Cement pastes modified with recycled glass and supplementary cementitious materials: Properties at the ambient and high temperatures

Journal of Cleaner Production 241 (2019) 118155

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Cement pastes modified with recycled glass and supplementary cementitious materials: Properties at the ambient and high temperatures Bo Li a, Tung-Chai Ling b, *, Jin-Guang Yu c, Jiaqi Wu d, Weiwei Chen a a

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, China College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan, China School of Civil Engineering, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an, 710055, China d Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clearwater Bay, Hong Kong, China b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 26 April 2019 Received in revised form 24 July 2019 Accepted 23 August 2019 Available online 26 August 2019

Recycling of glass has attracted great attention in the construction industry since it can be partly utilized as aggregate or pozzolan in cement and concrete. However, high-temperature performance of cement concrete containing waste glass is one of the major concerns for use in building applications. This paper studies the mechanical and high-temperature properties of cement pastes modified with glass particles (GPs) compared with those made by other supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). The replacement ratio of GPs or SCMs was kept at 30% by weight throughout the experiment. SCMs used in the study were ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), pulverized fly ash (PFA) and metakaolin (MK). To examine the size effect of GPs, three levels of size grading were adopted. Experimental results indicate that the use of GPs or SCMs slightly reduces the densities of the pastes, but increases their water absorption capability. Thirty percent of MK and GGBS in the pastes has a negligible impact on compressive strength. As for GPs, a decrease in compressive strength was noticed regardless of glass size used. It should be noted that the influence of GPs on strength is mainly governed by packing instead of pozzolanic effect. Similar to other SCMs, GPs can improve the residual compressive strength of pastes after exposure to a temperature of 300  C, but significantly decrease when the temperature increases to 600  C or 900  C due to the decomposition of hydration products and the annealing effect of GPs. © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Handling Editor: Zhen Leng Keywords: Cement paste Supplementary cementitious materials Glass particles Elevated temperature

1. Introduction The construction industry has been growing rapidly in the past decades, but also accounts for a huge amount of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission. The production of 1.0 kg of cement emits about 0.8 kg of CO2 which is responsible for approximately 6%e7% of global CO2 emission (Shen et al., 2015; Kajaste and Hurme, 2016; Huang et al., 2018). Therefore, great efforts have been made to use less cement in concrete production to decrease the energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission. One of the most promising approaches is to partially replace cement with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), e.g. ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) (Ling and Poon, 2014;

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (T.-C. Ling). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118155 0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Oner and Akyuz, 2007), fly ash (PFA) (Poon et al., 1999; Hsu et al., 2018) and meta-kaolin (MK) (Siddique and Klaus, 2009; MardaniAghabaglou et al., 2014). This allows not only a reduction in the use of cement, but enhances the mechanical properties and durability of concrete through their pozzolanic effects by forming additional secondary calcium silicate hydrate (CeSeH). Recently, different kinds of waste materials have been studied to examine their feasibility for use as partial replacement of cement in concrete including waste glass (Gupta and Vyas, 2018; Usman et al., 2018; Kamali and Ghahremaninezhad, 2015; Elaqra and Rustom, 2018a; Kim et al., 2015; Aliabdo et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2017a). These are the environmentally and economically desirable solutions for waste minimization and energy saving in the construction industry (Heriyanto et al., 2018). Glass particles (GPs) derived from discarded beverage bottles (soda-lime glass bottle) have attracted great attention for use as cement substitution in concrete. Incorporation of GPs at a ratio of

B. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 241 (2019) 118155

10%e20% can improve the compressive and flexural strengths of concrete at the late ages (Kamali and Ghahremaninezhad, 2015; Elaqra and Rustom, 2018a; Kim et al., 2015; Aliabdo et al., 2016). GPs are also beneficial for enhancing the durability of concrete in terms of chloride permeability and alkali-silica reaction (ASR). These enhancements are mainly attributed to the pozzolanic activity and filling effect of GPs. Kim et al. (2015) found that GPs with an average size of 14.64 mm possess higher reactivity than PFA while Aliabdo et al. (2016) found that GPs within a size range of 1.5 mme70 mm exhibited similar pozzolanic activity of PFA. Lu et al. (2017a) indicated that fine GPs also can refine the interfacial transition zone and microstructure (Lu et al., 2017b). Soliman and Tagnit-Hamou (2017) found that replacing silica fume with fine glass powder with a mean particle size of 3.8 mm can enhance the compressive strength of UHPC. A similar finding was also reported by Lee et al. (2018). Bignozzi et al. (2015) reported that the ASR expansion of cementitious materials was strongly influenced by the size of glass particle. Zheng (2016) found that the finely ground GPs could mitigate the destructive expansive caused by the ASR. It can be generally concluded that the effectiveness of waste GPs in replacing cement is greatly affected by their particle size. To assess the application of recycled glass used in building structures, the performance of cementitious materials containing waste glass at high temperatures is important. Under high temperature, the hydrated calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide will be decomposed at 300  C and 500  C, respectively, which subsequently affects the overall performance of cementbased materials. In the past, most studies focused on the behaviour of recycled glass aggregate instead of glass powder in concrete at high temperature (Soliman and Tagnit-Hamou, 2017; Lee et al., 2018). Ling et al. (2012) concluded that the incorporation of recycled glass cullet in concrete is beneficial for maintaining their mechanical properties after exposure to high temperature, when compared with concrete prepared with natural sand. This could be due to the melting and re-solidification of recycled glass cullet upon heating and cooling. Guo et al. (2015) also revealed that the porefilling effect of recycled glass aggregates at high temperatures can heal micro-cracks in the mortar matrix. Recently, Pan et al. (2017) investigated the high-temperature performance of mortars containing fine GPs. At a temperature below 500  C, strength loss of mortar containing 20% GPs was less obvious as compared with that of mortar containing no GPs. Differently, there was a larger reduction in strength for GP mortars when the temperature increased to 500e800  C. This is mainly attributed to the deterioration of the interfacial transmission zone between the aggregates and the paste. However, the alteration of particle size of GPs in between coarse and very fine powder on the high-temperature properties of pastes remains unclear. This paper aims to investigate the feasible use of recycled glass as the alternative SCMs in cementitious materials. The influence of particle size of recycled glass on the properties of cement paste is also assessed and compared with conventional SCMs. Thus, this paper presents an investigation of the mechanical and high-temperature properties of cement pastes incorporated with various sizes of GPs compared with those prepared with SCMs.

Table 1 Main chemical composition and physical properties of cement, SCMs and GP. Chemical composition

OPC

GGBS

PFA

MK

GP

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO K2O SO4 MgO TiO2 MnO Na2O Specific gravity

19.31 3.61 2.87 64.97 1.10 4.91 1.71 0.29 0.07 e 3.16

35.14 14.44 0.26 37.71 0.84 2.77 7.63 0.67 0.53 e 2.97

53.75 28.61 5.56 4.95 1.37 1.52 e 1.93 0.06 1.35 2.51

55.89 41.85 0.68 e e e e 0.29 e e 2.62

72.72 1.18 0.24 10.28 0.73 0.20 1.19 e e 13.38 e

SCMs are also listed in Table 1 (Ling and Poon, 2017; Guo and Poon, 2013; Chen and Poon, 2017). The particle size distributions and XRD patterns of OPC, PFA, GGBS and MK are given in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. GPs were derived from discarded soda lime beverage glass bottles through a crushing process. They were first crushed and then ground into different particle sizes, namely 1) large GPs (GPL): 0.6e2.36 mm, 2) medium GPs (GPM): 75e600 mm, and 3) small GPs (GPS): <75 mm. The grading curve of the crushed GPs are shown in Fig. 3. 2.2. Mix formulations Mix formulations of cement pastes with different types of GPs or SCMs are given in Table 2. The control group was prepared with 100% OPC with a fixed water-to-cement ratio of 0.4. For remaining mixes, 30% cement was replaced with either GPs or other conventional SCMs for comparison. 2.3. Sample preparation, curing conditions and heating rmes Dry cement and SCMs or GPs were first mixed for 1 min, followed by adding water and remixing for another 1 min at low speed. After that, a steel trowel was used for manual mixing to ensure uniformity. Finally, the mixture was mixed for 2 min at high speed before casting. For each mix formulation, a total of 12 cubic samples with dimensions of 40  40  40 mm were prepared for testing. All the samples were covered by a thin plastic sheet and

