Current status of coastal wetlands in China: Degradation, restoration, and future management

Accepted Manuscript Current status of coastal wetlands in China: degradation, restoration, and future management Ting-ting Jiang, Jin-fen Pan, Xin-Ming Pu, Bo Wang, Jing-Jin Pan PII:

S0272-7714(15)30053-6

DOI:

10.1016/j.ecss.2015.07.046

Reference:

YECSS 4863

To appear in:

Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science

Received Date: 16 December 2014 Revised Date:

28 July 2015

Accepted Date: 31 July 2015

Please cite this article as: Jiang, T.-t., Pan, J.-f., Pu, X.-M., Wang, B., Pan, J.-J., Current status of coastal wetlands in China: degradation, restoration, and future management, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.ecss.2015.07.046. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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Current status of coastal wetlands in China: degradation,

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restoration, and future management

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Ting-ting JIANG a, Jin-fen PAN * a, Xin-Ming PU b, Bo WANG a，Jing-Jin PAN a

Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology (Ocean University of China),

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Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, P. R. China Research Center of Marine Ecology, First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic

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Administration, Qingdao 266061, P. R. China

*Corresponding author, phone: +86 532 6678 2910; fax: +86 532 6678 2058; email: [email protected]

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Abstract:

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China’s coastal wetlands have been under considerable stress and have been severely

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damaged as a result of continuing population growth, large-scale infrastructural

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developments, extensive land reclamation projects, and the ineffective control of various

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types of pollution. The restoration of coastal wetlands in China has consequently become

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urgent. In this study, we analyze the degradation status of coastal wetlands, also review

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progress made towards their restoration. We further discuss the weaknesses of policy and

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institutional frameworks in tackling environmental problems in coastal wetlands. These

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perspectives on comprehensive and integrated policy requirements for wetland restoration,

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management, and future development will help ensure better management of coastal

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wetlands.

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Keywords: Wetlands; Degradation; Anthropogenic factors; Restoration; Coastal zone

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management; China

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1. Introduction Wetland ecosystems sustain a rich ecology that produces significant economic

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benefits and plays an important role in controlling water resources. These environments

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also harbor a large quantity of species, which are important for maintaining ecological

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balance and biodiversity. Being known for their habitat functions that significantly

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benefit wildlife, wetlands not only provide food, water, and shelter for fish, shellfish,

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birds, and mammals, and serve as a breeding ground and nursery for numerous species

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(Fretwell et al., 1996), but also act as halfway houses on migratory routes for migratory

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birds (Davis, 1994). Moreover, wetlands provide functions of storm buffering and

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sediment stabilization, which can help in climate regulation and erosion reduction

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(Engelhardt and Ritchie, 2001; Woodward and Wui, 2001; Engelhardt and Ritchie, 2002).

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Coastal wetlands are an important type of wetland, comprising the transitional zone

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between the sea and land that closely links marine with terrestrial ecosystems. For

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purposes of this paper, coastal wetlands are defined as the area including coastal

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lowlands, tidelands, and shallow waters (less than a water depth of 6m during low tide)

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that is usually submerged by an immobile or flowing water body under sea-land

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alternation processes (Han et al., 2006).

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Coastal wetlands in China are mainly distributed in coastal areas within nine

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provinces (Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan

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and Taiwan), one municipality (Tianjin) and one autonomous region (Guangxi) (Fig. 1).

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Based on the specific regional characters of different areas, there are 12 types of coastal

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wetlands in China (Table 1). They cover an area of 5,795,900 ha, accounting for 10.85%

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of the total area of wetlands in the country (Fig. 2) (SFA, 2014). Hangzhou Bay is usually

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regarded as the boundary point for dividing southern and northern Chinese coastal

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wetlands. Southern coastal wetlands mainly include Hangzhou Bay, Quanzhou Bay, the

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Pearl River Estuary, and Shenzhen Bay coastal wetlands, where bedrock beaches

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predominate; there are also silt beaches, with tropical coral reef and mangrove

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ecosystems. Northern coastal wetlands are mainly located in Bohai Rim and in the

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Jiangsu province; the former mainly includes the regions of the Liaohe River Delta,

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Nandagang, Tianjin, the Yellow River Delta, Laizhou Bay, and Beidagang, while the

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latter incorporates the Yancheng shoal, Haizhou Bay, and Chongming Eastern Beach.

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Sandy and silt beaches dominate the northern coastal wetlands, with rocky shores only

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found in parts of the Shandong and Liaodong Peninsulas.

Coastal wetlands in China provide a significant amount of ecosystem services, including water supply, flood regulation, wastewater storage and natural purification,

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wildlife habitat, and aquatic life preservation (Chen and Zhang, 2000). In addition,

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China’s coastal wetlands are important to migratory bird conservation, providing habitats

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for more than 200 waterbird species. These species include hundreds of thousands of

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wintering waterfowl and millions of migratory shorebirds along the East Asian-

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Australasian Flyway (Ma et al., 2009), one of the eight major migratory flyways of the

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world; it extends from the Russian Far East and Alaska to Australia and New Zealand,

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with the coastal wetlands of east China serving as an important station. Annually, more

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than 50 million waterfowls travel along this route, including individuals of 28 endangered

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species. Moreover, more than 90% of individuals of white crane (Grus leucogeranus),

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red-crown crane (Grus japonensis), and swans (Cygnus cygnus and Cygnus olor) winter

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in these wetlands in China (An et al., 2007).

