Culinary arts and meal science as an interdisciplinary university curriculum

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14 Culinary arts and meal science as an interdisciplinary university curriculum I.-B. Gustafsson, Å. Öström and J. Annett, Örebro University, Sweden Abstract: The philosophical stance adopted in the Culinary Arts and Meal Science (CAMS) education at the Department of Restaurant and Culinary Arts at Örebro University is outlined. This is an interdisciplinary approach, based on the Aristotelian tradition of episteme, techne and phronesis knowledge forms and operationalised through the FAMM (Five Aspects Meal Model) model, bearing in mind the overall biopsychosocial nature of each individual experience. CAMS has moved forward using FAMM as the basis for dealing with the complex, multifaceted nature of producing and studying the meal. Key words: atmosphere, control management, culinary arts, episteme, five aspects meal model, FAMM, meal science, phronesis, techne.

14.1 Introduction In 1992, the Swedish Parliament decided that the present Örebro University should provide a university curriculum for chefs and waiters that emphasized ‘the aesthetic configuration of the meal’ in commercial settings. The aim of this curriculum was to increase the knowledge and the status of the professionals working in restaurants thereby both enhancing restaurant business performance and laying a foundation for research. The first doctoral degree in what is now called Culinary Arts and Meal Science (CAMS) was awarded by Örebro university in 2004 (Nygren, 2004) and there are now six completed doctoral theses in CAMS. The educational approach was distinguished by its emphasis on Aristotle’s three forms of knowledge and embraced academic multidisciplinarity, to stimulate scientific thinking and reflection, together with the training of practical skills in handicraft and the ability and creativity

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to prepare aesthetically pleasing meals. In this chapter the philosophical underpinnings of what is now called Culinary Arts and Meal Science (CAMS) is presented together with a discussion of the progression of the discipline from its multidisciplinary beginnings towards an interdisciplinary future. A model for CAMS education was derived from experiences of the assessment of restaurants performed by Guide Michelin. The model is called Five Aspects Meal Model (FAMM) (Gustafsson et al. 2006) and has formed the basis for CAMS education and research at the Department of Restaurant and Culinary Arts, Örebro for the past 15 years. FAMM assumes a definition of the meal as ‘the eating sphere at a defined occasion’. Specifically, a visit to a restaurant starts with entering a room, meeting a headwaiter, being given a table and thereafter receiving some food and beverages (here called the product). In addition, there is a surrounding atmosphere, by which we mean the guest’s perception of the total situation, and a control management system, which encompasses the overall business planning, including controls of economy, logistics in the kitchen and in the dining room, management of personnel resources and laws regarding the handling of food and beverages. The room, meeting, product and control management system together create the atmosphere. A summary of how these aspects are covered in the curriculum for the CAMS Bachelor degree is presented in Table 14.1. Naturally, PhD education is much more individualised. Nevertheless, students discuss the Five Aspects Model to various degrees during their courses, research projects and in their individual theses. This model simplifies the planning of creative and aesthetic meals, and education based on this model requires the use of the three forms of knowledge, namely scientific, practical and aesthetical knowledge, which correspond to the three Aristotelian principles of knowledge, as discussed below.

14.2 Philosophical underpinnings of the use of different forms of knowledge 14.2.1 Forms of knowledge In western culture the dominant tradition for defining knowledge has been to consider knowledge as being derived only through science. Implicit in this definition, which has its roots in the writings of Plato 427–347 BC (Bostock 1991; Moravcsik 1992) is that theory is then separated from practice; that there is a distinction between what we think and what we do; between mind and body, brain and hand (Gustavsson 2001, Gustavsson et al., 2008 in press). Plato called this scientifically derived knowledge episteme. He said that what we believe to be true must be supported by objective and good arguments to be accepted as justified true beliefs. This form of knowledge is about things ‘which cannot be otherwise’, eternal and universal. Thus, epistemology distinguishes between what we believe to be true on the basis of objective evidence and personal opinions or beliefs which do not have

Table 14.1 Curriculum of BA degree courses at CAMS with the content of courses in relation to the different aspects of the FAMM model

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Content

Aspect

Scientific methods, scientific writing Hospitality – trade of hotel and restaurant Sensory analysis, psychology, nutrition theory of beverages Food safety and responsible beverage handling

Product, meeting, room, management control system and atmosphere

Crafts in Culinary Arts and Sommelier I

Theory and practical training about beverages, guest communication

Product, room, meeting and atmosphere

Crafts in Culinary Arts and Cookery I

Theory and practical training about food, nutrition, chemistry, sensory analysis, microbiology

Product

Meeting, Experiences, Tourism I

Communications systems, theory of interpretation, psychology

Product, meeting and management control system

National studies in the field – restaurant and hotel

Practical work in companies

Product, meeting, room, management control system and atmosphere

Aesthetic creation – restaurant and hotel

Aesthetic methods, design, light, colour, choreography, body language

Product, meeting, room and atmosphere

Theory and practical training about beverages Food and beverages in combination, marketing

Product, room, meeting and atmosphere

Theory and practical training about beverages Food and beverages in combination, marketing

Product, room, meeting and atmosphere

Year 1 Culinary Arts and Hospitality Science

Year 2 Crafts in Culinary Arts and Sommelier II

Crafts in Culinary Arts and Sommelier III

Product

Crafts in Culinary Arts and Cookery III

Theory and practical training about food, chemistry, microbiology, meal planning

Product

Meeting, Experiences, Tourism II

Theory and practical training about the organisation and function of the international meeting and congress industry

Product, meeting, room, management control system and atmosphere

Business Leadership and Planning

Marketing, planning, development and leadership in the business industry

Management control system

National studies in the field – restaurant and hotel

Practical work in companies

Product, meeting, room, management control system and atmosphere

Project Work I, independent

Individual choices of topic within culinary arts and meals science, writing scientific paper