5

OPC PFA GGBS MK

4

Volume (%)

2

3

2

2. Experimental programme

1 2.1. Raw materials The cementitious materials used to prepare paste samples included ordinary Portland cement (OPC), ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS), pulverized fly ash (PFA), metakaolin (MK) and glass particles (GPs). The main chemical compositions of OPC and SCMs are summarized in Table 1. The specific gravities of OPC and

0 0.01

0.1

1

10

100

Diameter ( m) Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of OPC, PFA, GGBS and MK.

1000

B. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 241 (2019) 118155

1=Mullite 5=C3A

2

2=Quartz 6=C4AF

samples were dried in an oven at 105  C for 24 h to prevent explosive spalling. In the heating process, the temperature was gradually increased at a constant rate of 25  C/min to 300  C, 600  C and 900  C and then kept at the targeted temperature constantly for 1 h (Fig. 4). Afterwards, the furnace was turned off, and the samples were allowed to cool down to the ambient temperature before testing.

3=C3S 4=C2S 7=Gypsum 8= Lime

MK

2

3

GGBS 2.4. Test methods

2 1

1 1 1

1 1

1

2

2

2

2

1

34 3

3 7 3

0

3 3 63

10

20

1 2

PFA

34 34 34 3

6 5 3 34 4 8 4

3

30

34 5

40

6

3 35 3

50

46

60

OPC

70

80

90

Degree (2 ) Fig. 2. XRD patterns of OPC, PFA, GGBS and MK.

2.4.2. Water absorption Water absorption of the paste samples was measured after curing for 28 days in accordance with ASTM-C642, 2013. It was determined by measuring the mass of dry and saturated paste samples. Firstly, the mass of dry sample was weighted by a balance. After immersion in a water tank for 48 h, the surfaces of the samples were dried using a cloth to remove all free water. The mass of the saturated surface dry sample was recorded. Three samples were used and the water absorption of paste samples can be calculated based on the mass of saturated and dried paste samples.

100

Passing pencentage (%)

0.075 mm

Large

Medium

80

2.36mm

0.6mm

60

40

20

0 0

1

2

3

2.4.1. Density The mass of paste samples (dried at 105  C for 24 h) was measured by an electronic digital balance with an accuracy of 0.1 g. The volume of samples was determined by measuring the actual dimension of the paste samples. Three samples were used and the average values were reported. The bulk density of paste sample can be calculated based on the measured mass and volume of paste samples. Additionally, the mass loss of paste samples before and after exposure to high temperatures can be calculated based on the initial mass and the mass after being subjected to high temperature.

4

5

2.4.3. Compressive strength The compressive strength of paste samples was measured in accordance with BS EN 1015-11:1999. Three 40 mm cubic samples were tested for each type of paste before and after exposure to high temperature. Compressive strength development of the paste samples at ambient temperature was measured on the 1st, 7th, 28th and 56th day, while the high-temperature investigation paste samples were tested after being subjected to 300  C, 600  C and 900  C.

Particle size (mm) 1000

Fig. 3. Grading curve for recycled GPs.

900ºC

Mix

OPC

Glass

PFA

GGBS

MK

Water

Control GPL GPM GPS PFA GGBS MK

1.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

0 0.3 0.3 0.3 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0.3 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0.3 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0.3

0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Temperature (ºC)

800

Table 2 Mix formulations for cement pastes.

600ºC

600

25ºC/min 400

300ºC 200

kept at ambient temperature for 24 h before demoulding. After that, samples were kept in a water tank at an average temperature of 20±5  C until the testing age (BS EN 12390-2, 2009). For high-temperature testing, paste samples were first cured in water for 56 days. Before exposure to high temperature, the cured

0 0

20

40

60

80

Time (min) Fig. 4. Heating rme for cement pastes exposed to high temperatures.