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China had signed the Migratory Bird Agreement with Australia in 1986. This

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bilateral migratory bird agreements, together with the first agreement enacted in 1972

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between USA and Japan and the latest agreement between China and Russia (2013),

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established an important mechanism for pursuing conservation outcomes for migratory

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birds and a formal framework for cooperation on issues of mutual interest (Galbraith et

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al. 2014). Each of these agreements has provided for the protection and conservation of

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migratory birds and their important habitats, the exchange of information, and building

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cooperative relationships internationally. Moreover, China became a contracting party to

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the Ramsar Convention in 1992. To date, there are 46 Chinese wetland nature reserves

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documented in the “List of Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance”; of these, 15

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fall under different authorities (Table 2) (Ramsar, 2014).

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China has become the world’s second-largest economy (Barboza, 2010), and GDP

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from coastal regions accounts for ~60% of China's total (He et al., 2014). Coastal areas

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have, however, paid a high environmental price, especially with tremendous demand for

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land resources leading to a sharp decline in coastal wetland areas (Xue et al., 2004; Li et

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al., 2010; Wang and Meng, 2011). Furthermore, wetland ecosystems have been severely

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damaged and degraded through disproportionate consumption of wetland ecological

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resources (Han et al., 2006). This has in turn led to serious declines in biodiversity and

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bio-resources, to an increase in the number of endangered species, and to the collapse of a

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number of major populations (Liu, 2011). In addition to the overexploitation of living

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resources, a major threat to biodiversity is environmental deterioration, particularly in the

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brackish waters of estuarine environments. These are characterized by high productivity

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and represent spawning and nursery areas for several economically important species

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(Liu, 2013). Coastal wetlands in China contain a rich and diverse marine flora and fauna,

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including a wide variety of aquatic animals and amphibians, of which many have lost

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habitat due to heavy pollution and anthropogenic coastal constructions; these species

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include the endangered Chinese white dolphin (Sousa chinensis) (Guo et al., 2011; Guan

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et al., 2014). In summary, wetland degradation has caused many adverse effects.

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A variety of research has been conducted relating to wetland restoration, with this including research on wetland restoration techniques and methods. Meanwhile, the

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Chinese government has also established departments with this remit, and has

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implemented a series of policies and measures to protect and manage wetlands.

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Notwithstanding, there are still issues that need to be resolved, and coastal wetland

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restoration has a long way to go.

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Given this background, the objective of this study is to review the status of coastal wetlands in China, in terms of their degradation (i.e., the various stresses they are

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subjected to), progress achieved in their restoration, the various legal and policy

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approaches adopted in China for their conservation and management, the weaknesses of

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policy and institutional measures, and perspectives for setting up comprehensive and

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integrated policies.

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2. Degradation of coastal wetlands in China Coastal wetland regions are under serious threat and have been suffering from

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severe degradation. This degradation has been more severe in areas of intense

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development. Over the last decade, the natural wetland area has declined by nearly 40%

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in Shandong province, which has a large population and intense development (Fig. 3) (Li,

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2014). Though the reasons for wetland degradation include climate change, sea level rise,

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biological invasions, marine disasters, and other natural factors such as hurricanes

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(Morton and Barras, 2011), the most important drivers of degradation are human

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activities, including wetland reclamation, construction, overexploitation of biological

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resources, and environmental pollution, especially in Chinese coastal regions

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experiencing continuing population growth, large-scale infrastructural developments, and

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extensive land reclamation activities, and suffering from ineffective control of various

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types of pollution (Pan and Wang, 2012). All these causes have led to the progressive

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degeneration of wetlands (Fig. 4).

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2.1 Reclamation and infrastructural constructions

A significant consequence of economic expansion in coastal areas is extensive land

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reclamation. Coastal reclamation has occurred rapidly in China since the 1950s, with over

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30% of tidal land reclaimed by the 1990s (Bi et al., 2012). A new cycle of coastal

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reclamation subsequently occurred, in order to meet the needs of rapid urban expansion

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in various cities. In 2010, the authorized area of reclaimed land was 13,598.74 ha,

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accounting for 7.03% of the nation’s sea-use area that year (SOA, 2011d). The reclaimed

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land in 2013 has increased by 20% from 11000.71 ha in 2008 (Fig. 5).