Product, meeting, room, management control system and atmosphere

Planning and performing of event according to the five aspects, meal forms training: canteen, à la carte, ceremonial meals

Product, meeting, room, management control system and atmosphere

Service meeting in hospitality industry

Psychology, meeting phenomena and creative culinary art design

Meeting, product

Molecular Gastronomy

The chemistry and physics of cooking and sensory phenomena, creative culinary art design

Product

Project Work II, independent

Individual choices of topic within culinary arts and meals science, writing scientific paper

Product, meeting, room, management control system and atmosphere

Business administration for hospitality industry

Theory of applied business administration

Management control system

Year 3 Event

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Theory and practical training about food, chemistry, microbiology, meal planning

Culinary arts and meal science

Crafts in Culinary Arts and Cookery II

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objective support. The latter Plato called doxa. Plato’s conceptualisation of knowledge excluded practical knowledge such as that necessary for survival. Until relatively recently, this Platonic exclusion of practical knowledge has dominated western intellectual thinking and educational systems, with more value being placed on intellectual knowledge than on practical knowledge and skills and was reflected in most university curricula. It is generally agreed that within academia, and within any particular discipline, theoretical knowledge can be transmitted, more or less, within a unitary disciplinary context. However, the Aristotelian philosophical tradition has described knowledge as being of three forms: episteme, which Aristotle saw as the theoretical and scientific knowledge; techne he described as the knowledge needed for producing various products and creativity, i.e. practical–productive knowledge; and phronesis, knowledge with its focus on the wisdom formed and used in the processes of social interaction within a cultural dimension (Aristotle 384-322 f.Kr. ; Reeve 1992). Phronesis may also be viewed as the ethical dimension of knowledge. The goal of wisdom is to accomplish a good life for people, to increase the human sense of wellbeing and happiness. At a fundamental level, it is this three-dimensional view of knowledge derived from Aristotle which has been adopted as the philosophical framework for the academic discipline of Culinary Arts and Meal Science at Örebro University. To be able to produce a meal which gives the guest a good and satisfactory meal experience one requires scientific knowledge in e.g. chemistry, nutrition, food science, sensory science, psychology, business economics; in other words episteme. Also needed are practical skills and aesthetical knowledge (techne). Together with episteme and techne we need the knowledge which will allow us to reflect on why we act as we do (phronesis). For example, within the meal science area, phronesis can be seen in an ethical approach to food, by using food which has come from well treated animals, ecologically produced products and so on. It can also be regarded as phronesis to offer well balanced healthy menus or to make available ethnic or vegetarian food as required. At first glance, it might appear that this Aristotelian view of knowledge would result in practice which separates the three knowledge forms across different parallel streams of knowledge/activity combinations. However, as noted by Gustavsson (2001) and Gustavsson and Annett (2008), this is not the case, and it is rather more useful to consider different combinations of the three. Indeed, discussion of the importance of different forms of knowledge has interested many other writers since Aristotle, with relatively recent emphasis being placed on discussion of these issues in relation to educational practice.

14.2.2 Pragmatism Charles Sanders Peirce is credited with founding the theory of pragmatism, (later called pragmaticism by Peirce) in which knowledge of our habits and

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our actions are associated (pragma) (Ochs 1998). When we are carrying out a practical activity and encounter a problem we need scientific knowledge or a theory for reflection and solving the problem. John Dewey, like Peirce, was also strongly influenced by science. They both postulated that the truth of knowledge is revealed in the practical outcome of an action when the practical knowledge is combined with science and theory. John Dewey is perhaps best known for his theory of ‘Learning by doing’ discussed in the book: ‘Pragmatism and educational research’ by Biesta and Burbules (Biesta and Burbules 2003). Later on, Gilbert Ryle further developed the discussion of practical knowledge in his book The concept of mind. He introduced the concepts of ‘knowing how’ and ‘knowing that’. ‘Knowing how’ refers to skills required to carry out a task and ‘knowing that’ is to understand and have insight when acting and to formulate arguments for the way the action is solved. Ryle was opposed to the Platonic and Cartesian dualistic view of the body and soul (consciousness) being separate, with the body acting mechanistically like a machine separate from the conscious mind. According to Ryle, these processes cannot be separated, and he further defined acting without thinking as ‘habitual practice’ and acting by reflection as ‘intelligent practice’ (Ryle 1990). Ryle also supported the idea of combining theory, science and practice to produce true knowledge.

14.2.3 Tacit knowledge In a similar way, Michael Polanyi regarded all knowledge partly as ‘tacit’. His arguments are presented in his book Personal Knowledge (Polanyi 1962) where he opposed the positivists’ standpoint that all knowledge must be possible to be described scientifically or with arguments based on theory. Polanyi states that ‘we know more than we can tell’ and meant that knowledge of practical arts can be build up during earlier experiences or passed from generation to generation or also so trained that we do it without reflecting like driving a car, baking bread, playing an instrument, playing golf, etc. Given this philosophical background to CAMS education of Örebro university, it is clear that a practical consequence is that academic input has been required from a number of contributory academic disciplines, working together towards a common goal. But the key question is to what extent these various contributing disciplines remain essentially separable subparts of the overall general discipline? True interdisciplinarity, the stated aim of CAMS education, is something rather more than multidisciplinary in that it demands integration and synthesis of the contributing disciplines to create something which is more than ‘the sum of the parts’. This concept of synthesis is an important one in cognitive psychology, for example, and in that context is regarded as indicative of higher order learning and cognition. The psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980), proposed a theory of cognitive development which became influential in educational training. He suggested that cognitive development followed a hierarchy, sophistication being

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characterised by the ability to integrate information from multiple sources and to deal with multiple perspectives. Inherent also in Bloom’s taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom 1956) is the notion of hierarchical development of intellectual skills, beginning with factual knowledge and leading through comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. As noted by Cargill (2005) synthesis is widely discussed in interdisciplinary theory because it is recognised as one of the major outcomes of an interdisciplinary or liberal education.

