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Communication, satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion among child care center staff: Directors, teachers, and assistant teachers
Early Childhood ResearchQuarterly, 8, 221-233 (1993)
Communication, Satisfaction, and Emotional Exhaustion Among Child Care Center Staff: Directors, Teachers, and Assistant Teachers Andrew J. Stremmel Mark J. Benson Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Douglas R. Powell Purdue University
This study examined emotional exhaustion in relation to job satisfaction, communication within the center, and background variables among child care directors, teachers, and assistant teachers. A total of 544 child care center staff, including 108 directors, 316 teachers, and 120 assistant teachers participated. Results of regression analyses indicated that satisfactions with working conditions and the work itself were related to lower emotional exhaustion in directors, teachers, and teaching assistants. Staff meetings focusing on child guidance and staff development issues were related to increased job satisfaction for all three groups. The findings of this study suggest that staff meetings, which provide opportunities for communication centering on child guidance and staff development, foster satisfaction and indirectly buffer against emotional exhaustion.
Emotional exhaustion has been conceptualized as an important dimension of burnout resulting from prolonged occupational stress (Maslach, 1982; Matteson & Ivancevich, 1987). In fact, compared to other dimensions such as depersonalization and lack of accomplishment, emotional exhaustion has been the dimension most strongly associated with organizational factors (Anderson & Iwanicki, 1984; Maslach & Jackson, 1984; Schwab, Jackson, & Schuler, 1986). Among school teachers, in particular, there is growing evidence that emotional exhaustion may significantly impair relationships with Correspondences and requests for reprints should be sent to Andrew Stremmel, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Family and Child Development, Blacksburg, VA 24061. • ReceivedFebruary 24, 1992; Revision received May 12, 1992;AcceptedDecember 1, 1992. 221
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children and coworkers, influence the quality of teaching and level of job commitment, and contribute to absenteeism and turnover (Cherniss, 1980; Cunningham, 1983; Kyriacou, 1987; Schwab et al., 1986). The emotional energy required of child caregivers and the high turnover rate in the field accentuate the need for research on emotional exhaustion among child care center staff. Moreover, empirical investigation of the factors related to emotional exhaustion among child care teachers may have implications for the design of interventions that can be targeted to reducing emotional exhaustion. Thus, the primary aim of this research was to examine the interrelationships of organizational and personal factors that may contribute to emotional exhaustion in child care directors, teachers, and teaching assistants. Previous research into the sources of child care teacher stress has focused on such organizational conditions as long hours of continuous contact with children, insufficient breaks, unpaid overtime, and low salaries (e.g., Maslach & Pines, 1977; Townley, Thornburg, & Crompton, 1991; Whitebook, Howes, Darrah, & Friedman, 1982). Additionally, researchers working in the area of teacher stress have identified insufficient satisfactions with various aspects and conditions of work (e.g., task overload, inadequate rewards, control over decision making, career development issues) to be associated with burnout (e.g., Jenkins & Calhoun, 1991). Unfortunately, the relationship between satisfactions with specific facets of child care work and emotional exhaustion has received limited attention in early childhood research. There is some evidence that the lack of communication within an organization is related to emotional exhaustion, and may magnify the effects of other potential influences (Matteson & Ivancevich, 1987). For instance, if working conditions are unsatisfactory, the lack of opportunity to discuss this with a supervisor may intensify the problem. Information exchange among child care staff appears to be a relatively unexplored aspect of the child care organizational environment, although a few studies have linked communication with job satisfaction (e.g., Maslach & Pines, 1977; Stremmel & Powell, 1991; Strober, Gerlach-Downie, & Yeager, 1990). Research is needed, however, that compares the relative contributions of various aspects of communication in mitigating feelings of emotional exhaustion among child care staff. In addition to examining communication influences on emotional exhaustion, personal or background characteristics need to be considered. Previous research with teachers indicates that the incidence of emotional exhaustion is greater among younger teachers (Anderson & Iwanicki, 1984; Matteson & Ivancevich, 1987). Furthermore, teachers in the early stages of their work experience and those having higher levels of education tend to report higher levels of emotional exhaustion and fatigue (cf. Maslach, 1982; Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982; Townley et al., 1991). Although certain back-
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ground characteristics are not manipulatable by administrative personnel, they are important to study because they identify groups who may be more susceptible to emotional exhaustion. Moreover, such factors may be important in moderating the association among other variables. Background characteristics, communication, satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion can be examined in an integrated way using a social-ecological perspective (see Jorde-Bloom, 1986). This perspective provides an effective framework for analyzing the interplay between context-centered and personcentered characteristics, and suggests that perceptions of the work environment are related to organizational factors and background characteristics, as well as the individual's role within the organization. Research in various organizational settings, including child care centers, has demonstrated variability in the way individuals at different levels of the organizational hierarchy perceive organizational practices and working conditions (e.g., JordeBloom, 1988, 1990; Moos, 1976; Seashore, Lawler, Mirvis, & Cammann, 1983). For example, Jorde-Bloom (1988) found that teachers and directors exhibited strong differences in their perceptions of organizational climate. What is unclear is whether these perceptions vary as a function of position in the center or arise from differences in background characteristics (e.g., age, education, and experience) and/or organizational practices. Thus, the roles of directors, teachers, and assistant teachers need to be studied for similarities and differences in the factors related to emotional exhaustion. Whereas much of the research just cited has focused on isolated organizational and personal variables, few studies have examined these variables in combination to determine their relationship to emotional exhaustion. This study was designed to extend current understanding of the multiple factors that may contribute to emotional exhaustion in child care center staff holding different roles or positions. Specifically, this study examined the relationship of job satisfaction, communication within the center, age, specialized training in early childhood education, and length of employment in child care to emotional exhaustion among child care directors, teachers, and teacher assistants. The focus on job satisfaction and communication within the center holds particular interest for practitioners because these work-related variables may be susceptible to intervention.
METHOD Participants The sample consisted of 544 child care staff, including 108 directors, 316 teachers, and 120 assistant teachers, representing 123 licensed child care centers in Indiana. The majority of the participants were white (89°/o) and female (98°70). The age range was 17 to 75 with an average age of 32 years
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(SD= 10.6). With regard to specialized training in early childhood education, child development, or a related area, 2207o of the sample had received no training, 22070 had high school training, 35% had some college training, and 20°70 had a college degree or beyond. The highest percentage of respondents (36°70) reported having been employed in child care from 1 to 3 years. A thorough description of sample characteristics and the survey instrument is reported elsewhere (see Powell & Stremmel, 1989).
