Biomemetic synthesis of selenium nanoparticles and its biomedical applications

CHAPTER

Biomemetic synthesis of selenium nanoparticles and its biomedical applications

8

Soumya Menon*, Happy Agarwal*, S. Venkat Kumar*, S. Rajeshkumar† School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India* Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Chennai, India†

­C HAPTER OUTLINE 1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 165 2  Physical Approaches for Nanoparticles................................................................ 166 3  Chemical Approaches for Nanoparticles............................................................... 167 4  Green Synthesis of Selenium Nanoparticles.......................................................... 167 5  Bacteria-Based Synthesis and Its Mechanism....................................................... 179 6  Green Synthesis of SeNPs by Fungus, Yeast, and Actinomycetes............................ 182 7  Green Synthesis of SeNPs by Plants and Their Parts............................................. 183 8  Green Synthesis of SeNPs by Green Chemical Agents............................................ 183 9 Application......................................................................................................... 184 10  Medicinal Application of Selenium Nanoparticles................................................. 184 11  Antioxidant Properties......................................................................................... 184 12  Antidiabetic Properties........................................................................................ 185 13  Antimicrobial Properties...................................................................................... 186 14  Antineoplastic Properties.................................................................................... 187 15  Toxicity of Selenium............................................................................................ 189 16  Future Aspects and Conclusion............................................................................ 189 References............................................................................................................... 190

1 ­INTRODUCTION Selenium plays a very important role in the construction of plants and biological systems, but its toxicity increases once it climbs above trace levels. It can easily be incorporated into proteins, like the selenoenzymes (glutathione peroxidase), and can act as an antioxidant enzyme that helps in the inhibition of cellular damage caused by free radicals. It can also be used against the development of diseases like cancer or heart disease, arthritis, cystic fibrosis, and muscular dystrophy, and it is also being Green Synthesis, Characterization and Applications of Nanoparticles. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102579-6.00008-3 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

165

166

CHAPTER 8  Biomemetic synthesis of selenium nanoparticles

extensively used as a nutritional supplement [1–5]. At higher levels, the selenium oxyanions (selenide (SeII), selenite (SeIV), or selenate (SeVI) probably cause toxicity to humans, aquatic organisms, and animals, but the toxicity is lower when selenium is in its elemental form (Se0) [3, 6, 7]. Selenium has the transitional properties of both a metal and nonmetal; it is present in organic or inorganic forms: selenocysteine (Secys) and selenomethionine (Semet) are its organic forms, whereas selenate (SeO 4 2-), selenide (Se2−), and selenite (SeO32−) are its inorganic forms [8, 9]. It is found in various shapes like nanospheres, nanowires, nanorods, or nanotubes [10]. Selenium is amorphous in nature; it is red and trigonal with a helical chained structure in black, and has a crystalline monoclinic structure (α,β,γ) with Se8 rings that are red in color [11]. The nanoparticle formation of selenium displays unique properties such as a lower surface area per unit volume and good adsorbency [12], and its functionality surges when it acts as a ligand, improvising affinity toward its target. The functional properties also depend upon the surface hydrophobicity and surface charge density of the nanoparticles [13]. The characteristic feature of nanoparticles is the decrease in size and increase in volume ratio, which is due to biological activity improvement when compared to bulk formation [14]. The basic reaction involved in the selenite enzymatic reaction is: SeO32 − + 4e + 6H → Se 0 + 3H 2 O

1

The SeO32− ions serve as electron acceptors, and the NADH dehydrogenase or components of electron transport chains act as electron donors as indicated in Eq. (1). In a study, it was stated that the colloidal stability and surface charge alter with the shape of nanoparticles, which, in turn, has a high effect on the environment and its effectiveness in other fields [11, 15]. The interactions, such as steric or electrostatic, between the nanoparticles (with variable shapes) and the biomolecules coated on the surface of nanoparticles are the few factors responsible for its stability [16]. The research on selenium nanoparticles is gaining more importance due to its technological applications and its diverse roles in life science [17].

2 ­PHYSICAL APPROACHES FOR NANOPARTICLES In a study, selenium nanoparticles were produced using the femtosecond pulse laser technique, in which bubbles were generated at the site of the laser ejection. The femtosecond pulse laser involves two mechanisms: photofragmentation and melting. For both mechanisms, the size of the SeNPs were not >30 nm, but if the irradiation continued for much longer, it prevented the reduction of nanoparticles from the bulk, as it produced materials millimeters in size, thereby decreasing the efficiency of the technique [18]. In another study, where nanoparticles were synthesized by the sonication method, conditions such as temperature and optimum pressure had to be maintained throughout the process for the nucleation of nanoparticles [19, 20]. In the case of the laser ablation technique, the selenium nanoparticles’ deposition on

4  Green synthesis of selenium nanoparticles

the surface ­medium is not always uniform, thereby resulting in an unequal synthesis of nanoparticles with irregular sizes or shapes. The size and population are directly proportional to the increase in laser pulses [21]. In a microwave-assisted method, the shape of the nanoparticles was manipulated with microwave intensity and maintained at high temperatures of ≤150°C. The drawback to this method is the expensive microwave-assisted flow reactor and the maintenance of high temperatures throughout the experiment [22, 23].

