Concepts and Principles

C H A P T E R

4 Concepts and Principles

INTRODUCTION We cannot overstate the importance of making sure trainees have a solid foundation in the concepts and principles, as this will have a significant bearing on their ability to develop programs for their clients. Trainees will need to have a firm understanding of these concepts first, then they will demonstrate their skills in applying these principles competently. The areas of focus within this chapter include: • • • • • •

Basic principles of behavior analysis Schedules of reinforcement Motivating operations Rule governed behavior Verbal operants Derived stimulus relations (BCBA/BCaBA Task List Fifth Edition, Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2017)

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS Although trainees will receive instruction on the basic principles of behavior analysis, these concepts can be difficult for some people and it will require further instruction for them to truly understand these principles. During this instruction, provide a training differentiating positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, and extinction (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Many trainees will confuse negative reinforcement and punishment

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4. CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 293). In addition, many trainees struggle with identifying when extinction is in effect when looking at examples. Provide explicit instruction as to how extinction is based on the function of the behavior (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 458 460). Spend a significant amount of time differentiating among these principles.

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide your trainees several examples in order for them to determine which principle is in play for each one. If you are providing this instruction in a group format, you will need to use a technology that allows all of the trainees to answer each question. This is critical for determining mastery. We utilize GoToTrainingt as this feature works well within their program, but others are available. If you are providing this instruction individually, you can collect data either through the same technology or by hand as the trainee answers each question. Provide feedback for each scenario and explain why a specific answer is the correct answer. Then communicate with each of the trainees individually to inform them of their score for this activity. Establish a competency criterion prior to delivering the training. In the event that your trainees do not reach competency the first time, provide additional instruction, assign readings on the topic, and continue providing examples for them to determine which principle is in effect until they achieve competency. Continued instruction on this topic may need to occur during individual supervision sessions if the majority of the trainees have mastered this concept and are ready to move to the next topic. Appendix D includes sample scenarios for you to use within your instructional sessions.

Ethics Related to Basic Principles of Behavior Analysis If trainees are not careful, they can easily misapply the basic principles of behavior analysis in a way that is inconsistent with the BACB’s Code of Responsible Conduct, therefore it is critical to provide support to them within this context. When talking about ethics as it relates to the basic principles, focus on the dangers of using extinction (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 130). Ensure that your trainees understand the need for delivering the functional reinforcer for appropriate behavior when using an extinction procedure. In addition, ensure that your trainees understand that one should always attempt reinforcement procedures prior to using a punishment procedure (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 132). In the event that a punishment

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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

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procedure is necessary, one should always include reinforcement systems simultaneously (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 133).

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Schedules of reinforcement are very challenging for many trainees to grasp. Your instruction in this area should include the following topics: • Continuous reinforcement • Intermittent schedules of reinforcement • Fixed ratio schedule • Variable ratio schedule • Fixed interval schedule • Variable interval schedule • Compound schedules • Concurrent schedule • Multiple schedule • Chained schedule • Mixed schedule • Tandem schedule • Alternative schedule • Conjunctive schedule (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 305 320)

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide examples of various schedules and have the trainees determine which schedule is in effect with each of the examples. Provide feedback regarding which answer is correct and why. Give the trainees feedback on their score individually. Continue providing instruction, assigning readings, and presenting more examples until the trainees achieve the previously established criterion with this activity. Appendix E includes examples for you to use within your instruction.

Ethics Related to Schedules of Reinforcement Emphasize with your trainees that we have an ethical obligation to thin schedules of reinforcement to the natural reinforcers available in the environment. It is also critical for us to refrain from using reinforcers that may be harmful for our clients even when they may be effective (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 135).

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4. CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

MOTIVATING OPERATIONS Provide instruction to your trainees regarding the following topics related to motivating operations: • Motivating operations • Establishing operations • Abolishing operations • Unconditioned motivating operations • Conditioned motivating operations • Surrogate conditioned motivating operations • Transitive conditioned motivating operations • Reflexive conditioned motivating operations • Differentiating motivating operations from discriminative stimuli (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 375 389)

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback The first area of focus for reaching competency is related to differentiating motivating operations from discriminative stimuli. Provide scenarios for the trainees to determine if an establishing operation, abolishing operation, or discriminative stimulus is present for each scenario. Continue instruction until the trainees reach the previously determined criterion on these scenarios. Appendix F includes scenarios for you to use within your instruction. Then provide scenarios for the trainees to determine which conditioned motivating operation is in place for each scenario. Again, continue instruction until the trainees reach the previously established criterion on these scenarios. Appendix G includes scenarios for you to use within your instruction.

Ethics Related to Motivating Operations Ensure the trainees understand the ethics around contriving an establishing operation for certain stimuli such as food, water, sleep, and access to the restroom (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 135). Utilizing naturally occurring establishing operations for these stimuli is appropriate.