Measures Emotional Exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion (i.e., feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one's work) was assessed using the nine items from the Emotional Exhaustion subscale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI; Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Respondents were asked to rate the frequency in which they felt a certain way (e.g., "I feel burned out from my work") on a 7-point scale ranging from every day (6) to never (0). Acceptable levels of reliability for the MBI Emotional Exhaustion subscale have been documented in previous studies of child care professionals (e.g., Boyd & Pasley, 1989; Townley et al., 1991). The internal consistency estimate obtained for the Emotional Exhaustion subscale in this study was high (ct = .91). Job Satisfaction. Based upon a review of the research on job satisfaction dimensions (cf. Jorde-Bloom, 1986, 1988; Locke, 1976; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1975), a scale composed of 15 items was developed to assess affective reaction to specific facets that constitute child care work. The 15 facets were presented in a 6-point scale ranging from very satisfying (6) to very dissatisfying (1). The individual items of the Satisfaction scale were factor analyzed using a principal components analysis with varimax rotation; four factors emerged. The loadings on these factors provided the basis for the construction of four subscales of the satisfaction measure. The first subscale, Working Conditions, was the sum of seven items: relations with coworkers, relations with the director, respect from others, security in the position, breaks, work hours, and control over decision making. Items with high loadings on the second factor all focused on intrinsically rewarding aspects of child care work itself. Therefore, a second subscale, Work Itself, was constructed as the sum of the following four items: direct work with children, relations with parents, feelings of accomplishment derived from the job, and feelings of positive influence on the lives of children. Two additional subscales, each with two items, were constructed on the basis of the factor loadings on the third and fourth factors. The third subscale, Professional Development, was the sum of two items that assessed satisfaction with opportunities for developing personal and professional skills. The final subscale, Compensation, was the sum of two items that assessed satisfaction with pay and bene-
Emotional Exhaustion
Table 1.
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Rotated Factor Loadings for Communication Dimensions Factor Loading (Varimax)
Director Communication Children's needs and behaviors Teaching strategies and techniques Discipline and guidance Activities with children Grouping of children Transitions between classrooms Room arrangement Materials and equipment Relations with parents
.80 .76 .73 .72 .68 .66 .63 .61 .56
Coworker Communication: Child Guidance Children's need and behaviors Discipline and guidance Relations with parents Teaching strategies and techniques
.77 .69 .63 .53
Coworker Communication: Curriculum Room arrangement Grouping of children Activities with children Materials and equipment
.70 .67 .62 .56
Staff Meetings: Staff Development Inservice and training needs Conference and professional activities
.79 .75
Staff Meetings: Administrative Issues Budget Enrollment Classroom set-up and clean-up Snacks and meals
.77 .75 .46 .46
Staff Meetings: Guidance Issues Individual needs and behaviors Classroom management Curriculum activities and materials Relations with parents
.80 .78 .75 .68
fits. Internal consistencies (coefficient alpha) for the subscales ranged from .70 (Work Itself) to .90 (Professional Development). Communication. Thirty-one items that represented commonly discussed classroom topics in child care centers were used to assess communication at the center. Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency that each topic was discussed in various contexts: in staff meetings, among coworkers, and with directors. The choices for each item were in a 5-point format ranging from very often (5) to never (1). A factor analysis was conducted on the items to explore their dimensionality (see Table 1), seven factors emerged.
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Items loading on the first factor all related to discussion with the director. Items loading on the second and third factors focused on discussions with coworkers about child guidance and curriculum, respectively. Items loading on the fourth, fifth, and sixth factors all focused on topics discussed in staff meetings. The items loading on the seventh factor focused on discussion of schedules in staff meetings, among coworkers, and with directors. Based on these patterns of factor loadings, seven subscales were constructed by summing the items. Six subscales and the items comprising them are presented in Table 1. Because initial analyses failed to show the relevance of the seventh factor to other measures of interest in this study, it was excluded from the analyses. Internal consistencies for the subscales ranged from .66 (Staff Meetings on Administrative Issues) to .91 (Director Communication).
RES UL TS Differences By Position: Director, Teacher, and Assistant Teacher The first set of analyses tested for mean differences on background, communication, satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion variables by position (see Table 2). On average, directors were older than teachers, and teachers were older than assistants. A similar pattern held for specialized training and experience, with these being highest among directors, then teachers, and lowest among assistant teachers. Next, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to test for the effects of position on communication and satisfaction variables. The MANOVA indicated that position was related to differences in communication, F(10, 1018)=2.41, p < . 0 1 , and to differences in satisfaction, F(8,960) = 2.40, p < .01. Subsequent one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs, shown in Table 2) indicated that directors reported more frequent discussions centering on guidance than did teachers, and that assistant teachers reported more frequent discussions of administrative concerns at staff meetings than teachers. An ANOVA on the facets of satisfaction indicated that directors were more satisfied with the work itself than were assistant teachers. The final comparison tested for differences by position on emotional exhaustion. As shown in Table 2, emotional exhaustion was highest among directors and lowest among teacher assistants. Regardless of position, however, these means for emotional exhaustion were somewhat lower than the norms reported for other human service professionals (see Maslach & Jackson, 1981). The differences among position levels remained when the background variables of age, specialized training, and experience were controlled in covariance analyses.
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Table 2. Mean Differences Across Directors, Teachers, and Assistant Teachers on Background, C o m m u n i c a t i o n , Satisfaction, and Emotional Exhaustion Variables Directors
Teachers
Assistants
(1)
(2)
(3)
F
Scheffe
36.47 3.15 3.37
32.00 2.53 2.72
28.65 1.83 2.13
16.12"** 52.67*** 32.39***
1>2>3 1>2>3 1>2>3
--
3.40
3.45
1.28
4.12 3.59
3.98 3.54
3.91 3.59
2.39 .38
3.90 3.32 2.82
3.65 3.19 2.77
3.80 3.20 3.04
3.51 * .71 4.24**
4.88 5.40 4.94 3.12
4.69 5.31 4.69 2.89
4.85 5.19 4.71 3.22
2.56 3.57* 1.94 1.80
16.83
15.37
12.90
Variables Background Age Training a Experience b
Communication e With Director Among Coworkers Guidance Curriculum At Staff Meetings Guidance Staff Dev. Admin. Issues
1> 2 3>2
Satisfaction d Work Conditions Work Itself Prof. Dev. Compensation
1> 3
Emotional Exhaustion MBI Scale
I 1.05
1> 2 > 3
N o t e . Directors, n = 108; teachers, n = 316; assistant teachers, n = 120.
a Specialized training in early childhood education (1 = none, 2= high school, 3 = s o m e college, 4 = college degree), b Years of experience in child care. c Mean scores derived from a 5-point scale (5 = v e r y o f t e n 1 = n e v e r ) , d Mean scores derived from a 6-point scale (6 = v e r y s a t i s f y i n g ; 1 = v e r y d i s s a t i s f y i n g ) .