3 ­CHEMICAL APPROACHES FOR NANOPARTICLES In a presented report, the synthesis of SeNPs was done by an ionic liquid-induced method; an additional polyvinyl alcohol stabilizer [24] was added. In another report, stabilizers like polysorbate 80, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and tryptone [25] were additionally used for the synthesis of nanomaterials. Multiple steps were involved in the reaction, which required maintaining different temperatures or pressures [26]. Then, in an electrochemical method or electron transfer reaction, sucrose, polyvinylpyrolidone, and sodium dodecyl sulfonate acted as modifiers for the SeNPs’ synthesis, and cetane trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) was added to change the shape (i.e., nanorods) in the CTAB-assisted hydrothermal method maintained at a temperature of 130°C [27]. In the case of the self-assembly method, the chemical structure of a chitosan stabilizer was manipulated by the addition of chemicals like methyl iodide (CH3I), and gallic and folic acids. To activate the folic acid, a new set of chemicals was added to get the final product. Various other techniques are also available in the reduction of SeNPs, but their major drawback is the consumption of toxic chemicals that are highly reactive, which may pose a threat to the environment and to human life [28]. In the case of biomimetic methods, no external chemicals are added for stabilization, because of the phytochemicals present in the plants, enzymes, or proteins present in the microbes, which help in the dual action of reduction and stabilization of nanoparticles [29]. By manipulating the composition of the extract or the precursor, desirable nanoparticles were easily produced [30]. The green methods have reduced exposure for humans and the environment by focusing on the raw materials or solvents used in the synthesis of nanomaterials, which are nontoxic in nature [31].

4 ­GREEN SYNTHESIS OF SELENIUM NANOPARTICLES The biological synthesis of SeNPs includes plants, microbes, and green chemicals (carbohydrates, sugars, etc.) as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1. Bacteria, yeasts, and fungi [82] are the preferred microbes involved in the nucleation or stabilization of nanoparticles. These resources are easily available in the environment due to their fast growth in any environmental conditions, and their ability to adapt themselves to any condition of extreme pH, temperature, or pressure. The microbial strains can

167

Table 1  The green synthesis of SeNPs and the various conditions for synthesis

Source of synthesis

Operating condition (concentration of precursor, temperature, pH, etc.)

Color change

Duration for synthesis

Bacteria Azoarcus sp. CIB

1–8 mM selenite

Orange

5 days

Bacillus laterosporus

37°C, pH of 7, gamma irradiation dose of 1.5 kGy, 1 M of NaHSeO3

Reddish brown

48 h

B. fungorum DBT1 and B. fungorum 95 Idiomarina sp. PR58-8

0.5 mM and 1 mM of selenite solution, at 27°C Na2SeO3 (precursor) 0.05–12 mM, 37°C

Red-orange

96 h

Brick-red

72 h

Klebsiella pneumoniae

37°C

Red

24 h

Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus

35°C 4 mM of sodium selenite

Red

48 h

Size/shape 123 ± 35 (avg) 88 ± 40 (TEM) and spherical 17.1, 20.81, and 26.43 nm (XRD), 74.8 nm (DLS), 40–70 nm (TEM), spherical

170 and 200 nm (DLS), spherical 34 nm (XRD), of 150–350 nm Spherical (TEM) 100—550 nm, with an average size of 245 nm (TEM) 20–150 nm (UV spec) Spherical (TEM)

Biochemical or functional group

Reference

–

[15]

–NH2 amino group and –OH stretching groups, aliphatic C-H stretching, carbonyl group, primary amine group C-N, NH stretch vibrations of the proteins, R-CH Free thiols and thiol groups of proteins –

[32]

–

[35]

Carbonyl group from the amino acids

[36]

[33] [34]

Pantoea agglomerans Escherichia coli K-12

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Escherichia coli ATCC 35218

pH 9, 50°C 9 mM SeO2 0.7–5.2 mM, ratio of (1:30–1:150) for Na2O3S2 to H2SeO3 and 0.01 M SDS 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 mM selenite

Dark red

12 h

–

–

[37]

Dark red

18 h

–

[38]

Red

72 h

10–90 nm (TEM, STEM, SEM) 62 ± 15 nm (DLS) Spheroidal 95.9 nm Spherical (TEM)

[39]

0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 mM selenite

Red

72 h

OH groups, methylene, groups, carbonyl stretching vibrations in aldehydes, (ketones and carboxylic acids), amide I and amide II, due to the carbonyl and N-H stretching vibrations, carboxylate and ether OH groups, methylene, groups, carbonyl stretching vibrations in aldehydes, (ketones and carboxylic acids), amide I and amide II, due to the carbonyl and N-H stretching vibrations, carboxylate and ether

155 nm Spherical

[40]

Continued

Table 1  The green synthesis of SeNPs and the various conditions for synthesis—cont'd Operating condition (concentration of precursor, temperature, pH, etc.)

Color change

Duration for synthesis

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia SeITE02

0.5 mM Na2SeO3

Red

48 h

160–250 nm Spherical

Zooglea ramigera

3 mM Na2SeO3

Red

48 h

30–150 nm, an average size of 84.99 nm nanorods (trigonal) (TEM, SEM)

Geobacillus wiegelii GWE1

2 mM Na2SeO3, 70°C

Red

22 h

Bacillus sp. MSh-1

1.26 mM SeO2

Orange-red

14 h

Bacillus sp. JAPSK2

559.19 mg of selenium chloride 20 mg Na2SeO3 2.0 mM SeO32−

Red

24 h

– Red colloidal

– >24 h

Source of synthesis

Lactobacillus acidophilus Bacillus mycoides SeITE01

Size/shape

Biochemical or functional group

Reference

N-H stretching, C-H stretching vibrations in CH2 and CH3, CO vibrations in amide I and amide II, O-H vibrations of the absorbed H2O and C-H vibration in the alkyl chain of l-cysteine –