RULE GOVERNED BEHAVIOR Provide instruction on the difference between rule governed and contingency shaped behavior (Skinner, 1976, pp. 138 143). Discuss the prerequisite skills that need to be in place for someone to have rule governed behavior. Focus on the clinical applications that are

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VERBAL OPERANTS

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available when someone has the generalized operant of rule governed behavior. Discuss methods for teaching rule governed behavior to individuals who do not currently have that skill within their repertoire (Tarbox, Zuckerman, Bishop, Olive, & O’Hora, 2011). In addition, discuss strategies for intervention when someone continues following rules that are no longer effective (i.e., rigid rule following).

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide scenarios for the trainees to determine if they are examples of rule governed or contingency shaped behaviors. Continue providing instruction until the trainees reach the previously determined criterion with this concept. Appendix H provides scenarios for you to use with your instruction.

VERBAL OPERANTS Provide instruction to the trainees on the following verbal operants and how to teach them: • • • • •

Mands Echoics Tacts Intraverbals Autoclitics (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 529 532, 539 546)

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide scenarios for the trainees to determine which verbal operant is in place. Continue the process until the trainees reach the previously determined criterion on this concept. Appendix I provides scenarios for you to use within your instruction. Once the trainees demonstrate mastery with verbal operants, model the skill of teaching each of the verbal operants. Have the trainees record themselves teaching each operant. Use the rubrics displayed in Tables 4.1 through 4.4 to assess their ability to teach verbal operants. Continue this process until they meet the previously determined criterion for each operant.

Ethics Related to Verbal Operants When discussing ethics related to verbal operants, stress the importance of utilizing evidence-based practices for teaching (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 65), including teaching the verbal operants in the correct order and refraining from teaching intraverbals too soon (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 545). II. A SCOPE AND SEQUENCE TO STRUCTURE SUPERVISION

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4. CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

TABLE 4.1 Sample Rubric for Teaching Mands 6

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Assesses presence of motivating operation Uses appropriate prompting procedure based on topography of response Uses within session prompt fading Uses differential reinforcement to shape response Transfers control from the nonverbal stimulus to the motivating operation

TABLE 4.2 Sample Rubric for Teaching Echoics 6

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Uses appropriate prompting procedures given topography of response Uses within session prompt fading Uses differential reinforcement to shape response Places echoic trial in mand frame if necessary Fades motivating operation and nonverbal stimulus Uses access to preferred stimulus if necessary and pairs with generalized conditioned reinforcer

TABLE 4.3 Sample Rubric for Teaching Tacts 6

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Uses appropriate echoic prompts Uses within session prompt fading Fades presence of motivating operation when using a mand frame Transitions to the use of a generalized conditioned reinforcer

TABLE 4.4 Sample Rubric for Teaching Intraverbals 6 Uses previously established response forms Uses with a child with a well-established repertoire with other verbal operants Fades presence of motivating operation when using a mand frame Transitions to the use of a generalized conditioned reinforcer

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REFERENCES

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DERIVED STIMULUS RELATIONS Many of the course sequences do not provide the depth of discussion necessary to allow for a true understanding of derived stimulus relations. Therefore, plan on spending considerable time focusing on these concepts. Within the fourth edition task list, the focus was on stimulus equivalence; however, as we transition to the fifth edition task list, these concepts have expanded to include derived stimulus relations (i.e., relational frame theory). As a result, many supervisors will need to gain additional training to prepare to teach others within the field on this topic. We encourage you to attend workshops and symposia in the area of relational frame theory to gain the level of knowledge necessary to speak to these topics with your trainees if this concept was not covered in your coursework. This also may be a time to seek guidance and supervision from someone with more training in this area. In Chapter 8 we reference some resources on the topic of relational frame theory that may also be helpful in acquiring the prerequisite knowledge to support trainees in this concept. Provide instruction to the trainees on the following points within this area: • Stimulus equivalence • Reflexivity • Symmetry • Transitivity (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 398 400) • Relational frame theory (Friman, Hayes, & Wilson, 1998; Rehfeldt & Barnes Holmes, 2009)

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide scenarios for trainees to determine if each one is an example of reflexivity, symmetry, or transitivity. Continue this instruction and assessment until the trainees reach the previously determined criterion. Appendix J provides scenarios for you to use within your instruction.

References Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2016). Ethics for behavior analysts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2017). BCBA/BCaBA task list fifth edition. Littleton: Behavior Analyst Certification Board. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Friman, P. C., Hayes, S. C., & Wilson, K. G. (1998). Why behavior analysts should study emotion: The example of anxiety. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31(1), 137 156.

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Rehfeldt, R. A., & Barnes Holmes, Y. (2009). Derived relational responding applications for learners with autism and other developmental disabilities: A progressive guide to change (1st ed.). Reno, NV: Context Press. Skinner, B. F. (1976). About behaviorism. New York: Random House. Tarbox, J., Zuckerman, C. K., Bishop, M. R., Olive, M. L., & O’Hora, D. P. (2011). Rulegoverned behavior: Teaching a preliminary repertoire of rule-following to children with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 27(1), 125 139.

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