14.2.4 Interdisciplinarity These principles are relevant to consideration of interdisciplinarity as a means of dealing with complex issues which are not amenable to study from just one perspective, and what is more complex than asking ‘why, where, when, how and what do we eat’? The main practical problem that arises is achieving a balance between the depth given by a disciplinary focus and the breadth given by input from a range of disciplines. Neither a specific single disciplinary focus nor the pursuit of interdisciplinary relationships should predominate (Davies and Devlin 2007) but from synthesis comes creativity, and it is creativity which should overcome disciplinary limitations. Psychology, perhaps more than many other disciplines can be viewed as the product of a complex, interdisciplinary synthesis. The various perspectives within the current discipline reflect its origins and history, from its origins in philosophy and introspection through psychophysics, psychoanalysis, behaviourism, the cognitive revolution to name but a few. Perspectives today include neuroscience, evolutionary/biological/physiological, abnormal/clinical, health, cognitive, developmental, personality and individual differences, occupational/organisational, social, gender and cross-cultural. If we look at these different perspectives within the discipline of psychology we can see that they are clearly interrelated to the other disciplines contributing to CAMS education, such as nutrition science, public health, domestic science, sociology, anthropology, ethnology and business economics. Furthermore, if we compare the various perspectives within psychology with the disciplines contributing to CAMS we can see that the emphasis ranges from biological aspects through health, cognition and social aspects. Indeed, in varying degrees, a similar analysis could also be possible within these other disciplines. Now, if one considers the meal, trying to define it is somewhat tricky, and definitions have varied in emphasis in precisely the same way. As we shall see, where FAMM differs from previous approaches is that it incorporates a broad spectrum of contributory factors. If one tried to define the meal in only its simplest biological sense as an activity performed to consume calories and nutrients, that would be somewhat inadequate. In human evolutionary terms, the subtle social activities and behavioural patterns which are associated with the meal must be thought of as fundamentally related to our very survival and development and evolution as a species.

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At a general level, this kind of thinking is certainly not new. For example, Engel (1977) introduced a major shift in the theory of clinical medicine. He made the deceptively simple observation that to understand human beings in health and disease we must understand the three factors: biological, psychological and social; that actions at these three levels are dynamically interrelated; and that these relationships affect both the process and outcome of clinical care. His biopsychosocial model was derived from systems theory with its origins in mathematics and engineering. Adoption of the interdisciplinary biopsychosocial approach to healthcare has led to a much broader general understanding, moving from a biomedical, physician-led environment where patients had little input into the process or opportunity to provide influential feedback and including taking into account the effect on a patient’s prognosis of the patient–practitioner relationship. This biopsychosocial approach is analogous to and inherent in FAMM and provides a framework for thinking about the meal and food provision, which moves from traditional food provision represented by a provider led approach to the multifaceted approach advocated by the CAMS education discussed earlier. The main point to be aware of is that no matter which perspective the meal is approached from, be it mainly biological, psychological or sociological, fundamentally all these processes exert their effect at the level of the individual: the way an individual’s brain interacts with the world, how it processes the information from the outside world and how it deals with both the autonomic and volitional bodily processes. It is this essence of this multifaceted, biopsychosocial underpinning which has been captured by FAMM in the undergraduate education curricula but possibly even more so within our research field and in the PhD education. The most explicit delineation of this interaction between the individual and his or her environment is perhaps in consideration of the product aspect, and particularly within the associated field of sensory analysis. Moreover, sensory science is also applied to varying degrees, within all aspects in FAMM since it deals with experiences through the senses. Martens’ discussion of the philosophy of sensory science acknowledges that attention must be drawn to understanding of stimulus–response interaction between complex biological material and a complex human sensation– perception–cognition system, resting within a broad, ever changing context (Martens 1999). Furthermore, she discusses various philosophical topics such as the epistemological, linguistic, ethical and metaphysical which will be of relevance to sensory science. Epistemology and ethics are clearly in accordance with Aristotle and the description of the three forms of knowledge discussed earlier. Also relevant is the linguistic approach which deals with language theories concerning the spoken (or not spoken) expression of our sensory impressions and knowledge of the world. The metaphysics approach encompasses theories about ‘reality’ and limits for scientific knowledge.

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14.3 The five aspects meal model (FAMM) Given this general philosophical and historical background, one can now consider the five aspects of FAMM in more detail (Fig. 14.1). When thinking about models, in general, they tend to serve two related functions; as a tool for trying to explain existing observations and also as a way to guide thinking and to stimulate research. In the early stages perhaps one should aim for scope before becoming embedded in the finer detail of specifying with great precision individual elements of the model (Annett 1996) ultimately to come up with useful tools to enhance not just specific aspects of people’s lives but also to help improve overall quality of life. This idea of scope being followed by precision is applied widely in computer science, where the general framework is specified at a general level by systems analysts and the detail of each stage is later provided by the computer programmers. In the case of FAMM, we can now look at each of the five aspects of the model (room, meeting, product, management control system, atmosphere) while at a general level incorporating the three Aristotelian forms of knowledge, and also trying to specify the detail of each aspect, the programming as it were, bearing in mind the overarching biopsychosocial qualities of the human consumer. This philosophical background provides strong support for the various curricula at the Department of Restaurant and Culinary Arts at Örebro University, an interdisciplinary model which has the potential to be developed and utilised at other educational establishments. In Table 14.1 the content of different courses are described and their relation to different aspects of the FAMM model indicated.

Atmosphere Control management Room Meeting Product

System Atmosphere

Fig. 14.1 Five Aspects Meal Model (FAMM).