* p < .05.
** p < .01.
***p < .0001.
Regression Analyses Multiple regression analyses were conducted separately for each position level. These analyses included a series of stepwise multiple regressions examining the relationships among groups of variables and a final hierarchical regression model testing the additive contribution of background, communication, and satisfaction variables to the explanation of variance in emotional exhaustion. The order of inclusion of variables in the regression equations was based on previous research and both logical and actual time precedence. The background variables of age, specialized training, and experience were controlled for by force entering them in the analyses at the first step. The remaining predictors were entered in accordance with the assumption that communication in the center would influence job satisfaction, which in turn, would buffer against emotional exhaustion.
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Table 3. R 2 f r o m R e g r e s s i o n s o f E m o t i o n a l E x h a u s t i o n a n d S a t i s f a c t i o n on Communication Position Variables
Satisfaction Work Conditions Work Itself Professional Development Compensation Emotional Exhaustion
Directors a
Teachers b
Assistants c
.13' .13" .09 .09 .06
.12"* .05* .11 ** .07** .06*
.30** .16" .22** .19" .11
Note. The independent variables were the communication variables of director communication (teachers and assistants only), coworker communication about guidance and curriculum, and staff meetings regarding guidance, administrative issues, and staff development. a n=101, b n=299, c n=105. * p < .05.
** p < .01.
The Relationship o f Background Characteristics to Communication, Satisfaction, and Emotional Exhaustion. The first regression analysis tested the effectiveness of age, training, and experience as a group in predicting communication, satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion variables. For teachers, more specialized training was related to decreased communication with the director ( p < .01) and less discussion of guidance issues at staff meetings ( p < . 0 1 ) . More specialized training was also related to less satisfaction with working conditions (p < .05) and higher levels of emotional exhaustion ( p < . 0 0 1 ) . Experience in child care was positively related to satisfaction with the work itself ( p < .01) and age was negatively associated with feelings of emotional exhaustion (p < .001). There was no significant relationships between background variables and communication or emotional exhaustion variables for directors and assistant teachers. For directors, however, there was a significant positive relationship between years in child care and satisfaction with compensation (p < .01). For assistant teachers, age was positively related to satisfaction with the work itself ( p < .01).
The Relationship o f Communication to Satisfaction and Emotional Exhaustion. Second, the effectiveness o f communication variables as a group in predicting satisfaction and emotional exhaustion was examined. As shown in Table 3, communication was significantly related to satisfactions with working conditions and the work itself for all three groups. Specifically a m o n g teachers, staff meetings focusing on guidance issues were related to greater satisfactions with the work itself ( p < .05), and the conditions of work ( p < .001), as well as lower levels of emotional exhaustion ( p < .01).
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229
Staff meetings centering on guidance also were associated with greater satisfaction with work itself among directors ( p < .05) and greater satisfaction with the conditions of work among assistants ( p < .01). Staff meetings centering on staff development were related to greater satisfaction with working conditions among directors and teachers ( p < .01). In addition, staff discussions focusing on staff development were related to satisfaction with professional development and satisfaction with compensation among teachers ( p < .01) and assistant teachers ( p < .05).
The Relationship Between Satisfaction and Emotional Exhaustion. Next, emotional exhaustion was regressed on the four satisfaction variables as a group. For all three position levels, satisfactions with working conditions and with the work itself was negatively related to emotional exhaustion (p<.01), whereas satisfaction with professional development and with compensation were unrelated to feelings of emotional exhaustion. The Relative Contribution o f Background, Communication, and Satisfaction to EmotionalExhaustion. Finally, hierarchical multiple regression was used to assess the relative contribution of background, communication, and satisfaction variables to the prediction of emotional exhaustion by position. Background variables were entered in the first step. As shown in Table 4 (p. 230), these variables contributed significantly to emotional exhaustion among teachers, but for directors and assistant teachers, background variables were unrelated to emotional exhaustion. With background variables already in the equation, communication variables were added to the prediction of emotional exhaustion in the second step. The overall contribution of communication was nonsignificant for each of the three groups. Among assistant teachers, however, communication with coworkers about guidance issues was significantly associated with emotional exhaustion. In the third step, the addition of job satisfaction variables significantly increased the prediction of emotional exhaustion for all three groups.
DISCUSSION Results of the regression analyses indicated that satisfactions with working conditions and the work itself predicted lower emotional exhaustion among directors, teachers, and teaching assistants, but satisfactions with professional development and monetary rewards did not. One interpretation of this finding is that although higher salaries may influence the recruitment of individuals for child care positions, salaries may have little influence in predicting the likelihood of emotional exhaustion. Despite the limited direct relationship to emotional exhaustion, communication during staff meetings exhibited some indirect associations with
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Table 4. Hierarchical Multiple Regression of Emotional Exhaustion on Background, Communication, and Job Satisfaction Variables (Standardized Regression Coefficients and R 2 Incremental) Position Variables
Directors a
B a c k g r o u n d Variables Age Training Experience R 2 Incremental Communication With Director Among Coworkers Guidance Curriculum At Staff Meetings Guidance Staff Dev. A d m i n . Issues R 2 Incremental J o b Satisfaction Work Conditions W o r k Itself Prof. Dev. Compensation R 2 Incremental
- .02 -.10 .06 .01
Teachers b
- .25"** .14"* .12" .07***
Assistants c
- .03 .13 - .01 .02
--
.04
.14 .12
.02 -.03
.32** - . 16
- . 14 .07 -.15 .05
.00 - .01 -.03 .00
- .09 - . 16 .06 .07
-.22 -.23* -.21 .05 .24"**
-.34*** -.20** -.04 - .09 .29"**
-.27* -.46*** .07 - .01 .34"**
.30*** .24
.36*** .35
.43*** .34
Final R 2 Adjusted R 2
.09
Note. B e t a values a n d R 2 i n c r e m e n t a l t a k e n f r o m f i n a l e q u a t i o n . a n=91. * p < .05.
b n=290, c n=104. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
emotional exhaustion through job satisfaction. For all three groups, staff discussion concerning guidance issues (e.g., needs and behaviors of children) was associated with satisfaction with working conditions and intrinsic aspects of child care work. Similarly, staff discussion that centered on professional development was linked with satisfaction with working conditions among directors and teachers. Consequently, staff meetings addressing issues of guidance and staff development were associated indirectly with lower emotional exhaustiion among child care staff. Discussion concerning staff development also was positively related to satisfactions with professional development and compensation among both teachers and assistant teachers. Taken together, these findings emphasize the positive impact of staff meetings on job satisfaction and job stress among child care center staff.