[41]

250–120 nm (TEM)

–

[43]

120–140 nm Spherical (TEM) 21.9 nm (AFM) 191.19 nm (TEM) 15–50 nm Nearly sphericalshaped, 50–400 nm

–

[44]

–

[45]

– –

[46] [47]

[42]

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Bacillus oryziterrae ZYKT Klebsiella pneumonia Clostridium perfringens

0.5 mM SeO32− 1.0 mM selenite 564 mg of selenium oxide, 37°C

– Red Red brick

48 h 15 days 24 h

Nanospheres – Spherical 198 ± 85 nm 120 ± 50 nm (TEM)

– – –

[48] [49] [50]

Bacillus cereus CM100B

2 mM sodium selenite, 37°C, aerobic conditions 200 mg/L NaHSeO3, Ph 3–4, 37°C

Red

48 h

–

[51]

Red

36–48 h

Nanospheres, 150–200 nm Nanospheres (SEM) 100–500 nm

–

[52]

Sodium selenite pentahydrate (0.1 M)

Little gray to red

24 h

NH, CO groups

[53]

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia SeITE02 Enterobacter cloacae Z0206

0.5 mM of Na2SeO3, 27°C

–

48 h

Nanorods and spherical when poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) was added 50–500 nm Spherical

–

[54]

10 mM selenite

144 h

100–300 nm (SEM)

–

[55]

Nostoc linckia

25–30°C, pH 6.0–7.0, 100 cm3 of 100 mg/dm3 aqueous cobalt selenite solution 27°C, 0.5 mM SeO32−, 1 mM SeO32−

Red to darkened colors –

72 h

10–80 nm (SEM)

–

[56]

Red

96 h

Spherical, 170 nm and 200 nm (SEM)

–

[33]

Lactobacillus casei; Streptococcus thermophilus; Bifidobacterium BB-12; Lactobacillus acidophilus (LA-5); Lactobacillus helveticus (LH-B02) Pseudomonas alcaliphila

Burkholderia fungorum DBT1 Burkholderia fungorum 95

Continued

Table 1  The green synthesis of SeNPs and the various conditions for synthesis—cont'd

Source of synthesis Fungus Trichoderma asperellum, Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma atroviride, virens, Trichoderma longibrachiatum, and Trichoderma brevicompactum

Operating condition (concentration of precursor, temperature, pH, etc.)

Color change

Duration for synthesis

Size/shape

25 mM sodium selenite

Pale yellow to insoluble orange-red

12 h

Hexagonal, near spherical, and irregular, 49.5–312.5 nm

Aspergillus terreus

SeO2 (10 g/L)

Red

1 h

Alternaria alternata

1 mM Na2SeO4, RT

Dark red

24 h

47 nm Spherical (TEM) 30–150 nm (DLS) 90 ± 10 nm (TEM, SEM)

Biochemical or functional group

Reference

O-H stretching form and N-H stretch in amine group, stretching vibration of –CH3, asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of –CH2, CO and CN groups –

[57]

Amide I, II, and III, N-H stretching, symmetric and antisymmetric modes of C-H stretching, symmetrical stretching vibrations of –COO, C-N stretching vibrations of aromatic and aliphatic amines, plane bending vibration of N-H groups

[59]

[58]

Archaea Halococcus salifodinae BK18 Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Protozoa Tetrahymena thermophila SB210 Actinomycete Streptomyces microflavus Strain FSHJ31 Plant and its parts Vitis vinifera (raisin)

Bougainvillea spectabilis (flower)

2 mM Na2SeO3, RT

Brick-red

168 h

Rod-shaped

–

[60]

0.05 mM Na2SeO3, 30°C

Yellow to dark brown then finally red

24 h

30–100 nm (SEM)

–

[61]

150 μM Na2SeO3

Red

48 h

Spherical, 50–500 nm

–

[62]

SeO2 200 μg/mL, 30°C

Red

5 days

28–123 nm

–

[63]

4 × 10−5 M H2SeO3

Colorless to brick red color

12 min

Spherical 3–18 nm (TEM) 8.12 ± 2.5 nm (DLS) 12 nm (XRD)

[64]

10 mM sodium selenite, 36°C

Purple to brown

120 h

Hollow and spherical 53 nm (XRD) 24.24 ± 2.95 (SEM, TEM)

OH, C-H vibration of the aromatic ring, phenolic OH, aromatic in-plane C-H bending, asymmetric C-H bending (in CH3 and –CH2-, secondary OH, ether-methoxy–OCH3 groups Stretching vibration of –NH- of amines, stretching vibration of –CO– of ketones, stretching vibration of alcohol

[65]

Continued

Table 1  The green synthesis of SeNPs and the various conditions for synthesis—cont'd

Source of synthesis

Operating condition (concentration of precursor, temperature, pH, etc.)