100

4

B. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 241 (2019) 118155

2000

40

Permeable void (%)

Bulk density (kg/m3)

1900

1800

1700

1600

1500

30

20

10

0 Con.

GPL

GPM

GPS

PFA

GGBS

MK

Con.

GPL

Group name

GPM

GPS

PFA

GGBS

MK

Group name

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5. Bulk density (a) and permeable void (b) of the control paste and pastes with GPs or SCMs.

3. Results and discussion 25.0

3.1. Properties at ambient temperature

3.1.2. Water absorption Fig. 6 shows the water absorption of cement pastes prepared with GPs or conventional SCMs. The paste with 30% MK exhibited the lowest water absorption of 5.2%, about half the water absorption of other mixes. This is not only attributed to the filling effect of very fine MK particles, but also the promotion of extra hydration products to densify the microstructure (Morsy et al., 2012). In contrast, the pastes with GPs or other SCMs had a water absorption ranging from 12.2% to 17.8%. Specifically, the paste with medium GPs had a similar water absorption (12.0%) to that of the control paste. However, either increasing or decreasing the particle size of GPs increased the water absorption of cement pastes. The water absorption of pastes with larger or smaller sizes of GPs was about 17.5%, probably attributed to the relatively large voids caused by the GPs when they were too fine or too coarse. 3.1.3. Compressive strength Fig. 7 illustrates the compressive strength development of the cement pastes with time. As expected, the compressive strength of

Water absorption (%)

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0 Con.

GPL

GPM

GPS

PFA

GGBS

MK

Group name Fig. 6. Water absorption of the control paste and pastes with GPs or SCMs.

100

Compressive strength (MPa)

3.1.1. Bull density and permeable void Fig. 5 compares the bulk densities and the permeable voids of the control paste and pastes prepared with GPs or conventional SCMs. The bulk densities of pastes ranged from 1,650 to 1,850 kg/ m3, and replacing part of the cement with SCMs or GPs slightly reduced the bulk density of the pastes. This is due to the different densities of the binder used. Among the mixes, the paste with small GPs (i.e. mix GPS) exhibited the lowest bulk density, about 11.1% lower than that of the control paste. This reflects that the use of smaller grading of GPs tended to create a more porous structure inside the cement pastes as shown in Fig. 3(b). However, increasing the particle size of GPs marginally increased the bulk density of the pastes. The pastes with GGBS and MK had very similar densities as that of the control mix. However, incorporating GPs regardless of their size and PFA would slightly decrease the densities of the pastes. For instance, reduction in the bulk densities of the pastes with GPs ranged from 3.7% to 11.1%. Generally, the use of GPs or SCMs slightly reduced the bulk densities of the cement pastes, and the GPs had a similar impact on the bulk densities of the pastes as compared with SCMs.

80

60

40

Con. GPL GPM GPS

20

0 0

10

20

30

40

50

PFA GGBS MK 60

Days Fig. 7. Compressive strength of the control paste and pastes with GPs or SCMs.

B. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 241 (2019) 118155

5

Weak interfacial

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 8. SEM of cement pastes (a) GPL, (b) GPS and (c) GPM.

3.2. Properties at high temperatures

paste with MK was considerably higher than that of the other paste samples. The paste with MK also exhibited the fastest strength gain in the first 7 days, attributed to the superior filling effect and the pozzolanic reaction of MK (Morsy et al., 2012). However, the compressive strength on the 56th day tended to be similar to that of the control paste. It indicates that replacing OPC with a relatively high percentage of MK (30%) exhibited no long-term strength benefit in the cement paste. The paste with GGBS exhibited a similar early strength as compared with that with PFA. However, the compressive strength of the paste with GGBS grew more quickly after 7 days and was comparable to that of the control paste on the 56th day, of about 85.0 MPa. PFA paste possessed only about 80% of the strength of the GGBS paste due to the lower pozzolanic reactivity. This is consistent with the findings of Zhou et al. (2012). In comparison with SCMs, all the GP pastes exhibited a considerably low strength and similar strength development. However, the compressive strength of pastes with GPs were consistent with the test results from a previous study of Elaqra and Rustom (2018b). For instance, the 28-day compressive strength of GP pastes with a constant water-to-binder ratio were around 40.0 MPa. The compressive strength of paste with medium GPs was about 50% and 80% of the control and PFA pastes, respectively. This illustrates that GPs exhibit almost no pozzolanic properties under ambient curing even with a size of less than 75 mm. In addition, the large GPs mainly acted as the inert aggregate in the paste (Fig. 8(a)), and may create a weak interfacial bond between the glass surface and the hydration product (Fig. 8(b)) (Guo et al., 2015). The paste with medium GPs exhibited 5% higher strength than that prepared with large and small GPs. This might be due to a better size grading, resulting in denser pore structures in the matrix (Fig. 8(c)) and higher density.