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14.4 Types of meals As noted by Gustafsson (2004), the ultimate aim of all five aspects is the same: to achieve maximum satisfaction in various meal situations for every guest/ customer/ diner. There are of course different expectations depending on the type of eating situation and different ways of grouping these (Edwards 2000). However, the focus at the Department of Restaurant and Culinary Arts, Örebro University is on the production of commercial meals. e.g. à la carte meal, canteen meal, and formal or what we call ceremonial meal (although the same approach can also be applied to more private meal production). A canteen meal is a meal which is served to many people at the same time during a short period of time e.g. self-service lunch. An à la carte meal is a meal where the guests make a free choice and order from a menu and enjoy this meal during a longer period, e.g. during an evening dinner. A ceremonial (formal) meal takes place during a feast of some type either of a private official nature such as the celebration dinners at the Nobel Prizegiving, weddings, anniversaries, government hospitality, academic celebration and so on. These different meals require different type of Rooms, Meetings, Products, Control Management systems and a different type of atmosphere will be created requiring analytic and synthetic input from the various disciplines and knowledge bases outlined earlier. Indeed, each of these five aspects of the meal do not stand in isolation, but interact with one another to produce the overall meal experience.

14.5 The room A meal must always take place somewhere loosely designated ‘the room’. This could be a dining room at home, a restaurant, at hospital, inside an aircraft, at work, on a beach or indeed just about anywhere. The physical locale can vary enormously and the setting influences the enjoyment of the meal and also contributes to the atmosphere of the meal, as shown in Table 14.1 where both room and atmosphere will appear together within the courses. Therefore, it is somewhat difficult to separate discussion of the room from atmosphere. However, adopting focus on commercial meals, e.g. à la carte meals, canteen meals and formal or ceremonial meals means we can limit discussion of the type of room somewhat. Which disciplines have to be involved to create appealing rooms in these different types of meal? As noted below, Campbell-Smith (1967) identified a number of factors relating to the room which affect atmosphere and categorised general internal variables such as temperature, noise levels and cleanliness; general layout variables such as shape and size of room and layout of seating; and table appointments – the crockery, cutlery, etc. More recently Heide and Grønhaug (2006) published a model for atmosphere management which includes roughly the same elements

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of the room. These authors distinguish between the physical environment ‘servicescape’ and ‘atmosphere’, the result of the interaction between the servicescape and the individuals experiencing it. The main physical antecedent factors identified by Heide and Grønhaug are rather similar to those of Campbell-Smith. They include what they call ambient factors and design features. Ambient factors include sound, lighting, scent and temperature while design features include all elements such as layout, décor and general sign and symbols which communicate distinctive features of the establishment. The importance of elements such as these have been reviewed (Edwards and Gustafsson 2008a). The antecedent ‘room’ factors denoted by Heide and Grønhaug are mediated, i.e. perceived through the sensory channels, and moderated perhaps by factors such as cultural background, age, gender and expectations. The outcomes or dependent variables can be the guest response – cognitive, affective, physiological or behavioural – and also hospitality outcomes, such as guest satisfaction and return visits. It is also clear that to examine these antecedent, mediating and outcome factors in relation to the room also involves each of the biopsychosocial perspectives discussed earlier. The room and atmosphere aspects will be covered in most of the courses within Year 1 studies although they are most focused upon in the ‘Aesthetic creation – Restaurant and Hotel’ course. They are studied more deeply in Year 2 and 3 within the ‘Crafts and Culinary Arts’ courses in both the Sommelier and Cookery programs as well as in ‘Event’ and in ‘National Field studies’ (Table 14.1). To understand these elements it is clear that one requires an interdisciplinary approach covering a range of information types corresponding to episteme, techne and phronesis. For example, to study the design features a student would require basic knowledge of architecture, the history of style, epoch, art history and scientific knowledge of textiles, furniture and china. In addition the involvement of designers or artists is also important, with their knowledge of colour, form and design. Some knowledge of psychology, particularly perception and cognition and environmental psychology is required in order to understand how these layout elements of a room are experienced by people. But, furthermore, the students have to combine this basic scientific knowledge with the practical skills of decorating a dining room and to be able to reflect over the choice of style, textiles, colours and china not just in a technical sense but also to reflect at a deeper, ethical level (Schön 2003). In a similar way, study of the ambient factors such as temperature and odour requires knowledge from a varied disciplinary input. Manipulation of these factors is certainly not new in the hospitality industry, although the level of sophistication of their use nowadays requires that basic knowledge of acoustics, lighting and olfaction, for example, needs to be combined with knowledge derived from psychology, sociology and so on, in order to understand the resultant response variables. Heide and Grønhaug (2006) and Edwards and Gustafsson (2008a) provide reviews of some of the literature on the impact of various room variables on the dining experience.

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As discussed earlier, synthesis of different forms of knowledge and input from different disciplines should result in a creative approach to ‘the room’. As part of the educational process at the department of Restaurant and Culinary Arts at Örebro University, students take responsibility for the production of various large dinner events, supervised by teachers from within both design, cooking, service and management control systems. In such situations, a theme or a story is chosen for the meal occasion and the event created and performed at a practical level in line with that theme. This method has also been applied by the artist and designer Erik Nissen Johansen (Johansen and Blom 2003), who says: ‘my main objective is to cater to the guests six senses – the five basic senses, plus their fantasy. If there is a harmony between food, taste, colours, furniture, design, textiles, personnel, culture, attitudes, surface, lightening, guest preferences, smells and historical positioning, the restaurant will leave a clear and easy to communicate memory’. He believes that people nowadays demand more than a delicious meal; they demand an experience. Thereby, Johansen involves different disciplines: art history of the interior, sensory science, psychology, lightning knowledge as well as the practical skills and artistic knowledge to produce the actual meal. One example of this overall educational approach in practice was a function for which students had responsibility, referred to as the Orrefors project. In collaboration with a designer from Orrefors, Sweden and the Champagne House Veuve Clicquot, students’ brief was to produce a lunch and a dinner using FAMM as the guideline. The meals were served at two different locations, and the limitations placed on students were the raw materials: food and drinks and the glassware were the same for both occasions. Guests, who included famous food and wine journalists, chefs and sommeliers evaluated the experience including the room variables, and students carried out observational study of the guests whilst dining. This element was included in the course of ‘Crafts in culinary Arts and Sommelier’ Year 2 (Table 14.1). Without good quality education and research, the situation may remain as described by Bitner (1992): ‘managers continually plan, build and change an organisation’s physical surroundings in an attempt to control its influence on patrons, without really knowing the impact of a specific design or atmosphere change on its users’.