Color change

Duration for synthesis

Size/shape

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. and Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) (flower)

10 mM sodium selenite, 36°C

Pale green to pinkish red and transparent orange to light brown

7 days

Hollow spherical 32.02 and 40.2 nm (XRD) 23.2 ± 6.06 nm and 30.44 ± 2.89 nm (TEM)

Clausena dentata (leaf)

1 mM selenium powder

Black color to yellowish

–

Diospyros montana (Leaf)

300 mM H2SeO3 + 400 mM ascorbic acid

Colorless to a brick red color

24 h

Spherical and small percentage of elongated particles, 46.32– 78.88 nm (SEM) Spherical 4–16 nm

Biochemical or functional group -CO-O- stretching vibration of esters, -CONH- stretching vibration of tertiary amide, -N-H- plane bending of secondary amide, higher esters and primary amide, –CO– stretching vibration of ketones N-H stretching, hydroxyl groups, O-H stretching carboxylic acids, CC stretch in alkenes group Stretching vibrations of the O-H groups, CH stretches in alkanes, CH stretching vibration, CO stretch in aldehydes, CC stretching of alkenes, CH bending, CH bending in alkyls, the C–O–C asymmetric stretching of ethers, CO stretching in alcohols

Reference [66]

[67]

[68]

Trigonella foenum-graecum L), (fenugreek seed)

Allium sativum (garlic)

30 mM selenious acid +40 mM ascorbic acid; 1% fenugreek extract +40 mM ascorbic acid +30 mM selenious acid; 1% fenugreek extract +30 mM selenious acid; 30 mM selenious acid; and 0.2% sodium alginate +40 mM ascorbic acid +30 mM selenious acid 30 mM selenious acid+200 μL of 40 mM ascorbic acid. 0.2% sodium alginate, 200 μL 40 mM ascorbic acid and selenious acid mixture was used as standard positive control. The mixture of 2% extract and 200 μL of 40 mM ascorbic acid was used as negative control

Colorless to ruby red color

24 h

Oval in shape with smooth surface, 50–150 nm (SEM)

Stretching and vibrational bending of CC, NH2, COOH, CH2 and CO

[69]

Yellowish orange color turned red

48 h

Spherical, 205 nm (DLS), 27.6 nm (AFM), 24.57 nm (XRD)

Carboxylic OH stretching, CH stretching, amide II band or NH primary amines, C-O-H bending, S and vinyl group, OH (of alcohols or phenols) and N-H (amide) group, CH or OH stretching vibrations of alkanes or carboxylic acid, H30+, CO stretching in carbonyl or amide group, CC

[70]

Continued

Table 1  The green synthesis of SeNPs and the various conditions for synthesis—cont'd

Source of synthesis

Operating condition (concentration of precursor, temperature, pH, etc.)

Color change

Duration for synthesis

Size/shape

Leucas lavandulifolia Sm (leaf and stem)

2 mL of plant extract was mixed with 10 mL of 50 mM selenious acid solution, along with 200 μL of 40 mM ascorbic acid which was used as an initiator of reduction reaction. Standard positive control was maintained using selenious acid and 200 μL of 40 mM ascorbic acid for the synthesis of selenium nanoparticles, while plant extract +200 μL of 40 mM ascorbic acid was used as negative control

Ruby red

–

Spherical, 56– 75 nm (FE-SEM)

Terminalia arjuna (leaf)

Leaf extract (2 mL) was added dropwise into the 20-mL solution of Na2SeO3 (10 mM), 30 °C

Dark red color

72 h

10 to 80 nm (TEM, SAED)

Biochemical or functional group O-H stretching H-bonded alcohols and phenols, OH groups in water, alcohol and phenols and NH stretching in amines, OH stretch carboxylic acids, NH stretching of amino acid, CH stretching of aryl acid, CC stretch in aromatic ring, NH bending in amine and CO stretch in polyphenols, CN stretch of amide-I, CO stretching of ether, CO stretching in amino acid, CH out of plane bending O–H, NH, CO, and C–O

Reference [71]

[72]

Others Reducing sugar (d-fructose)

1.0 mmol/L, 5 mL) of Na2SeO3, added in 10.0 mL of 1.0 mmol L−1 of d-fructose, heat at 45°C

Red (a-SeNPs) to black (t-SeNPs)

Bovine serum albumin (BSA)

25-mM Na2SeO3, 4.0 mL 25-mM GSH containing 20 mg BSA and with 1.0 M sodium hydroxide, pH 7.2

Red

Bovine serum albumin (BSA)

0.1 g bovine serum albumin and 0.1 g sodium selenite, 121°C 6:1 ratio using 6 mM of GA and 1 mM of Na2SeO3 and 100 μM RuCl3, 70°C at pH 3.0 100 mL 10–1 M + 10 mL 4% glucose Na2SeSO3

Gallic acid

Glucose

Undaria pinnatifida polysaccharide

Aqueous U. pinnatifida polysaccharide solution (0.1%, 1 mL) + 8 mL 60 mM ascorbic acid + Sodium selenite solution (30 mM, 1 mL)

15 min (amorphous selenium, a-SeNPs), 20 min (trigonal selenium, t-SeNPs) –

Spheres (a-SeNPs) rod shaped (t-SeNPs) 80–100 nm (XRD, HRTEM)

–

[73]

35 nm (TEM, DLS) 91 nm (TEM, DLS) When heat at 70°C for 10 h was given

–

[74]

White to clear red

20 min

Spherical, 500–600 nm

Amide I and CH vibrations of CH2

[75]

Light blue to yellowish brown

–

60 nm (TEM)

—

[76]

Colorless to yellow after refluxing immediately and become orange –

30 min

60 nm (XRD) 20–80 nm (TEM)

—

[77]

5 min

Spherical, 44–92 nm TEM, HRTEM

—

[78]

Continued

Table 1  The green synthesis of SeNPs and the various conditions for synthesis—cont'd

Source of synthesis Quercetin and gallic acid

Sialic acid

Poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG)

Operating condition (concentration of precursor, temperature, pH, etc.)

