophytocenosis of Bromopsis inermis (Leyss.) Holub at the Verkhnetagilskaya power station ash dump 20 years (Verhniy Tagil). (f) Red mud deposit 30 years (Krasnoturyinsk, self overgrowing with Betula pendula Roth, Pinus sylvestris L., Salix caprea L.).

3 ­ PHYTOCOENOSIS FORMATION ON ASH DUMPS

(a)

(b)

407

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

FIGURE 8 (a) Ash dump of Verkhnetagilskaya power station 20 years (Verhniy Tagil, agrophytocenosis of Bromopsis inermis (Leyss.) Holub at recultivated site: ash + soil + peat). (b) Ash dump of Verkhnetagilskaya power station 20 years (Verhniy Tagil, agrophytocenosis of Bromopsis inermis (Leyss.) Holub at recultivated site: ash + soil + peat). (c) Ash dump of Reftinskaya power plant station 5 years (Ekaterinburg, recultivated with seedings of Pinus sylvestris L.). (d) Ash dump of Reftinskaya power station 10 years (Ekaterinburg, recultivated site seedings of Pinus sylvestris L. + self-overgrowing with Hippophae sp.). (e) Ash dump of Nizneturinskaya power plant 45 years (Nizhnaya Tura, dominated by Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth, Salix sp.). (f) South-Veselovskiy coal-mine dump 40 years (Karpinsk, seedings of Pinus sylvestris L., upper part of dump). (g) South-Veselovskiy coal-mine dump 40 years (Karpinsk, seedings of Pinus sylvestris L., middle part of dump).

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(a)

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(b)

(d) (c)

(e)

(g)

(f)

(h)

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obovata Ledeb. were included in the lower group. The shrub layer is composed of Chamaecytisus ruthenicus (Fisch. Ex Woloszcz.) Klásková, Rosa acicularis Lindl., Salix myrsinifolia Salisb., and Salix pentandra L. The undergrowth is composed of Sorbus aucuparia L., Viburnum opulus L., and Padus avium Mill., the height of which varies from 0.7-0.8 to 3.5 m (projective cover is 15-20%, sometimes up to 30%). The total projective cover of herbaceous species is 30-35%. The greatest values of herbaceous plants have Amoria repens (L.), C. Presl, and Trifolium pratense L., Festuca rubra L., Poa pratensis L., Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth, and Vicia cracca L. There are also typical forest species of the boreal zone: Pyrola chlorantha Sw., Chimaphila umbellata (L.) W. Barton, as well as a young population of Orchidáceae (Platanthéra bifólia (L.) Rich.). In the primary recultivated territories on strips coated with organic debris (IIa), forb grass and forb plant communities were formed. Total projective cover on strips of soil reaches 90-100%, and 60-80% on the ash. The species on the ashes and the strips of soil include Pimpinella saxifraga L., Euphorbia virgata, Waldst.et Kit., Achillea millefolium, L., Picris hieracioides, and L., F. rubra in high abundance. On the organic debris, Poa pratensis, Centaurea scabiosa L., Lathyrus pratensis L., and V. cracca L. prevail, in addition. On the organic debris, Stellaria graminea L. and Melandrium album (Mill.) Garcke prevail, in addition. At a substantial part of the ash dump, as a result of ash and soil overgrowth (IIb), forest communities close to the zonal type with substantial interests, and sometimes with the dominance of Pinus sylvestris L., Betula pendula Roth, Betula pubescens Ehrh., Populus tremula L., are formed. In the form of undergrowth, Picea obovata Ledeb. and Pinus sibirica (Rupr.) Mayr were found, together with Larix sibirica Ledeb. and Abies sibirica Ledeb. The shrub layer is formed by Sorbus aucuparia and Padus avium. With increasing age and degree of development of the ash dump, forest communities strengthen their impact on the environment. The transformation of herbaceous vegetation in these communities toward increasing the diversity of forest types has been seen. This has been accompanied by a decrease in the abundance and fallout from the emerging plant communities of some weed-ruderal species. Bush cover species have appeared, such as Vaccinium vitis-idaea L., Orthilia secunda (L.) House, Pyrola rotundifolia L., P. media, and Monese suniflora (L.) A. Gray. In a grassy layer, Fragaria vesca L., Aegopodium podagraria L., and Rubus saxatilis L prevail.

FIGURE 9 (a) Agrophytocenosis of Bromopsis inermis at the Turinskiy coal-mine dump 40 years (Karpinsk). (b) Dumps of the Shuralino-Yagodnoe gold mining 16 years (Nevyansk, self-overgrowing peat-covered site: Betula pendula Roth, Chamaenerion angustifolium (L.) Scop., Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth, Achillea millefolium L.). (c) Experimental seeding of Festuca pratensis Huds. on the Shuralino-Yagodnoe dumps after gold mining 3 years (Nevyansk). (d) Self-overgrowing of the Shuralino-Yagodnoe dumps after gold mining 18 years (Betula pendula Roth, Pinus sylvestris L., Salix caprea L., S. myrsinifolia Salisb., S.triandra L.), Nevyansk. (e) Selfovergrowing of recultivated sites at ash dump of Verkhnetagilskaya power station 40 years (VerhniyTagil, formation of forest phytocenosis: Picea obovata Ledeb., Betula pendula Roth). (f) Limestone (marble) deposit 45 years (Pervouralsk, Betula pendula Roth., Betula pubescens Ehrh., Populus tremula L., Pinus silvestris L.). (g) Pyrola rotundifolia L. in forest communities at ash dump of Verkhnetagilskaya power station 40 years (VerniyTagil). (h) Ash dump of Yuzhnouralskaya power station 30 years (Yuzhnouralsk, dominated: Elaeagnus аngustifolia L., Artemisia dracunculus L.).