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Although the value of staff meetings has been identified previously (cf. Maslach & Pines, 1977; Strober et al., 1990), the results of this research suggest that frequent staff meetings, which focus on addressing the individual needs of children and the training needs of adults, may provide teachers and assistant teachers with much needed information and support that may enhance their satisfaction with work and buffer against emotional exhaustion. Moreover, directors who provide frequent opportunities for the discussion of children's needs and behaviors may enhance satisfaction with their work. In addition to these communication influences, the findings on specialized training in this study also have important implications for teachers. Not surprisingly, teachers with higher levels of specialized training reported less frequent discussions with directors. This is consistent with previous research indicating that teachers with more specialized training make greater use of conventional professional sources, such as publications and professional meetings, in comparison to center-based sources of information (Powell & Stremmel, 1989). In the current research, teachers with more specialized training reported less frequent staff discussions about guidance issues. As noted before, however, the infrequency of staff discussion among teachers was related to less satisfaction and indirectly related to higher emotional exhaustion. In addition, specialized training was related to exhaustion when all the other background variables were controlled. This positive relationship between specialized training and emotional exhaustion in teachers is consistent with previous research (cf. Maslach, 1982; Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982; Townley et al., 1991). This somewhat disheartening finding may reflect the possibility that teachers with specialized child care training confront greater stress in coping with the inconsistencies that exist between their level of training and the organizational conditions they experience. Research should continue to examine the role that varying levels of early childhood training play in contributing to job stress. It should be noted that, compared to other occupational groups, the level of emotional exhaustion experienced in this sample was fairly low (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Only 10°70 of the entire sample would be characterized as experiencing high levels of emotional exhaustion, although a modest percentage of respondents (37%) did report feeling emotionally drained from their work a few times a week or more. Our findings are consistent, however, with the results of other studies conducted among child care staff (cf. Boyd & Pasley, 1989; Hildebrand & Seefeldt, 1986), which indicated low to moderate levels of burnout at the time of the investigation. In conclusion, the findings of this investigation suggest that staff communication influences satisfaction with working conditions and the work itself, and that these satisfactions buffer against emotional exhaustion. Thus, although it may be beneficial for centers to develop and implement in-service training or stress-reduction programs aimed at mitigating stress in
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the individual, the findings suggest that feelings of emotional exhaustion may be reduced by adopting organizational practices that enhance job satisfaction. In particular, efforts aimed at increasing opportunities for teachers and assistant teachers to discuss childrens needs and share information useful in dealing with daily classroom concerns may enhance sources of satisfaction that help neutralize emotional exhaustion. In addition, our findings suggest that staff communication in child care centers may have important ameliorative effects on emotional exhaustion for two groups of caregivers in particular: assistant teachers, who typically have limited training and often rely on center-based sources of information and center directors, who typically are perceived as helpful staff development resources (Powell & Stremmel, 1989). Even though directors in this study reported significantly higher levels of emotional exhaustion, it appears that opportunities to discuss issues of importance with staff may actually increase directors' job satisfaction and help reduce their job stress. Although the findings of this study point to differences in the relationships that exist among communication, satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion, according to position within the center, caution is advised in drawing definitive conclusions. Longitudinal and intervention studies are needed to make claims about causal relationships. Future research that focuses on other dimensions o f organizational structure in child care settings that serve to enhance satisfaction may determine additional influences on the work experiences and emotional responses of child care staff holding different positions within the center. REFERENCES
Anderson, M.B., & Iwanicki, E.F. (1984). Teacher motivation and its relationship to burnout. Educational Administration Quarterly, 20, 109-132. Boyd, B.J., & Pasley, B.K. (1989). Role stress as a contributor to burnout in child care professionals. Child & Youth Care Quarterly, 18, 243-258. Cherniss, C. (1980). Staff burnout: Job stress in the human services. BeverlyHills, CA: Sage. Cunningham, W.G. (1983). Teacher burnout--Solutions for the 1980's: A review of the literature. The Urban Review, 15, 37-51. Hildebrand, J., & Seefeldt, C. (1986). Teacher burnout and environmental quality in child care centers. Child Care Quarterly, 15, 90-97. Jenkins, S., & Calhoun, J.F. (1991). Teacher stress: Issues and intervention. Psychology in the Schools, 28, 60-69. Jorde-Bloom, P. (1986). Teacherjob satisfaction: A framework for analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 1, 167-183. Jorde-Bloom, P. (1988). Factors influencing overall job satisfaction and organizational commitment in early childhood work environments. Journal o f Research in Childhood Education, 3, 107-122. Jorde-Bloom, P. (1990, April). Organizational climate in child care settings. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. Kyriacou, C. (1987). Teacher stress and burnout: An international review. Educational Research, 29, 146-150.
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Locke, E.A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M.D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook o f industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297-1349). Chicago: Rand McNally. Maslach, C. (1982). Understanding burnout: Definitional issues in analyzing a complex phenomenon. In W.S. Paine (Ed.), Job stress and burnout: Research, theory, and intervention perspectives (pp. 29--40). Beverly Hills, CA." Sage. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S.E. (1981). The Maslach Burnout Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S.E. (1984). Burnout in organizational settings. Applied Social Psychology Annual, 5, 133-153. Maslach C., & Pines, A. (1977). The burnout syndrome in the day care setting. ChiM Care Quarterly, 6, 100-113. Matteson, M.T., & Ivancevich, J.M. (1987). Controlling work stress: Effective human resource and management strategies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Moos, R.H. (1976). The human context. New York: Wiley. Powell, D.R., & Stremmel, A.J. (1989). The relation of early childhood training and experience to the professional development of child care workers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 4, 339-355. Schwab, R.L., & Iwanicki, E.F. (1982). Who are our burned out teachers? Educational Research Quarterly, 7, 5-17. Schwab, R.L., Jackson, S.E., & Schuler R.S. (1986). Educator burnout: Sources and consequences. Educational Research Quarterly, 10, 14-29. Seashore, S.E., Lawler, E., Mirvis, P., & Cammann, C. (1983). Assessing organizational change. New York: Wiley. Smith, P., Kendall, L., & Hulin, C. (1975). The measurement o f satisfaction in work and retirement. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University. Stremmel, A.J., & Powell, D.R. (1991). The relation of classroom-focused information and self-perceived effectiveness to job satisfaction among child care workers. Child & Youth Care Quarterly, 19, 239-250. Strober, M.H., Gerlach-Downie, S., & Yeager, K.E. (1990, April). Child care centers as workplaces. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. Townley, K.F., Thornburg, K.R., & Crompton, D. (1991). Burnout in teachers of young children. Early Education and Development, 2, 197-204. Whitebook, M., Howes, C., Darrah, R., & Friedman, J. (1982). Caring for the caregivers: Staff burnout in child care. In L.G. Katz (Ed.), Current topics in early childhood education (Vol. 4, pp. 211-235). Norwood, N J: Ablex.