Color change

Duration for synthesis

Size/shape

Biochemical or functional group

Reference

50 μM of quercetin and gallic acid +1 mM Na2SeO3, 45°C, pH of 8.0 in dark condition 0.1 M of Na2SeO3 + 26.0 mg of NaBH4, 8:1 ratio of SA to Na2SeO3

–

8 h

30–35 nm

—

[79]

Red

2 h

Spherical 80 and 90 nm (TEM, DLS)

[80]

A stock solution of (Na2SeO3) was prepared by dissolving 8.7 mg of Na2SeO3 powder in 10 mL of Milli-Q water, 5 mL aliquot of Na2SeO3 stock solution was mixed with 10 mL PEG200 solution, a ratio of 1;1 was maintained, 210–220°C

15–20 min

Colorless to Spherical, red 40–50 nm

CO stretching vibration, carbonyl group of carboxylic acid (OCO), hydroxyl groups (-OH) OH stretching (n) vibrations, CH stretching vibrations, C–O–C

[81]

5 ­ Bacteria-based synthesis and its mechanism

FIG. 1 Different green sources mediated synthesis of selenium nanoparticles.

e­ asily be genetically manipulated [83]. The synthesis of nanoparticles occurs both extracellularly and intracellularly. They entrap the toxic chemicals or metal ions from the environment by catalytic reductions, and the chemicals are then converted into nontoxic chemicals [84]. The advantage of using microbial mediated synthesis is the use of eco-friendly chemicals or minimal use of chemicals [85]. But the only drawback in this technique is that the reaction is time-consuming, for a period of not >24 h (due to decrease in biomass and macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, phycobilin, and lipids), and downstream processing is required for the growth of microorganisms in reactors for the scale-up of nanoparticles [86]. The electron microscopy of various sized SeNPs is represented in Fig. 2. Morphology plays an important role in numerous applications in the biomedical field.

5 ­BACTERIA-BASED SYNTHESIS AND ITS MECHANISM The synthesis of selenium nanoparticles, mediated by bacteria, is done by growing them in a media containing nutrients and the precursor chemical selenite at different concentrations. They are grown at various optimized conditions to find the maximum production of selenium nanoparticles. The color intensity of selenium changes from colorless to a different characteristic color, measured at regular intervals of time, and the purified nanoparticles are collected after centrifugation at high rpm. The mechanism of synthesis of SeNPs by bacteria is demonstrated in Fig.  3. The Burkholderia fungorum strains produce a reddish color reaction mixture, indicating the synthesis of selenium nanoparticles [37]. The probable mechanisms involved in the reduction of the selenite to elemental selenium include

179

180 CHAPTER 8  Biomemetic synthesis of selenium nanoparticles

FIG. 2 Electron microscopy images of synthesized selenium nanoparticles. (A) SEM and (B) TEM image produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 by Kora and Rastogi [39]. (C) TEM and (D) SEM image of Se-CurNPs by Kumari et al. [87]. (E) SEM and (F) TEM image of purified SeNPs synthesized using T. thermophila SB210 by Cui et al. [62]. (G) SEM image of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia synthesized SeNPs by Lampis et al. [48]. (H) TEM image of Idiomarina sp. PR58–8 synthesized SeNPs by Srivastava and Kowshik [34].

5 ­ Bacteria-based synthesis and its mechanism

FIG. 3 A proposed mechanism involved in the reduction of SeNPs in Bacillus mycoides SeITE01. (A) and (B) show the protein components involved in the reaction. © Lampis et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. 2014.

s­ iderophore-mediated reduction, sulfide-mediated reduction, thioredoxin reductase system, Painter-type reactions, and dissimilatory reduction [55]. The components responsible for the reduction of selenium nanoparticles are mainly the thiol groups (Painter-type reactions); bound proteins such as phytochelatins and metalothioneins, or nonproteins like glutathione, cystine and cysteine, or oxidoredoxin, which are involved in suppressing the reactive oxygen species; or proteins involved in the transport of electrons during the microbial respiration. These groups are proteins or enzymes produced by different strains of bacteria involved in the reduction of selenium nanoparticles. And the location of these enzymes can be in cellular compartments of cytoplasm, cytoplasmic membranes, or periplasm. The location of these nanoparticles can be analyzed using an electron microscope like SEM or TEM. For example, the selenite reduction was assayed in cytoplasm for Stenotrophomonas maltophilia SeITE02 [41] and similarly for B. fungorum DBT1 and B. fungorum 95 [33]. The selenium nanoparticles are best produced when the bacteria are in either the stationary or exponential (highest energy) phase. The mechanism of selenite reduction was studied for the Azoarcus strain [15], and it suggested that bioremediation of the SeNPs was possible when the cells were at the exponential growth phase, and the energy-dependent export system would help in secreting the selenite out of the cell. When the cells reach the stationary phase, the selenite