14.6 The meeting The second of the five aspects of FAMM is the meeting. In any meal situation there are several types of meeting, encompassing not only the meeting between customers and staff but also the meeting between one customer and another, and one member of staff and another. These social elements are included in both the Campbell-Smith (1967) and Heide and Grønhaug (2006) models as important contributors to atmosphere. The nature of these social interactions differs according to the type of meal. In a canteen, we mostly meet other

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guests and very few personnel. The canteen might be fully self-service or be one where staff serve the main dish only. In a more formal evening restaurant, the first meeting might be with the staff that take care of guests’ coats, then the head waiter and waiters. These people provide service in different ways and a large discipline of study is service management, usually as part of the general hospitality management discipline. At Örebro University, the meeting aspect is first introduced in the overview course ‘Culinary Arts and Hospitality’ Year 1, but is focused upon during the course ‘Meeting, Experience and Tourism I and II’ and in ‘Service meeting in the hospitality industry’. Psychology and sociology are important contributory disciplines to the study of these social aspects of the meal experience. From the perspective of the service provider, Martin (1991) describes these social skills as ‘convivial skills’. As Heide and Grønhaug note, the attitudes shown by staff towards both the guests and also towards their job, influence every aspect of their behaviour and hence the nature of the experience for the guest. A scientific understanding of the principles of fundamental aspects of human social behaviour comes mainly from study of psychological and sociological theory covering a wide range of aspects of service. There has been much research on the importance of service for guests covering a wide range of applications, e.g. Andersson and Mossberg (2004), Hansen et al. (2004, 2005), Mina (2006), and Tucci and Talaga (2000). Andersson and Mossberg, for example, asked guests how much they would like to pay for different parts of a meal. The guests’ answers were that they would like to pay most for the service when dining in the evening while food was more valuable at a lunch meal (Andersson and Mossberg 2004). More psychological aspects such as the relationship between consumer expectations of service and the perceptions by managers and staff of consumer expectations has been studied and showed a gap between the perception of consumer expectations and the actual expectations (Douglas and Connor 2003). Perhaps it is that service personnel might not realize that they have to act as the host of the restaurant to take care of the guests, almost as though they were their guests at home. This is an aspect of service which seems to be best performed in family restaurants (Mina 2006). Professional service requires an open minded and communicative personality and an understanding of the role that factors such as impression formation, attribution theory and stereotyping play in social interactions. Furthermore, while the physical layout can determine in some part the social interactions, manipulation of what one might call psychological space is also important. For example, overfamiliarity can result in feeling of invasion of personal space, with consequent negative feelings and experiences (Fisher and Bryne 1975; Marks 1988) A related important factor is knowledge of rules of different aspects of etiquette – not just in the conventional sense but at a general level which encompasses knowledge of different social, religious and political groups and cultures. Of course, one must always remember that social interactions are exactly that – interactions – and the behaviour of the guests

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themselves can have a profound influence on the behaviour of other guests and on service staff. All of this can be viewed within the biopsychosocial framework discussed earlier and related to the three Aristotelian forms of knowledge. Biological aspects of social interaction include variables such as gender, attraction, dominance and power. Related psychological variables are as mentioned above, things such as attribution, individual/group dynamics, individual differences. Social factors include aspect of culture, perhaps fashion trends and so on. Thus, to be able to handle the complexities of the service meeting requires an education which includes scientific knowledge of human behaviour (episteme), practical social skills training (techne), combined with elements of phronesis – that aspect of knowledge and wisdom formed and used in the processes of social interaction within a cultural dimension. It is the case, however, that much of the social interaction process usually goes unnoticed at an explicit level. Within the Orrefors project, the students made observations, on how the guests interacted and what they were talking about. In the planning process of such a meal, lunch or dinner, students often put great effort into the timing and the performance process in order to make the meal a great experience. Their expectations are therefore that the guests would talk about the meal within the setting. To their surprise, the results of the observation studies showed that the guests interacted in a normal social way, and did not talk about the meal except when something unusual or unexpected happened (Table 14.1).

14.7 The product The product aspect of FAMM encompasses our definition food and beverages served as part of a meal. Obviously, this is a large area within our discipline CAMS, which deals with food and beverages from the point of cultivation and production to menus which appear on the table. Even if the students do not actually become involved in actual cultivation of food it is essential that they learn something about the processes e.g. the effect of different growing systems. This involves disciplines such as agriculture, viticulture, enology as well as food science. Haqvin Gyllensköld a famous Swedish cookbook writer, who was interested in food chemistry wrote: ‘We prepare food as we like it tasty. We cook the potato as we think it is more tasty than raw. For the same reason we cook and fry vegetables, fish and meat. We mix it and spice it and work a lot with the food. We do that as it gives us pleasure. It seems to me that if we know more of what happens within the food items when we prepare them that could make the cooking both better and more fun’ (Gyllensköld 1977). Gyllensköld was the first person in Sweden to be interested in food chemistry, a subject which later has come to be called molecular gastronomy by Hervé This (This 2006), which is also a course in Year 3 in our curriculum. (Table 14.1). Other writers, such as Harold McGee in his book On Food and Cooking