Communication, Satisfaction, and Emotional Exhaustion Among Child Care Center Staff: Directors, Teachers, and Assistant Teachers Andrew J. Stremmel Mark J. Benson Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Douglas R. Powell Purdue University
This study examined emotional exhaustion in relation to job satisfaction, communication within the center, and background variables among child care directors, teachers, and assistant teachers. A total of 544 child care center staff, including 108 directors, 316 teachers, and 120 assistant teachers participated. Results of regression analyses indicated that satisfactions with working conditions and the work itself were related to lower emotional exhaustion in directors, teachers, and teaching assistants. Staff meetings focusing on child guidance and staff development issues were related to increased job satisfaction for all three groups. The findings of this study suggest that staff meetings, which provide opportunities for communication centering on child guidance and staff development, foster satisfaction and indirectly buffer against emotional exhaustion.
Emotional exhaustion has been conceptualized as an important dimension of burnout resulting from prolonged occupational stress (Maslach, 1982; Matteson & Ivancevich, 1987). In fact, compared to other dimensions such as depersonalization and lack of accomplishment, emotional exhaustion has been the dimension most strongly associated with organizational factors (Anderson & Iwanicki, 1984; Maslach & Jackson, 1984; Schwab, Jackson, & Schuler, 1986). Among school teachers, in particular, there is growing evidence that emotional exhaustion may significantly impair relationships with Correspondences and requests for reprints should be sent to Andrew Stremmel, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Family and Child Development, Blacksburg, VA 24061. • ReceivedFebruary 24, 1992; Revision received May 12, 1992;AcceptedDecember 1, 1992. 221
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children and coworkers, influence the quality of teaching and level of job commitment, and contribute to absenteeism and turnover (Cherniss, 1980; Cunningham, 1983; Kyriacou, 1987; Schwab et al., 1986). The emotional energy required of child caregivers and the high turnover rate in the field accentuate the need for research on emotional exhaustion among child care center staff. Moreover, empirical investigation of the factors related to emotional exhaustion among child care teachers may have implications for the design of interventions that can be targeted to reducing emotional exhaustion. Thus, the primary aim of this research was to examine the interrelationships of organizational and personal factors that may contribute to emotional exhaustion in child care directors, teachers, and teaching assistants. Previous research into the sources of child care teacher stress has focused on such organizational conditions as long hours of continuous contact with children, insufficient breaks, unpaid overtime, and low salaries (e.g., Maslach & Pines, 1977; Townley, Thornburg, & Crompton, 1991; Whitebook, Howes, Darrah, & Friedman, 1982). Additionally, researchers working in the area of teacher stress have identified insufficient satisfactions with various aspects and conditions of work (e.g., task overload, inadequate rewards, control over decision making, career development issues) to be associated with burnout (e.g., Jenkins & Calhoun, 1991). Unfortunately, the relationship between satisfactions with specific facets of child care work and emotional exhaustion has received limited attention in early childhood research. There is some evidence that the lack of communication within an organization is related to emotional exhaustion, and may magnify the effects of other potential influences (Matteson & Ivancevich, 1987). For instance, if working conditions are unsatisfactory, the lack of opportunity to discuss this with a supervisor may intensify the problem. Information exchange among child care staff appears to be a relatively unexplored aspect of the child care organizational environment, although a few studies have linked communication with job satisfaction (e.g., Maslach & Pines, 1977; Stremmel & Powell, 1991; Strober, Gerlach-Downie, & Yeager, 1990). Research is needed, however, that compares the relative contributions of various aspects of communication in mitigating feelings of emotional exhaustion among child care staff. In addition to examining communication influences on emotional exhaustion, personal or background characteristics need to be considered. Previous research with teachers indicates that the incidence of emotional exhaustion is greater among younger teachers (Anderson & Iwanicki, 1984; Matteson & Ivancevich, 1987). Furthermore, teachers in the early stages of their work experience and those having higher levels of education tend to report higher levels of emotional exhaustion and fatigue (cf. Maslach, 1982; Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982; Townley et al., 1991). Although certain back-
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ground characteristics are not manipulatable by administrative personnel, they are important to study because they identify groups who may be more susceptible to emotional exhaustion. Moreover, such factors may be important in moderating the association among other variables. Background characteristics, communication, satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion can be examined in an integrated way using a social-ecological perspective (see Jorde-Bloom, 1986). This perspective provides an effective framework for analyzing the interplay between context-centered and personcentered characteristics, and suggests that perceptions of the work environment are related to organizational factors and background characteristics, as well as the individual's role within the organization. Research in various organizational settings, including child care centers, has demonstrated variability in the way individuals at different levels of the organizational hierarchy perceive organizational practices and working conditions (e.g., JordeBloom, 1988, 1990; Moos, 1976; Seashore, Lawler, Mirvis, & Cammann, 1983). For example, Jorde-Bloom (1988) found that teachers and directors exhibited strong differences in their perceptions of organizational climate. What is unclear is whether these perceptions vary as a function of position in the center or arise from differences in background characteristics (e.g., age, education, and experience) and/or organizational practices. Thus, the roles of directors, teachers, and assistant teachers need to be studied for similarities and differences in the factors related to emotional exhaustion. Whereas much of the research just cited has focused on isolated organizational and personal variables, few studies have examined these variables in combination to determine their relationship to emotional exhaustion. This study was designed to extend current understanding of the multiple factors that may contribute to emotional exhaustion in child care center staff holding different roles or positions. Specifically, this study examined the relationship of job satisfaction, communication within the center, age, specialized training in early childhood education, and length of employment in child care to emotional exhaustion among child care directors, teachers, and teacher assistants. The focus on job satisfaction and communication within the center holds particular interest for practitioners because these work-related variables may be susceptible to intervention.
METHOD Participants The sample consisted of 544 child care staff, including 108 directors, 316 teachers, and 120 assistant teachers, representing 123 licensed child care centers in Indiana. The majority of the participants were white (89°/o) and female (98°70). The age range was 17 to 75 with an average age of 32 years
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(SD= 10.6). With regard to specialized training in early childhood education, child development, or a related area, 2207o of the sample had received no training, 22070 had high school training, 35% had some college training, and 20°70 had a college degree or beyond. The highest percentage of respondents (36°70) reported having been employed in child care from 1 to 3 years. A thorough description of sample characteristics and the survey instrument is reported elsewhere (see Powell & Stremmel, 1989).