181

182

CHAPTER 8  Biomemetic synthesis of selenium nanoparticles

is reduced to selenium nanoparticles in the cytoplasm. The reduction to selenium nanoparticles was tested at different phases for S. maltophilia SeITE02 [41]. The reaction is the conversion of SeO32− to Se0, which forms aggregates, or are grown into SeNPs. There are many hypothesized or proposed mechanisms such as (1) reduction of selenium oxyanions (seleate/selenite) by NADPH/NADP-dependent selenite reductase enzyme, (2) conversion of stable keto pyruvate from an unstable enol pyruvate in the glycolysis process present in the cytosol, (3) catalysis by glutathione reductase or glutathione enzyme of selenite by donating electrons to hydrogen selenide (H2Se) with the help of intermediates like glutathionyl selenol or selenodiglutathione (GS-Se-SG), and (4) oxidoredoxin, which is a NADH-related reductase that accepts electrons more efficiently than NADH from NADPH [15, 32]. Another mechanism was proposed for Bacillus mycoides SeITE01 [47] mediated selenium nanoparticles: (1) The LMW thiols such as bacilithiol (BSH) or the Trx/TrxRed system help in the precipitation of SeO32− to Se0 in the cytoplasm of the bacterium. (2) The membrane reductase is assumed to be involved in the reduction of SeNPs. (3) The SeNPs are then released after cell lysis; the first three steps are the intracellular mechanisms involved for synthesis of SeNPs (4) For extracellular reduction, the membrane reductase also plays a very important role in the reduction of selenite precipitation. (5) The bacterial cell releases peptides or components containing the thiol group that reacts with selenite. (6) NADH, along with other protein components released from the bacterium, plays an important role in the catabolism of selenite to Se0. (7) The budding SeNPs are not stable in nature, as they have larger surface area, so to attain a lower energy state, they increase in size by the mechanism of Ostwald ripening.

6 ­GREEN SYNTHESIS OF SeNPs BY FUNGUS, YEAST, AND ACTINOMYCETES Along with bacteria, fungal species are also being used for biomimetic preparation of selenium nanoparticles. But not much has been reported until now. In a recent study, the fungal species Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus terreus, and Trichoderma sp. were used to mediate synthesis of selenium nanoparticles, and researchers evaluated the size and shape of the nanoparticles with the help of characterization tools. The extracellular biomolecules or the proteins produced by these species act as both reducing and stabilizing agents. Streptomyces microflavus strain FSHJ31, the actinomycete yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Halococcus salifodinae BK18, and the protozoal species Tetrahymena thermophila SB210 produce red selenium nanoparticles of diverse shapes and sizes, with an incubation time of 24 h or more.

8 ­ Green synthesis of SeNPs by green chemical agents

7 ­ GREEN SYNTHESIS OF SeNPs BY PLANTS AND THEIR PARTS The rapid preparation of nanoparticles mediated by plants has compelled researchers to explore variant materials or parts of the plants for use as chemical inducers and stabilizers for the aggregation of nanoparticles [88]. The biosynthesis of nanomaterials using plants and their parts involves utilization of nonhazardous materials for the synthesis of nanoparticles; it also has great potential in heavy metal detoxification and accumulation [89, 90]. As mentioned in Table  1, the SeNPs synthesized by ­fenugreek seeds, garlic cloves, leaves of Leucas lavandulifolia, etc., produce nanoparticles of various shapes and sizes. In Fig. 4, a flowchart for preparation of SeNPs using plant extract is presented.

8 ­GREEN SYNTHESIS OF SeNPs BY GREEN CHEMICAL AGENTS The protein-mediated synthesis of SeNPs has become widely used in recent years, as they are easily biodegradable and a few of them are produced within the body, such as reducing sugars, glucose, gallic acids, natural polyphenol present in plants or fruits, polyethylene glycol, or chitosan (Fig.  5). When coated over nanoparticles, these components help improve the efficacy of selenium nanoparticles in applications such as anticancer therapies, regulating thyroid functions and diabetes, improving the immune system, or treatment of cardiovascular diseases [81].

Preparation of plant extract Mixing of precursor with the plant extract for the bioreduction of SeNPs Charcterisation of the bioreduced nanoparticles by UV-Vis, FTIR, XRD, SEM, TEM, etc. Biological application of the bioreduced nanoparticles

FIG. 4 A flowchart that presents the steps involved in the synthesis of SeNPs using plant extracts.

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Ascorbic acid, RT, 24 h Reduction, NP formation, and curcumin attachment

Se-CurNPs

Na2SeO3 and curcumin mixture

Curcumin

SeO32–

Se NPs

FIG. 5 A schematic presentation of production of Se-CurNPs loaded with curcumin [87].

9 ­APPLICATION Selenium is considered the center of selenoprotein structure arrangements such as thioredoxin reductase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione hydroxy peroxidase, and phospholipids. The protein responsible for cellular defense against oxidative collateral of the cytoplasmic structural forms is GPx. It is a selenium-dependent enzyme that has the ability to exert antioxidant properties. Because of this, selenium is involved at the nanoscale in medicine, food technology, and pharmaceutical applications [91].

10 ­MEDICINAL APPLICATION OF SELENIUM NANOPARTICLES Selenium compounds are said to be effective neuroprotective agents for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), where low selenium was found in the hair, blood, and tissues samples of AD patients. For the diagnosis of AD, markers can be effective tools that can detect low selenium levels and GSH-Px activity [92]. In a study, selenium nanoparticles acted as an antiviral drug against H1N1 influenza virus, and its efficacy increased when the nanoparticles were surface decorated with the commercialized antiviral drug Zanamivir. It worked by inhibiting the activation of caspase-3 enzyme and cleavage of PARP protein; the signaling pathways of JNK and p38 were also blocked [93].