3.2.1. Mass loss Fig. 9 shows the mass loss of pastes exposed to various high temperatures. The mass loss of paste samples generally increased as the temperature increased, mainly attributed to the dehydration of CeSeH and calcium hydroxide (CH) upon heating. When subjected to 300  C, the mass loss of the pastes ranged from 6.0% to 15.2%, depending on SCM used. In comparison, the control paste and pastes with conventional SCMs exhibited a larger mass loss than those prepared with GPs. This further proves that GPs are not involved in the pozzolanic reaction. When the temperature increased from 300  C to 600  C, the paste with MK exhibited a greater mass loss, from 15% to 27%. Moreover, the highest mass loss of cement pastes was recorded at a temperature of 900  C, mainly due to the further decomposition of hydration products in the pastes. This indicates that MK has the highest participation in the hydration as compared with the GPs and SCMs. 3.2.2. Residual compressive strength Fig. 10 demonstrates the change of residual compressive strength of cement pastes after exposure to high temperatures. It was found that increasing the temperature from room temperature to 300  C can improve the compressive strength of GP- or SCMincorporated pastes. This improvement is mainly attributed to the cement hydration enhancement and acceleration of pozzolanic reaction of SCMs at a temperature of 300  C, associated with the steam flow generated within the paste which reacts as internal autoclaving curing (Heikal et al., 2013). However, further increasing the temperature from 300  C to 600  C leads to a sharp decrease in compressive strength owing to the occurrence of dehydration of CH

30.0

25.0

25.0

20.0

20.0

Weight loss (%)

Weight loss (%)

30.0

15.0

10.0

Con. GPS PFA GGBS MK

5.0

0.0 300

600

Temperature (oC)

900

15.0

10.0

Con. GPL GPM GPS

5.0

0.0 300

600

Temperature (oC)

Fig. 9. Mass loss of the control paste and pastes with GPs or SCMs.

900

6

B. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 241 (2019) 118155

120

Con. GPS PFA GGBS MK

100 80 60 40 20 0

Compressive strength (MPa)

Compressive strength (MPa)

120

Con. GPL GPM GPS

100 80 60 40 20 0

0

300

600

900

Temperature (oC)

0

300

600

Temperature (oC)

900

Fig. 10. Residual compressive strength of pastes after exposure to high temperatures.

1.6 Con. GPS PFA GGBS MK

Residual strength ratio (%)

1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8

1.6

Con. GPL GPM GPS

1.4

Residual strength ratio (%)

and CeSeH (Khoury, 1992). At 900  C, a further reduction of compressive strength was observed for the control paste and pastes with SCMs. However, only a slight decrease or even an improvement in strength was observed for the pastes prepared with GPs due to the healing effect by the melted GPs (Soliman and TagnitHamou, 2017). Fig. 11 compares the residual strength ratio of the pastes with small GPs, PFA, GGBS and MK after exposure to elevated temperatures. At 300  C, the paste with small GPs exhibited the highest residual strength ratio as compared with those pastes prepared with PFA and GGBS. For instance, the residual strength ratio of paste with small GPs was about 1.44 times the original strength at ambient temperature. When the temperature increased to 600  C, the residual strength ratio of pastes decreased, ranging from 0.3 to 0.8. Among the pastes, the paste with small GPs exhibited the lowest residual strength ratio due to larger shrinkage and poorer thermal compatibility at high temperature (800  C) (Pan et al., 2017). As compared with the control paste, substituting OPC with FA, GGBS and MK was able to enhance the high-temperature resistance of cement pastes. Fig. 12 compares the residual strength ratios of cement pastes prepared with different sizes of GPs. At 300  C, the residual strength ratios of pastes prepared with GPs were higher than that of