Measures Emotional Exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion (i.e., feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one's work) was assessed using the nine items from the Emotional Exhaustion subscale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI; Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Respondents were asked to rate the frequency in which they felt a certain way (e.g., "I feel burned out from my work") on a 7-point scale ranging from every day (6) to never (0). Acceptable levels of reliability for the MBI Emotional Exhaustion subscale have been documented in previous studies of child care professionals (e.g., Boyd & Pasley, 1989; Townley et al., 1991). The internal consistency estimate obtained for the Emotional Exhaustion subscale in this study was high (ct = .91). Job Satisfaction. Based upon a review of the research on job satisfaction dimensions (cf. Jorde-Bloom, 1986, 1988; Locke, 1976; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1975), a scale composed of 15 items was developed to assess affective reaction to specific facets that constitute child care work. The 15 facets were presented in a 6-point scale ranging from very satisfying (6) to very dissatisfying (1). The individual items of the Satisfaction scale were factor analyzed using a principal components analysis with varimax rotation; four factors emerged. The loadings on these factors provided the basis for the construction of four subscales of the satisfaction measure. The first subscale, Working Conditions, was the sum of seven items: relations with coworkers, relations with the director, respect from others, security in the position, breaks, work hours, and control over decision making. Items with high loadings on the second factor all focused on intrinsically rewarding aspects of child care work itself. Therefore, a second subscale, Work Itself, was constructed as the sum of the following four items: direct work with children, relations with parents, feelings of accomplishment derived from the job, and feelings of positive influence on the lives of children. Two additional subscales, each with two items, were constructed on the basis of the factor loadings on the third and fourth factors. The third subscale, Professional Development, was the sum of two items that assessed satisfaction with opportunities for developing personal and professional skills. The final subscale, Compensation, was the sum of two items that assessed satisfaction with pay and bene-
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Table 1.
225
Rotated Factor Loadings for Communication Dimensions Factor Loading (Varimax)
Director Communication Children's needs and behaviors Teaching strategies and techniques Discipline and guidance Activities with children Grouping of children Transitions between classrooms Room arrangement Materials and equipment Relations with parents
.80 .76 .73 .72 .68 .66 .63 .61 .56
Coworker Communication: Child Guidance Children's need and behaviors Discipline and guidance Relations with parents Teaching strategies and techniques
.77 .69 .63 .53
Coworker Communication: Curriculum Room arrangement Grouping of children Activities with children Materials and equipment
.70 .67 .62 .56
Staff Meetings: Staff Development Inservice and training needs Conference and professional activities
.79 .75
Staff Meetings: Administrative Issues Budget Enrollment Classroom set-up and clean-up Snacks and meals
.77 .75 .46 .46
Staff Meetings: Guidance Issues Individual needs and behaviors Classroom management Curriculum activities and materials Relations with parents
.80 .78 .75 .68
fits. Internal consistencies (coefficient alpha) for the subscales ranged from .70 (Work Itself) to .90 (Professional Development). Communication. Thirty-one items that represented commonly discussed classroom topics in child care centers were used to assess communication at the center. Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency that each topic was discussed in various contexts: in staff meetings, among coworkers, and with directors. The choices for each item were in a 5-point format ranging from very often (5) to never (1). A factor analysis was conducted on the items to explore their dimensionality (see Table 1), seven factors emerged.
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Items loading on the first factor all related to discussion with the director. Items loading on the second and third factors focused on discussions with coworkers about child guidance and curriculum, respectively. Items loading on the fourth, fifth, and sixth factors all focused on topics discussed in staff meetings. The items loading on the seventh factor focused on discussion of schedules in staff meetings, among coworkers, and with directors. Based on these patterns of factor loadings, seven subscales were constructed by summing the items. Six subscales and the items comprising them are presented in Table 1. Because initial analyses failed to show the relevance of the seventh factor to other measures of interest in this study, it was excluded from the analyses. Internal consistencies for the subscales ranged from .66 (Staff Meetings on Administrative Issues) to .91 (Director Communication).
RES UL TS Differences By Position: Director, Teacher, and Assistant Teacher The first set of analyses tested for mean differences on background, communication, satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion variables by position (see Table 2). On average, directors were older than teachers, and teachers were older than assistants. A similar pattern held for specialized training and experience, with these being highest among directors, then teachers, and lowest among assistant teachers. Next, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to test for the effects of position on communication and satisfaction variables. The MANOVA indicated that position was related to differences in communication, F(10, 1018)=2.41, p < . 0 1 , and to differences in satisfaction, F(8,960) = 2.40, p < .01. Subsequent one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs, shown in Table 2) indicated that directors reported more frequent discussions centering on guidance than did teachers, and that assistant teachers reported more frequent discussions of administrative concerns at staff meetings than teachers. An ANOVA on the facets of satisfaction indicated that directors were more satisfied with the work itself than were assistant teachers. The final comparison tested for differences by position on emotional exhaustion. As shown in Table 2, emotional exhaustion was highest among directors and lowest among teacher assistants. Regardless of position, however, these means for emotional exhaustion were somewhat lower than the norms reported for other human service professionals (see Maslach & Jackson, 1981). The differences among position levels remained when the background variables of age, specialized training, and experience were controlled in covariance analyses.
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Table 2. Mean Differences Across Directors, Teachers, and Assistant Teachers on Background, C o m m u n i c a t i o n , Satisfaction, and Emotional Exhaustion Variables Directors
Teachers
Assistants
(1)
(2)
(3)
F
Scheffe
36.47 3.15 3.37
32.00 2.53 2.72
28.65 1.83 2.13
16.12"** 52.67*** 32.39***
1>2>3 1>2>3 1>2>3
--
3.40
3.45
1.28
4.12 3.59
3.98 3.54
3.91 3.59
2.39 .38
3.90 3.32 2.82
3.65 3.19 2.77
3.80 3.20 3.04
3.51 * .71 4.24**
4.88 5.40 4.94 3.12
4.69 5.31 4.69 2.89
4.85 5.19 4.71 3.22
2.56 3.57* 1.94 1.80
16.83
15.37
12.90
Variables Background Age Training a Experience b
Communication e With Director Among Coworkers Guidance Curriculum At Staff Meetings Guidance Staff Dev. Admin. Issues
1> 2 3>2
Satisfaction d Work Conditions Work Itself Prof. Dev. Compensation
1> 3
Emotional Exhaustion MBI Scale
I 1.05
1> 2 > 3
N o t e . Directors, n = 108; teachers, n = 316; assistant teachers, n = 120.
a Specialized training in early childhood education (1 = none, 2= high school, 3 = s o m e college, 4 = college degree), b Years of experience in child care. c Mean scores derived from a 5-point scale (5 = v e r y o f t e n 1 = n e v e r ) , d Mean scores derived from a 6-point scale (6 = v e r y s a t i s f y i n g ; 1 = v e r y d i s s a t i s f y i n g ) .
* p < .05.