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also include the history of food, characteristics and growing places besides the food chemistry. That particular book is used as part of the main literature in courses on food technology as it includes both scientific and practical knowledge (McGee 2004) and forms part of the course literature for the course ‘Molecular Gastronomy’ at Department of Restaurant and Culinary Arts. To be a good chef requires knowledge about the cultivation conditions of the raw materials, storage, ripening, chemical and physical properties and how the different cooking techniques change the molecules of the food. With this level and range of knowledge, it becomes much easier to preserve the good quality of raw ingredients and make use of it in cooking to provide more flavoursome meals. That this requires the involvement of disparate disciplines such as horticulture, food science, chemistry, physics has also been pointed out by Brillat-Savarin in his book Physiologie du gout [BrillatSavarin 1825 (1963)]. Courses in our curriculum are ‘Crafts in Culinary Arts and Cookery I, II and III’ (Table 14.1). Another part of the product concerns the sensory qualities also included in the above mentioned courses. Judging sensory qualities requires physiological knowledge about our senses, training the senses and knowledge of sensory scientific methods. Interestingly, the first doctorate degree awarded in CAMS was based on research on food and wine in combination with help of sensory science methodology (Nygren 2004). Sensory education and research requires involvement of disciplines such psychology, physiology, statistics, together with product knowledge from the food technology areas: at a general level, sensory science concern some kind of relation between a product and a person. This relation could be seen as two interfaces, for example the relation between chemical properties of a product and the sensory properties; how the product is perceived. For example, tomatoes with a low pH will probably have a more pronounced acidulous taste. The other interface will most likely be the relation between the descriptive responses to a product and the affective response (Martens 1999). Perhaps the best preferred or liked coffee might be described as earthy, fruity and bitter with a slight acidulous taste. Both interfaces will be useful when applying sensory analysis in projects within the culinary arts field. As Martens (1999) so elegantly captures the essence of the discussion illustrating the different levels of analysis and thus by implication the requirement for a multifaceted approach embracing multiple knowledge forms. ‘What is the source of knowledge about an apple? Is it the physical measure of sugars or the perceived sweetness or both? Is it the detected sweetness on the tongue or the feeling of happiness when thinking about the apple?’ An ongoing research project at our department within the sensory field is about the sensory language. The aim is to develop a sensory and cognitive language model for description of fruit and vegetables. The model could be used as a tool for communication of food and meals. Sensory science is also important for the theoretical base within courses which deal with wine and other beverages as well as food, although knowledge of beverages is mainly focused on wine. This knowledge includes aspects of

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viticulture and enology combined with practical sensory training of different wines together with training in storage, serving and buying wine from different areas, different grapes, etc. Such knowledge is part of examples of areas covered in courses in ‘Culinary Arts and Sommelier I, II and III’ (Table 14.1). Of course an important part of this sensory training is the description of sensory characteristics of products which could be applied within the restaurant sector. To mention an example: a wine steward or a sommelier could either directly or indirectly influence the sales of wine at restaurants, either directly through their credibility as a salesperson and indirectly through training of other waiting staff, who will be better able to describe the wine to the customers which could increase the sales (Manske and Cordua 2005). Together with the wine comes the wine glass. Obviously, glasses and other utensils used when serving a meal must be included in the room aspect of the meal, as part of the need to reflect over the choice of style, textiles, colours, china (Billing et al. 2008). However, glasses are an important instrument for communicating the wine to the human senses, exercising direct effects on sensory experiences such as odour through size and shape. Therefore, it is important to explore experiences and reflections on wineglasses and their contribution to a meal experience in the perspective of craft, art and science within education and research. One further discipline involved in the product aspect of the meal is nutrition science. Even restaurants have to have knowledge about how to compose menus to support healthy eating as well as be able to serve different diets to people with specific diseases treated with diet, an area covered in the basic course ‘Culinary Arts and Hospitality Science as well as in Crafts in Culinary Arts and Cookery I. As the trend towards more and more people eating out continues this will be an important task for the restaurants to support people’s desire for healthy eating options – in other words, to put into practice not just episteme and techne but also phronesis. This has been focused upon in the book by Gustafsson and Klein, Den medvetna kokkonsten (The conscious cooking, Gustafsson and Klein 2006). Within the framework of FAMM, a current doctoral research programme at Örebro university has taken a biopsychosocial approach to examination of several aspects of the meal as product. These include looking at fat content of food items and its related sensory properties and its relation to impact on health (Rapp et al. 2007 and Table 14.1).

14.8 Control management system The control management system aspect of FAMM encompasses the economic aspects of the meal, the overall planning, logistics in kitchen and diningroom, rules and laws regarding both hygienic working practices, authorities’ requirements, management of personnel, rules for working hours and conditions, working environment, union business, marketing and so on. Many of these areas can be placed under the general discipline called Business

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Administration, with specific themes such as accounting and control, accounting and finance, marketing and change, organisation and management, business development and to some extent legal aspects of the business of restaurants and hotels. A range of literature from the discipline is used for teaching, e.g. basic literature in accounting, marketing, organization, service management and hospitality management and students are trained to analyse the business situation and capacities of restaurants and hotel companies and to work out a business plan for a company. These elements are included in courses named ‘Meeting, Experiences, Tourism I and II’ as well as in ‘Business Leadership and Planning’ year 2 and ‘Business Administration for Hospitality Industry’ year 3 (Table 14.1). In the specific area of marketing management the book by Kotler (Kotler 2003) can be useful as a teaching tool in this type of course. For service marketing, aspects of the education material from Zeithaml et al. (2006) has been used. The law as a discipline is also to some extent involved in this part of the education. Another good example of applied work with the control management systems is a book by Kivela (1994) on Menu planning which can be used effectively as course material for Culinary Arts students. Kivela mentions three overall factors, which should be the targets for the business activity: economic, market related and quality and production targets. These targets have to be well implemented in both leaders and the personnel. The factors are also integrated within each other. If any one factor is deficient, it affects the others. For example, low quality within production or in the raw material might lead to either food having to be discarded thus having economic consequences. Or, if the meal is actually served, the guest will be disappointed and will probably not return. Additionally, the reputation of the restaurant as spread by word of mouth to other people may be damaged, again leading to serious economic consequences.