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

FIGURE 10 (a) Iron deposit 10 years (Iron tailings damps) (Nizhniy Tagil, undergrowth of Betula pendula Roth). (b) Iron deposit 30 years (Nizhniy Tagil, Pinus sylvestris L., Betula pendula Roth.). (c) Limestone (CaCO3) (marble) deposit 20 years (Pervouralsk, undergrowth of Betula pendula Roth.). (d) Dolomite deposit 15 years (Pervouralsk, Betula pendula Roth., Betula pubescens Ehrh., Populus tremula L., Pinus sylvestris L.). (e) Dolomite deposit 15 years [CaMg(CO3)2] (Pervouralsk, undergrowth of Betula pendula Roth.). (f) Red mud deposits 30 years (Krasnoturyinsk, undergrowth of Pinus sylvestris L., Betula pendula Roth., B. pubescens Ehrh, Salix caprea L., Salix myrsinifolia Salisb., Populus tremula L.). (g) Asbestos deposit 30 years (Asbest, Betula pendula Roth., Betula pubescens Ehrh., Pinus sylvestris L.). (h) Limestone (marble) deposit 45 years (Pervouralsk, Betula pendula Roth., Betula pubescens Ehrh., Populus tremula L., Pinus sylvestris L.).

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On the secondary recultivated area, application of a layer of peat in the early 1990s, promoted the growth of perennial grasses. When using complex organic and mineral fertilizers, productive pasture grasslands composed of forb grass plant communities were created and maintained for 15 years (long-term care and mowing). These communities were dominated by Bromopsis inermis and Festuca rubra and covered the entire area (90-100%). After termination of hay mowing there is a decrease in the density of Bromopsis inermis hay shoots from 408 (2004), 250 (2010) to 173 (2011) pcs./m2. Portions of vegetative shoots of Bromopsis inermis in the cultural phytocenosis increased from 75% to 91%, and then decreased to 64%. When the economic assessment of plant communities is concerned, one of the most important indicators is their productivity. At 10-year-old plant grouping, the average weight of the air dried shoots was an 4.56 cwt/ha (ranged from 0.22 cwt/ha to 7.32 cwt/ha) on only ash; however, with organic matter the air-dry weight of shoots was 17.4 t/ha (ranged from 4.04 to 24.6 cwt/ha). Thus, the average productivity of the communities on ashes with organic matter was four times greater compared to productivity on ash alone.

4 ­CONCLUSION The conducted observations enable an evaluation of the biological recultivation of ash dump sites with strips, by covering the sites with a ground and perennial grass. The stabilization of the substratum of the ashes is achieved at the expense of bands. This results in the diminution or even the termination of dust storms. It is necessary to recognize the importance of the improvement of the water-physical and agrochemical properties of ashes, via the washing of a ground from bands to space between the strips with “pure ashes.” The crop of perennial grass and its consequent cutting accelerates the gardening of bands with a ground, but retards the establishment of trees, bushes, and the formation of a wood circle of the formed forest phytocoenosis. Biological recultivation of ash dumps with the strips of organic material produces fodder but the quality of fodder produced need to be evaluated. Experience gained in creating phytocenosis on the ash dump of the Verkhnetagilskaya power plant showed that Bromopsis inermis (Leyss.) Holub. is a key species for restoration. One of the most important indicators of the economic assessment of phytocenosis is community productivity. At 10 years, the shoots of plant groups in ash dump conditions had the average dry weight phytomass of 4.56 c/ha (min, 0.22 c/ha; max, 7.32 c/ha) on the ash, and 17.4 c/ha on the ash with organic matter (min, 4.04 c/ha; max, 24/6 c/ha). On average, the productivity of forming communities on the ash-organic matter mixture is 4 times higher than the productivity on empty ash. After 40 years of biological recultivation, the productivity of plant communities at soil strips is 1.3 times higher than the productivity at ash strips and 1.5 times higher than productivity at clean fly ash (Figure 11).

­ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are thankful for the support of the scientific researches of higher educational institutions within the state task force of the Russian Federation no 2014/236, project no 2485. M.N.V. Prasad is thankful to the Ural Federal University (UrFU), Ekaterinburg, for the invitation to be a visiting professor in November 2014.

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Productivity in DW (cwt/ha)

15

10

5

0

1

2

Cereals

3a

Sites Legumes

3b

Herbs

FIGURE 11 Productivity of herbaceous communities at different sites of ash dump.

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