** p < .01.
***p < .0001.
Regression Analyses Multiple regression analyses were conducted separately for each position level. These analyses included a series of stepwise multiple regressions examining the relationships among groups of variables and a final hierarchical regression model testing the additive contribution of background, communication, and satisfaction variables to the explanation of variance in emotional exhaustion. The order of inclusion of variables in the regression equations was based on previous research and both logical and actual time precedence. The background variables of age, specialized training, and experience were controlled for by force entering them in the analyses at the first step. The remaining predictors were entered in accordance with the assumption that communication in the center would influence job satisfaction, which in turn, would buffer against emotional exhaustion.
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Table 3. R 2 f r o m R e g r e s s i o n s o f E m o t i o n a l E x h a u s t i o n a n d S a t i s f a c t i o n on Communication Position Variables
Satisfaction Work Conditions Work Itself Professional Development Compensation Emotional Exhaustion
Directors a
Teachers b
Assistants c
.13' .13" .09 .09 .06
.12"* .05* .11 ** .07** .06*
.30** .16" .22** .19" .11
Note. The independent variables were the communication variables of director communication (teachers and assistants only), coworker communication about guidance and curriculum, and staff meetings regarding guidance, administrative issues, and staff development. a n=101, b n=299, c n=105. * p < .05.
** p < .01.
The Relationship o f Background Characteristics to Communication, Satisfaction, and Emotional Exhaustion. The first regression analysis tested the effectiveness of age, training, and experience as a group in predicting communication, satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion variables. For teachers, more specialized training was related to decreased communication with the director ( p < .01) and less discussion of guidance issues at staff meetings ( p < . 0 1 ) . More specialized training was also related to less satisfaction with working conditions (p < .05) and higher levels of emotional exhaustion ( p < . 0 0 1 ) . Experience in child care was positively related to satisfaction with the work itself ( p < .01) and age was negatively associated with feelings of emotional exhaustion (p < .001). There was no significant relationships between background variables and communication or emotional exhaustion variables for directors and assistant teachers. For directors, however, there was a significant positive relationship between years in child care and satisfaction with compensation (p < .01). For assistant teachers, age was positively related to satisfaction with the work itself ( p < .01).
The Relationship o f Communication to Satisfaction and Emotional Exhaustion. Second, the effectiveness o f communication variables as a group in predicting satisfaction and emotional exhaustion was examined. As shown in Table 3, communication was significantly related to satisfactions with working conditions and the work itself for all three groups. Specifically a m o n g teachers, staff meetings focusing on guidance issues were related to greater satisfactions with the work itself ( p < .05), and the conditions of work ( p < .001), as well as lower levels of emotional exhaustion ( p < .01).
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229
Staff meetings centering on guidance also were associated with greater satisfaction with work itself among directors ( p < .05) and greater satisfaction with the conditions of work among assistants ( p < .01). Staff meetings centering on staff development were related to greater satisfaction with working conditions among directors and teachers ( p < .01). In addition, staff discussions focusing on staff development were related to satisfaction with professional development and satisfaction with compensation among teachers ( p < .01) and assistant teachers ( p < .05).
The Relationship Between Satisfaction and Emotional Exhaustion. Next, emotional exhaustion was regressed on the four satisfaction variables as a group. For all three position levels, satisfactions with working conditions and with the work itself was negatively related to emotional exhaustion (p<.01), whereas satisfaction with professional development and with compensation were unrelated to feelings of emotional exhaustion. The Relative Contribution o f Background, Communication, and Satisfaction to EmotionalExhaustion. Finally, hierarchical multiple regression was used to assess the relative contribution of background, communication, and satisfaction variables to the prediction of emotional exhaustion by position. Background variables were entered in the first step. As shown in Table 4 (p. 230), these variables contributed significantly to emotional exhaustion among teachers, but for directors and assistant teachers, background variables were unrelated to emotional exhaustion. With background variables already in the equation, communication variables were added to the prediction of emotional exhaustion in the second step. The overall contribution of communication was nonsignificant for each of the three groups. Among assistant teachers, however, communication with coworkers about guidance issues was significantly associated with emotional exhaustion. In the third step, the addition of job satisfaction variables significantly increased the prediction of emotional exhaustion for all three groups.
DISCUSSION Results of the regression analyses indicated that satisfactions with working conditions and the work itself predicted lower emotional exhaustion among directors, teachers, and teaching assistants, but satisfactions with professional development and monetary rewards did not. One interpretation of this finding is that although higher salaries may influence the recruitment of individuals for child care positions, salaries may have little influence in predicting the likelihood of emotional exhaustion. Despite the limited direct relationship to emotional exhaustion, communication during staff meetings exhibited some indirect associations with
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Table 4. Hierarchical Multiple Regression of Emotional Exhaustion on Background, Communication, and Job Satisfaction Variables (Standardized Regression Coefficients and R 2 Incremental) Position Variables
Directors a
B a c k g r o u n d Variables Age Training Experience R 2 Incremental Communication With Director Among Coworkers Guidance Curriculum At Staff Meetings Guidance Staff Dev. A d m i n . Issues R 2 Incremental J o b Satisfaction Work Conditions W o r k Itself Prof. Dev. Compensation R 2 Incremental
- .02 -.10 .06 .01
Teachers b
- .25"** .14"* .12" .07***
Assistants c
- .03 .13 - .01 .02
--
.04
.14 .12
.02 -.03
.32** - . 16
- . 14 .07 -.15 .05
.00 - .01 -.03 .00
- .09 - . 16 .06 .07
-.22 -.23* -.21 .05 .24"**
-.34*** -.20** -.04 - .09 .29"**
-.27* -.46*** .07 - .01 .34"**
.30*** .24
.36*** .35
.43*** .34
Final R 2 Adjusted R 2
.09
Note. B e t a values a n d R 2 i n c r e m e n t a l t a k e n f r o m f i n a l e q u a t i o n . a n=91. * p < .05.
b n=290, c n=104. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
emotional exhaustion through job satisfaction. For all three groups, staff discussion concerning guidance issues (e.g., needs and behaviors of children) was associated with satisfaction with working conditions and intrinsic aspects of child care work. Similarly, staff discussion that centered on professional development was linked with satisfaction with working conditions among directors and teachers. Consequently, staff meetings addressing issues of guidance and staff development were associated indirectly with lower emotional exhaustiion among child care staff. Discussion concerning staff development also was positively related to satisfactions with professional development and compensation among both teachers and assistant teachers. Taken together, these findings emphasize the positive impact of staff meetings on job satisfaction and job stress among child care center staff.