11 ­ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES The antioxidants play an important role in protecting against oxidative stress d­ iseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular diseases [94]. The free r­adicals

12 ­ Antidiabetic properties

c­ ommonly serve as regulatory and signaling molecules, but if they are present in excess, they may cause damage to the cellular components and impair their function. In a study, SeNPs (II) and SeNPs (III) were tested for the antioxidant property by DPPH and ABTS assay. The SeNPs (II) with smaller size showed better results than the latter, and a change of morphology of SeNPs was observed when treated with ABTS, as was shown in TEM observations [95]. In another study, broccoli sprouts were supplemented with SeNPs for nutritional improvement and increased functionality as a food. The broccoli sprouts were tested for their antioxidant ability by the DPPH assay, which was supplemented with SeNPs in 10-, 50-, and 100-ppm concentrations. It was found that sprouts supplemented with SeNPs (at 100 ppm) showed the highest capacity for antioxidant ability [96]. The antioxidant capacity for SeNPs (0.06 mg of Se per kg of body weight/day) and selenium nanoparticles bound with glucose, SeNP-GLU (0.06 mg of Se and 0.3 mg of glucose per kg of body weight/ day) was analyzed. The antioxidant property was evaluated in the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in rat blood; these were considered the antioxidant markers. It was found that SeNP-GLU showed a maximum antioxidant potential [97]. Similarly, studies were conducted to check the antioxidant property of SeNPs loaded with chitosan microspheres (SeNPs-M), and the level of antioxidant biomarkers was also analyzed [98]. Measuring DPPH (1,1-diphenyl 2-picrylhyorazyl) activity is a fast and accurate method that helps determine the scavenging ability of the nanoparticles. The reaction is complete with a change of color from purple to yellow [99], and the absorbance is measured at a wavelength of 517 nm, which means that the odd electron present in the stable free radical is captured by the hydrogen-donating antioxidant substance [100]. Other tests for antioxidant activities are nitric oxide radical scavenging activity, ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethyl benzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical scavenging assay, superoxide radical scavenging assay, and inhibition of lipid peroxidation activity [101].

12 ­ ANTIDIABETIC PROPERTIES Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is considered a fatal disease, with a decade-long diagnosis. In recent years, peptides or protein-based products have been widely used as therapeutic agents, as they are biocompatible and degradable drugs. In a study, selenium nanoparticles were conjugated with chitosan and therapeutic protein BAY 55-9837. The complex was successful in improving the pharmacokinetic distribution into the body with a high effective release rate, and it escaped renal elimination due to its comparatively larger molecular sizes [102]. Fig. 6 shows the mechanism of the BAY-CS-SeNPs distribution into the Bowman’s capsule and release into the bloodstream. One of the therapeutic agents responsible for the treatment of diabetes is hormone insulin, effective for both type I and type II DM. The intravenously injected insulin causes allergic reactions, lipodystrophy around the injection spot, hypoglycemia, and hyperinsulinemia. When administered orally, it is

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FIG. 6 A proposed mechanism of BAY-CS-SeNPs as an antidiabetic agent.

absorbed ­directly into the veins, maximizing the functional properties of insulin and reducing the side effects caused by injection. However, oral insulin delivery faces poor permeability and gastrointestinal (GI) instability. To overcome all of these issues, nanocarriers or nanoparticles are developed to cross the GI conditions (acidic and enzymatic degradation) via insulation and assist in transport across the epithelia. In a study, chitosan was used in efficient entrapment of insulin and insulating it against harsh GI conditions; pH of 6 was maintained to avoid the precipitation of the chitosan [103].

13 ­ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES The antibacterial effects have been attributed to the formation of free radicals produced by different selenium compounds, including the selenium oxyanions, as mentioned in the literature. They have the capability of reacting with ­intracellular thiols and proceeding in the formation of superoxided radicals that cause oxidative stress. But it has been observed that selenium nanoparticles have a higher potential to generate these free radicals, irrespective of their morphology. In fact, the oxidative stress was similar to all variant shapes or sizes, but the toxicity varied with the microbial populations [54]. Candida albicans are yeast that

14 ­ Antineoplastic properties

are a­ bundantly present in the urogenital tract, oral cavity, and GI tract, causing infection. In a study, C. albicans infection was inhibited by SeNPs synthesized by the probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus sp. [104]. The antibacterial property was also demonstrated by SeNPs coated with a surfactant, polysorbate 20, against the biofilm-forming, Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus. In another study, the antibacterial properties were compared between silver nanoparticles and the SeNPs against S. aureus cultures, out of which the SeNPs demonstrated better results of size (50–100 nm) and AgNPs in a size >200 nm. Metallothionein, the antibacterial protein, increased its concentration with the addition of SeNPs, and the SeNPs impaired the DNA structure when they interacted with amplified zntR gene [105].

14 ­ANTINEOPLASTIC PROPERTIES Cancer is treated with chemotherapeutic drugs, but undesirable side effects develop, or patients may even become resistant to the drugs. Researchers are combining nanotechnology with cancer treatments, making drugs biocompatible, economic, and highly effective. Nanoparticles are prone to surface modification or anchoring with linkers to prolong drug release. This coating is possible using plant or microbial sources, and even metabolites, to create nanodrugs that are ecofriendly in nature [106]. A spirulina polysaccharide (SPS) was fabricated on the surface of SeNPs for effective penetration as a potential targeting component into tumors, organs, tissues, or cancer cells. The tumor tissues contain lectins present on the cell surface, so targeting the lectins with carbohydrate moieties may help in efficient delivery of the nanodrugs. In this study, the researchers used the drug against melanoma cells A375, which showed maximum cytotoxicity of 50% at a concentration of only 7.94 μM [107]. In another study, selenium nanoparticles were coated with chitosan to improve their effectiveness and stabilization. The SeNPs can induce apoptosis and arrest the cell cycle at S phase, also interfering with the m-RNA translation, which encodes for proteins responsible for cell proliferation or angiogenesis [108, 109]. The anticancerous property that SeNPs are said to possess is probably due to functions such as antioxidant defense, immune surveillance, carcinogen detoxification, angiogenesis, inhibition of tumors, cell proliferation modulation, and cell invasion [40]. To prove that ROS generation is responsible for anticancer activity, the mechanism was investigated by P. Srivastava and M. Kowshik. They estimated the ROS by varying the concentration of the nanoparticles in a dose-dependent manner with the aid of 2-7-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), a fluorescent probe of HeLa cells. In the process of mitochondrial dysfunction, the lipid, nucleic acid, and proteins were damaged, which ultimately led to programmed cell death (apoptosis). Apoptosis is measured by the apoptotic index (AI), which is considered for both treated and nontreated cells. It is defined by the p­ ercentage