14.8.1 Economy targets A chef in a restaurant is responsible for the costs of personnel, raw material and storing. This requires good knowledge of leadership and in coaching as well as knowledge about food and cooking. The economy in the kitchen is based on calculation and estimation based on description of recipes and menus both before and after the production, so that the actual costs and marketing is controlled. The pricing of a menu has to be placed just right for the market position of the restaurant or the special occasion. Both over- and underpricing will lead eventually to economic failure.

14.8.2 The market A restaurant has to work within a customer-oriented framework to create profitability, which means that the customer/guests must be always in focus and the restaurant owner has to satisfy the guests’ needs and demands in

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competition with other restaurants. The type of guests a restaurant has or wishes to attract determines what menus should be served and offered. This requires knowledge and input of many types, not least an understanding of customer behaviour and how they relate to perceived brand values.

14.8.3 Production and quality At this level of consideration, whether or not a menu is successful depends obviously on how the raw food material is adapted to the cooking technique for each situation and how the menu is composed at that time, which is the chef’s responsibility. An important issue in relation to production and quality is the need for an awareness of all aspects of food hygiene. Lack of knowledge and failure to implement legal requirements and behavioural guidelines will inevitably result in failure. This might be through closure of the restaurant by national regulatory authorities as a preventative measure or, alternatively, in response to actual health-related consequences. There is no more dissatisfied guest than the one who becomes ill as a consequence of eating a meal! CAMS education must therefore include food hygiene as a core part of education. This input can range from education about basic biological processes through an understanding of the interaction between potential infectious agents and human behaviours which may result in less than optimal food quality.

14.8.4 Different meals different logistics and techniques As mentioned earlier, different menus require different logistics and different cooking and serving techniques. In canteen menus often the guests serve themselves and many people are eating at the same time. This will require a special logistic with its focus on the cooking techniques to enable rapid serving, mostly without waiters, of food which can withstand being preprepared and kept warm for some time before service. Obviously the best kitchen logistics in this case will minimise standing time for the food. This is an example of where knowledge and implementation of the rules of hygiene are particularly important. Many food-borne contaminants are known to multiply rapidly during food holding time particularly if strict, optimal temperature control is not maintained. Within à la carte menus the guests make their choice from ‘la carte’ and order their dishes and beverages. In this case the logistical problems are rather different, and require a greater level of ‘real-time’ cooperation between waiters and the cooks. Both waiters and cooks have to prepare their mis en place, which means that all preparation of the food and glasses, laying of the tables has to be done in advance, so that the guests can get their chosen dishes a la minute. A formal or a ceremonial meal at banquets, weddings or celebrations requires yet another totally different kind of logistics and leadership. All aspects of the menu and presentation are determined in advance in consultation

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with the host. In turn, both chefs and waiters must then have the optimal situation to plan, calculate the recipes, prices for profitability and performance of the whole meal. Limitations on various aspects of the occasion are often placed by factors relating to the venue, which may not always have as its primary function meal service. The size and shape may have to be incorporated into planning and optimised by creative design to give the room a special expression. The chef may have to adapt and control kitchen utensils and the number of waiters will have to be adapted to suit the number of guests, the menu and to the room, and so on. Logistical failure at any point in the chain may lead to performance failures such as a dining time which is too long, prolonged waiting time for table service leading to food not arriving on table at the required temperature – perhaps lukewarm or melted. Thus, consideration of the logistical process is very important from before the guests ever appear through to after their departure. Throughout all of this planning process, and in order to deal with the management of the different elements of the meal occasion, it is clear that education must cover a broad spectrum of knowledge, ranging from the biological through to psychological and sociological (Table 14.1).

14.9 Atmosphere The influence of atmosphere within a room or where food is consumed is often easy to appreciate but difficult to understand or explain. Many factors contribute to atmosphere, and may be categorised according to the features of the FAMM model. By this model, perhaps the three most influential general aspects of the meal contributing to the guests’ experience of the atmosphere are the room, the meeting and the product, although the overall management system must not be overlooked (a badly managed restaurant will not be successful, and the effects of the best physical environment and best efforts of individual staff will be diminished by a poor management structure). The atmosphere is highly integrated with the room aspect and a course element is presented in the first overview course ‘Culinary Arts and Hospitality Science’ Year 1, focused upon in ‘Aesthetic Creation – restaurant and Hotel’ and also in the ‘Event’ course and in ‘Field studies’. It has to be remembered, though, that the product aspect also affects the feeling of the atmosphere at a restaurant visit. As described earlier, an early model of the elements of atmosphere was that of Campbell-Smith (1967). Heide and Grønhaug (2006) subsume Campbell-Smith’s formulation in their description of the antecedent, mediating and outcome factors which was mentioned earlier (Section 14.5). This is also in line with the proposal of Wall and Berry (Wall and Berry 2007) who suggest that diners use three classes of variables to judge a restaurant experience:

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Functional – the technical quality of the food and service; Mechanic – the ambience and other design and technical elements; Humanic – the performance, behaviour and appearance of the employees. Similarly, Edwards and Gustafsson (2008b) discuss atmosphere of the meal in terms of interior variables, layout and design variables and human variables. These correspond closely with Heide and Grønhaug’s antecedent factors. In other words, it is apparent that atmosphere, however one might try to define it, results from an interaction between all the elements of the meal event, perceived uniquely by each participating individual. As such, atmosphere has been identified by the cited researchers above as a key factor for ensuring a successful meal experience. Given this multifactorial nature of atmosphere, it is obvious that its study must also be multifaceted and proceed at various levels of enquiry, in the same way that the other elements of the FAMM model (Fig. 14.1) imply a multidisciplinary educational approach. Using the Heide and Grønhaug model as a framework for consideration of atmosphere, we can gain some measure of the relative contribution of various disciplines and how knowledge and skills from each might be synthesised. In discussion of the room, for example, it has already been indicated that ambient factors such as sound, lighting, scent and temperature and design factors such as spatial layout, architecture and décor make a significant contribution to atmosphere. Moreover, study of these requires input from many disciplines and differing types of knowledge. Also, as pointed out by Heide and Grønhaug (2007), these are factors which can be controlled by management, who unfortunately may not always have the knowledge and insight to manipulate them successfully. In addition, as Edwards and Gustafson (2008b) conclude, most of the information available currently has been derived from the retail sector, and not specifically the food sector. Interestingly, recent research (Heide et al. 2007) suggests that achieving a balance between various sources of input at the practical level of application is not easy – they report that all of the hospitality companies included in their research reported substantial disagreements with their architects and designers. One might speculate that this is indicative of a need for hospitality/restaurant specific interdisciplinary education and research. Or, as Heide et al. suggest, perhaps this conflict reflects differences in emphasis on functionality and aesthetics during education – again reflecting the need for an interdisciplinary synthesis of different knowledge forms. Elements of the meeting, the social factors which also contribute to atmosphere, are again subject to understanding at a number of levels. Edwards and Gustafsson (2008a) review some of the research relating to the psychological and sociological perspectives on density and crowding and on social facilitation, and their effects on atmosphere. They concluded that not only was overall enjoyment of the eating occasion and the food itself – the product – affected by atmosphere, but also amount of food consumed and money spent were also influenced. Overall, it is clear the atmosphere cannot be created or understood by focusing on one factor alone although if one

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factor has not been achieved suitably, the desired atmosphere can be spoiled even if everything else is in order. Atmosphere, however, is not a static, one-dimensional thing, perceived by everyone in the same way. Rather, it is a dynamic entity, perceived by individuals in an individually determined way. Each individual can be regarded as presenting a unique set of mediating variables, sensory channels and other biosocial factors derived from personal history. Interpretation and understanding of this mediating process is a clear case for multidisciplinary input – psychology, sociology, biology, sensory studies, ethnology, gender studies, anthropology to name but a few. In a similar way, the outcome measures of atmosphere require an integrated education and interpretation. To understand the guest responses at each of a cognitive, affective, physiological and behavioural level is a complicated business requiring knowledge across a range of disciplines and the ability to integrate that information. Interpreting and relating these possible guest responses in terms of overall hospitality outcomes such as guest satisfaction and being able to produce an adaptive response is the ultimate aim of any good hospitality provider, regardless of the nature of the establishment – restaurant, canteen, hospital or whatever (Table 14.1).

14.10 Conclusions This chapter began by outlining the philosophical stance adopted in the CAMS education at the Department of Restaurant and Culinary Arts at Örebro University. This is an interdisciplinary approach, based on the Aristotelian tradition of episteme, techne and phronesis knowledge forms and operationalised through the FAMM model, bearing in mind the overall biopsychosocial nature of each individual experience. Thus, FAMM represents both the educational philosophy and the practical, interdisciplinary educational tool. At the philosophical level, it assumes acceptance that the who, how, when, why, what and where of food consumption can only be understood at multiple levels ranging from the physiological to the societal, and that the individual experience is a product of this complexity. This, in practice, must produce reflective hospitality providers, analogous to the physician who, on adoption of a biopsychosocial model of health, must become capable of maintaining an ongoing self-audit because the performance demands vary from moment to moment (Borrell-Carrio et al. (2004) As noted by these researchers, intuition is central to this process, and as Polanyi suggested, professional competence such as this may come from tacit knowledge. Expertise, such as that required to deal with difficult guests or difficult situations which arise unexpectedly, is often apparent in ways that are difficult to explain at a strictly cognitive level – in other words are emergent properties of the process of synthesis and creativity which arises from multiple knowledge sources.

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As noted by Davis and Devlin (2007), interdisciplinarity can take a number of different forms that can be thought of as following a continuum. At one end of the continuum is the situation where contributing disciplines have moved beyond the multidisciplinary position. If multidisciplinarity is a simple co-existence without taking into account or even being aware of another discipline’s work and contribution to an educational goal, the simplest form of interdisciplinarity is the stage where there is at least recognition and understanding of the contribution made by disciplines other than one’s own and how those different perspectives contribute to the common goal. At its most extreme form, interdisciplinarity has passed through a further stage where disciplinarians take into account their colleagues’ contributions and modify their own contribution accordingly, reaching an extreme point where two or more disciplines combine their expertise to jointly address the subject under consideration. The latter results necessarily in modification of disciplinary boundaries and emergence of new synthesised disciplines. Although it is clear that CAMS education has moved from the static multidisciplinary educational position and stepped onto the more dynamic interdisciplinary platform, there is still probably much progress to be made. As we have seen, the study of food can lead us into contact with the study of diverse areas ranging from basic biological and psychological processes through to consideration of aesthetics and culture. Some years ago Guy Claxton (1980, 1988) compared the multiplicity of areas of study to a group of neighbouring islands between which there was no means of communication – phones, boats and so on. In such a case, he suggested, each island population develops its own language, culture, beliefs and working practices. Every now and again the inhabitants of one island might notice great excitement and activity on a neighbouring island, but, not being able to understand what is being said or to join in, they simply gaze in wonder for a short while and then go back to what they were doing. We believe that CAMS has certainly moved beyond that stage, and using FAMM as the basis for dealing with the complex, multifaceted nature of the study of food, has moved along the interdisciplinary continuum towards producing an evolving but complex, multiply determined understanding of what, where, when, why and how we eat. To use Claxton’s analogy, the inhabitants of the numerous culinary islands have begun to communicate through the common language of CAMS and FAMM.

14.11 References Andersson, T.D. and Mossberg, L. (2004), ‘The dining experience: do restaurants satisfy customer needs?’, Food Service and Technology, 4, 171–77. Annett, J.M. (1996), ‘Olfactory memory: A case study in cognitive psychology’, Journal of Psychology, 130(3), 309–19. Aristotle (384-322 f.Kr.), Nicomachean ethics (Roger Crisp, 1961-, Trans.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

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