1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 300

600

Temperature (oC)

900

Fig. 12. Comparison of relative strength ratio for pastes with different sizes of glass particles under various high temperatures.

the control paste, especially for smaller sizes of GPs. This could be attributed to the better bond between the GPs and paste promoted by the pozzolanic effect as the temperature increased to 300  C (Fig. 13(a)), and thereby increased the compatibility of GPs with the cement matrix. However, a similar residual strength ratio was noticed for the control paste and pastes prepared with GPs after exposure to 600  C and 900  C. This indicates that decomposition of hydration products dominates the strength of pastes when the temperature increases to 600  C or higher. As seen in Fig. 13(b), there is also no obvious defect at the interface between the GPs and the cement matrix in the paste due to the healing effect of the melted GPs.

0.6 0.4

4. Conclusions

0.2

This paper studied the ambient and high-temperature properties of cement pastes incorporated with GPs or SCMs as 30% substitution of OPC. The use of SCMs or GPs with different sizes slightly decreases the densities of cement pastes. The paste with MK exhibited significant improvement in reducing the water absorption; however, a slight increase in the cases of other SCMs and GPs was observed. Compared with conventional SCMs, the pastes with

0.0 300

600

Temperature (oC)

900

Fig. 11. Comparison of relative strength ratio for pastes with SCMs or GPs under various high temperatures.

B. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 241 (2019) 118155

(a)

7

(b)

Fig. 13. SEM of pastes with fine glass particles after exposure to the temperature of (a) 300  C and (b) 600  C.

GPs exhibited a relatively low compressive strength due to very little or no pozzolanic reaction. Interestingly, the paste with medium GPs exhibited better strength than those with large GPs and small GPs due to its better grading and packing density. At high temperatures, the use of GPs or SCMs in pastes enhances the residual compressive strength especially at 300  C. Compared with other GPs, pastes with small GPs (<75 mm) are able to achieve the highest residual strength by improving the interfacial bond between the GPs and the cement matrix. At 600  C and 900  C, a slight decrease or even an improvement in strength was observed for the pastes prepared with GPs due to the healing effect by the melted glass particles. Declarations of interest None. Acknowledgement The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China, Young Scientists (Grant No.: 51708306), Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.: LGF19E080008) and Ningbo Natural Science Programme (Grant No: 2018A610354). References BS EN 1015-11, 1999. Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry e Part 11: Determination of Flexural and Compressive Strength of Hardened Mortar. British Standard Institute. BS EN 12390-2, 2009. Testing Hardened Concrete e Part 2: Making and Curing Specimens for Strength Tests. British Standard Institute. Aliabdo, A.A., Abd Elmoaty, A.M., Aboshama, A.Y., 2016. Utilization of waste glass powder in the production of cement and concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 124, 866e877. ASTM-C642, 2013. Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. Bignozzi, M.C., Saccani, A., Barbieri, L., Lancellotti, I., 2015. Glass waste as supplementary cementing materials: the effects of glass chemical composition. Cement Concr. Compos. 55, 45e52. Chen, Z., Poon, C.S., 2017. Comparative studies on the effects of sewage sludge ash and fly ash on cement hydration and properties of cement mortars. Constr. Build. Mater. 154, 791e803. Elaqra, H., Rustom, R., 2018. Effect of using glass powder as cement replacement on rheological and mechanical properties of cement paste. Constr. Build. Mater. 179, 326e335. Elaqra, H., Rustom, R., 2018. Effect of using glass powder as cement replacement on rheological and mechanical properties of cement paste. Constr. Build. Mater. 179, 326e335. Guo, M.Z., Poon, C.S., 2013. Photocatalytic NO removal of concrete surface layers

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