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of AO/EB, where AO stains live cells, and EB stains nonviable or dead cells. The live cells uptake green stain, whereas dead cells uptake red, but under fluorescence microscopy, the ­apoptotic cells exhibit fluorescent green due to chromatin condensation. When HeLa cells were treated with Idiomarina sp. PR58-8 that synthesized SeNPs, the inactive proenzyme, procaspase-3, becomes activated by proteolytic cleavage to caspases, which eventually produces apoptotic bodies detected by Western blot analysis. The Western blot helps in the expression of the genes or proteins, like the p­ rocaspase-3, HSP-70, apoptotic markers, and poly(ADPribose) polymerase (PARP) [34]. In a study where selenium nanoparticles were coated with curcumin, the complex was treated against colorectal carcinoma cells (HCT116). The complex was attributed to the apoptosis and autophagy by upregulation of proapoptotic protein Bax and LC3B-II, which is associated with autophagy, then the downregulation of (Bcl-2), an antiapoptotic protein, (cyt c) cytochrome c, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (CD44, N-cadherin) associated proteins, along with inflammation (phospho-NFκB, NFκB), then decreased signaling of NFκB [87]. The exposure of SeNPs also triggers the IRF1 gene responsible for necroptosis mediated through RIP1 protein, and activates TNF (transcription factor) [110] (Fig. 7).

FIG. 7 A schematic diagram of various functions of selenium nanoparticles in the field of biomedicine.

16 ­ Future aspects and conclusion

15 ­TOXICITY OF SELENIUM The other molecular forms of selenium, such as sodium selenite, selenomethionine, or methylselenocysteine, are also potent anticancer agents, but at high doses, it is highly toxic to the environment. When SeNPs were conjugated with the anticancer drug irinotecan, the toxicity of the commercialized drug decreases drastically, while increasing the level of apoptosis and targeted alteration of the Nrf2-ARE pathway in normal or infected tumor tissues [111]. In a study, the toxicity for SeNPs synthesized using Bacillus sp. MSh-1 was found to be less than the chemically synthesized using SeO2 at a dose of 2.5 mg/kg and caused death in the in-vivo studies, whereas no deaths were detected with same concentration of SeNPs synthesized by microbial medium [112]. The toxicity of the nanoparticles increases with concentration, which leads to particle aggregation, and size of the particles increases from 200 nm onward. The larger-sized particles are cleared away by macrophage clearance, without effectively propagating its action, causing more toxicity, rather than the smaller particles, which work effectively [113]. The toxicity exhibited between the selenite form and the SeNPs occurred at low dosages. The rat models were orally administered with SeNPs of size 19 nm and at a selenite dose concentration of 0.05 and 0.5 mg Se/kg bw/day. Urine samples were collected after 14 days. Both formulations showed similar results at similar doses; when the metabolic pathway was evaluated, an increase in metabolite production such as hydroxydecanedioic and decenedioic acid was seen, but the selenite showed increased concentration of dipeptides [114]. The toxicity was tested in zebra fish embryos, and it was found that at 15–25 μg/mL concentration, it caused tail malformation, pericardial edema, and a decrease in the heart rate. Therefore, optimum concentration of selenium is necessary for effective therapeutic applications [115].

16 ­FUTURE ASPECTS AND CONCLUSION Selenium is a micronutrient that is an essential part of human construction, but reducing its toxicity and improving its effectiveness is a problem that researchers are working on. Now, a solution for this problem has been presented by nanotechnology. Nanosized selenium has been found to have good biocompatibility and displays antimicrobial, anticancerous, antidiabetic, and antiinflammatory effects, and with its lower toxicity, it has made an impact in the biomedical field. The synthesis of SeNPs can be mediated by physical, chemical, and biological methods, of which, the biological method has wider applications in the field of biomedicine due to the targeted delivery of nanodrugs, biocompatibility, low toxicity, and efficient release of drugs. Due to high surface-area-to-volume ratio, the adsorption of a drug or the stabilizing agent is at a maximum. SeNPs are potent chemoprotective or therapeutic agents against various cancerous diseases. More research should be done on their fabrication by antibodies for improving immunological surveillance, antibiotics coated for improving the antimicrobial property, and conjugation of ligands for targeting the

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r­ eceptors on the tumor cells’ surface. There should also be collaboration of industry and research so that novel nanoformulations of selenium can be taken to a larger scale and made commercially available to society. They should also work in the application of bioremediation of heavy metals as microbes can help in the detoxification of toxic elements, or as nanobiosensors for the detection of toxic compounds like heavy metals, nicotine, and toxins secreted by pathogenic microbes from the environment or humans. Finally, an elaborate explanation on the mechanism of synthesis or the role of phytochemicals present in plants used in the biomimetic synthesis of SeNPs should also be formulated.

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