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Although the value of staff meetings has been identified previously (cf. Maslach & Pines, 1977; Strober et al., 1990), the results of this research suggest that frequent staff meetings, which focus on addressing the individual needs of children and the training needs of adults, may provide teachers and assistant teachers with much needed information and support that may enhance their satisfaction with work and buffer against emotional exhaustion. Moreover, directors who provide frequent opportunities for the discussion of children's needs and behaviors may enhance satisfaction with their work. In addition to these communication influences, the findings on specialized training in this study also have important implications for teachers. Not surprisingly, teachers with higher levels of specialized training reported less frequent discussions with directors. This is consistent with previous research indicating that teachers with more specialized training make greater use of conventional professional sources, such as publications and professional meetings, in comparison to center-based sources of information (Powell & Stremmel, 1989). In the current research, teachers with more specialized training reported less frequent staff discussions about guidance issues. As noted before, however, the infrequency of staff discussion among teachers was related to less satisfaction and indirectly related to higher emotional exhaustion. In addition, specialized training was related to exhaustion when all the other background variables were controlled. This positive relationship between specialized training and emotional exhaustion in teachers is consistent with previous research (cf. Maslach, 1982; Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982; Townley et al., 1991). This somewhat disheartening finding may reflect the possibility that teachers with specialized child care training confront greater stress in coping with the inconsistencies that exist between their level of training and the organizational conditions they experience. Research should continue to examine the role that varying levels of early childhood training play in contributing to job stress. It should be noted that, compared to other occupational groups, the level of emotional exhaustion experienced in this sample was fairly low (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Only 10°70 of the entire sample would be characterized as experiencing high levels of emotional exhaustion, although a modest percentage of respondents (37%) did report feeling emotionally drained from their work a few times a week or more. Our findings are consistent, however, with the results of other studies conducted among child care staff (cf. Boyd & Pasley, 1989; Hildebrand & Seefeldt, 1986), which indicated low to moderate levels of burnout at the time of the investigation. In conclusion, the findings of this investigation suggest that staff communication influences satisfaction with working conditions and the work itself, and that these satisfactions buffer against emotional exhaustion. Thus, although it may be beneficial for centers to develop and implement in-service training or stress-reduction programs aimed at mitigating stress in
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the individual, the findings suggest that feelings of emotional exhaustion may be reduced by adopting organizational practices that enhance job satisfaction. In particular, efforts aimed at increasing opportunities for teachers and assistant teachers to discuss childrens needs and share information useful in dealing with daily classroom concerns may enhance sources of satisfaction that help neutralize emotional exhaustion. In addition, our findings suggest that staff communication in child care centers may have important ameliorative effects on emotional exhaustion for two groups of caregivers in particular: assistant teachers, who typically have limited training and often rely on center-based sources of information and center directors, who typically are perceived as helpful staff development resources (Powell & Stremmel, 1989). Even though directors in this study reported significantly higher levels of emotional exhaustion, it appears that opportunities to discuss issues of importance with staff may actually increase directors' job satisfaction and help reduce their job stress. Although the findings of this study point to differences in the relationships that exist among communication, satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion, according to position within the center, caution is advised in drawing definitive conclusions. Longitudinal and intervention studies are needed to make claims about causal relationships. Future research that focuses on other dimensions o f organizational structure in child care settings that serve to enhance satisfaction may determine additional influences on the work experiences and emotional responses of child care staff holding different positions within the center. REFERENCES
Anderson, M.B., & Iwanicki, E.F. (1984). Teacher motivation and its relationship to burnout. Educational Administration Quarterly, 20, 109-132. Boyd, B.J., & Pasley, B.K. (1989). Role stress as a contributor to burnout in child care professionals. Child & Youth Care Quarterly, 18, 243-258. Cherniss, C. (1980). Staff burnout: Job stress in the human services. BeverlyHills, CA: Sage. Cunningham, W.G. (1983). Teacher burnout--Solutions for the 1980's: A review of the literature. The Urban Review, 15, 37-51. Hildebrand, J., & Seefeldt, C. (1986). Teacher burnout and environmental quality in child care centers. Child Care Quarterly, 15, 90-97. Jenkins, S., & Calhoun, J.F. (1991). Teacher stress: Issues and intervention. Psychology in the Schools, 28, 60-69. Jorde-Bloom, P. (1986). Teacherjob satisfaction: A framework for analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 1, 167-183. Jorde-Bloom, P. (1988). Factors influencing overall job satisfaction and organizational commitment in early childhood work environments. Journal o f Research in Childhood Education, 3, 107-122. Jorde-Bloom, P. (1990, April). Organizational climate in child care settings. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. Kyriacou, C. (1987). Teacher stress and burnout: An international review. Educational Research, 29, 146-150.
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Locke, E.A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M.D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook o f industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297-1349). Chicago: Rand McNally. Maslach, C. (1982). Understanding burnout: Definitional issues in analyzing a complex phenomenon. In W.S. Paine (Ed.), Job stress and burnout: Research, theory, and intervention perspectives (pp. 29--40). Beverly Hills, CA." Sage. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S.E. (1981). The Maslach Burnout Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S.E. (1984). Burnout in organizational settings. Applied Social Psychology Annual, 5, 133-153. Maslach C., & Pines, A. (1977). The burnout syndrome in the day care setting. ChiM Care Quarterly, 6, 100-113. Matteson, M.T., & Ivancevich, J.M. (1987). Controlling work stress: Effective human resource and management strategies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Moos, R.H. (1976). The human context. New York: Wiley. Powell, D.R., & Stremmel, A.J. (1989). The relation of early childhood training and experience to the professional development of child care workers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 4, 339-355. Schwab, R.L., & Iwanicki, E.F. (1982). Who are our burned out teachers? Educational Research Quarterly, 7, 5-17. Schwab, R.L., Jackson, S.E., & Schuler R.S. (1986). Educator burnout: Sources and consequences. Educational Research Quarterly, 10, 14-29. Seashore, S.E., Lawler, E., Mirvis, P., & Cammann, C. (1983). Assessing organizational change. New York: Wiley. Smith, P., Kendall, L., & Hulin, C. (1975). The measurement o f satisfaction in work and retirement. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University. Stremmel, A.J., & Powell, D.R. (1991). The relation of classroom-focused information and self-perceived effectiveness to job satisfaction among child care workers. Child & Youth Care Quarterly, 19, 239-250. Strober, M.H., Gerlach-Downie, S., & Yeager, K.E. (1990, April). Child care centers as workplaces. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. Townley, K.F., Thornburg, K.R., & Crompton, D. (1991). Burnout in teachers of young children. Early Education and Development, 2, 197-204. Whitebook, M., Howes, C., Darrah, R., & Friedman, J. (1982). Caring for the caregivers: Staff burnout in child care. In L.G. Katz (Ed.), Current topics in early childhood education (Vol. 4, pp. 211-235). Norwood, N J: Ablex.