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With the continued economic development of coastal regions, the demand for land

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has become more and more urgent and wetland reclamation has become a common

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phenomenon, especially in coastal areas. In the coastal city of Xiamen, around 5800

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hectares of wetland have been reclaimed since the 1950s, by diking, filling in of low-

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lying coastal regions, or building of dams (Xue et al., 2004). The new coastal district of 7

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Tianjin is typical of areas with rapid urban sprawl and large-scale reclamation. Wang and

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Meng (2011) analyzed the ecological influence of marine reclamation at two scales (the

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macroscopic scale of landscape change and spatial-temporal evolution, and the

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microcosmic scale of eco-environmental change in the inshore area) within the district; in

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making comparisons between 1979 and 2010, they found that the added area of

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reclamation was 312.78 km2, with shoreline length increasing from 126.74 km to 262.91

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km, and with the proportion of manmade shoreline length increasing from 7.75% to

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73.95%. Moreover, an increase in aquaculture and residential regions may have been

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responsible for changes in land use patterns, which subsequently increased the heavy

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metal content in mangrove wetland soils (Xin et al., 2014).

By 2013, the wetland area occupied by infrastructural constructions had reached

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1,292,800 ha, an increase of more than 10 times compared with ten years prior (SFA,

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2014). Reclamation and infrastructure projects have met the needs of population growth

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and have brought substantial economic benefits; however, they have also caused

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devastating environmental damage. To date, the adverse effects of reclamation and

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infrastructure activities in coastal areas still persist.

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2.2 Excessive exploitation of biological resources Coastal wetlands are rich in biological resources. This is particularly significant

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given the serious consequences induced by extensive overfishing in China, with the

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biomass of most fish decreasing greatly due to high fishing intensities, especially in the

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case of highly valued species (Jin and Tang, 1996; Jin, 2004). Some species, such as the

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Chinese sturgeon and lancelet, have even become endangered (Birstein et al., 1997; Xie 8

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and Wang, 2007). Moreover, overfishing could alter ecosystem structure, functioning, and

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properties. Chen et al. (2011) developed a model to compare survey data from the Beibu

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Gulf and found that, under the pressure of increasing fishing activities, the trophic

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structure changed drastically between the 1960s and 1990s. As a result of such changes in

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structure and function, the ecosystem is rendered more fragile and vulnerable to different

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threats (such as the phenomenon of harmful algal blooms) that exert a significant

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influence on coastal fauna and flora (Landsberg, 2002). Biological invasions are another

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threat which caused significant economic losses, as well as posed great ecological risk

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(Xu et al., 2006; Axmacher and Sang, 2013). There are 515 alien invasive plants in

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China, representing 285 genera from 72 families. Among them, 108 species are in coastal

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areas (Ma, 2014).

Mangroves and coral reefs are precious natural landscapes and ecological resources

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within the coastal wetlands of southeast China. They have high economic value and can

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buffer waves and reinforce dams, thus playing a role in protecting the coastline (Lin,

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1999). The area of mangrove wetlands has declined from 55 × 103 ha in the 1950s to less

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than 15 × 103 ha in 2000; this means that 73% of mangrove areas were lost due to

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exploitative activities over the last fifty years (Zhang and Sui, 2000; Zhou et al., 2003),

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with this reduction mainly occurring in areas of rapid economic expansion, such as

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Guangdong and Fujian provinces. The total mangrove wetland area of three provinces

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(Hainan, Guangdong and Guangxi) was reduced from 41281 ha in 1950s to 14303 ha in

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1990s. Although some measures were adopted to restore the mangrove forests, the total

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mangrove area in 2002 (21716 ha) witnessed some increased compared with 1997, but

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was only half of the area of the 1950s (Han et al., 2006). Coral reef areas have declined

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by 80%, mainly due to destructive anthropogenic activities, such as the excavation of reef

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rock for building materials and the collection of coral skeletons for sale (Zhang, 2001).

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2.3 Pollution

Pollution is a major challenge to the sustainable development of coastal wetlands in China, with the country facing serious pollution issues (SOA, 2013d). Environmental

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pollution in coastal water bodies has been devastating over the last several decades,

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creating problems such as chronic hypoxia, eutrophication, harmful algal blooms, toxicity

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in benthic fauna, reductions in species abundance, and stressed fisheries resources. In

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recent years, it has been common for contamination levels at the riverine-marine interface

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to exceed the “Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standard (GB8978-1996)” or the

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“Discharge Standard of Pollutants for Municipal Wastewater Treatment plant (GB18918-

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2002)” (Fig. 6) (SOA, 2011a, b, c; 2012a, b, c, d; 2013a, b, c; 2014a, b).

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As a result of the rapid growth of urban population, China has recorded a dramatic increase in crop consumption since the 1960s, in turn stimulating and accelerating the

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conversion of traditional land uses to farms and mariculture bases. Diffuse agricultural

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sources are, for this reason, becoming a significant contributor to coastal wetland

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pollution. The excessive use of commercial inorganic fertilizer for increasing crop yields

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and meeting the demands of a growing population in China has resulted in increased

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nutrient additions and subsequent losses from adjacent coastal catchments. In some

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regions of productive agriculture, nutrient content in coastal water bodies has increased

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more than ten-fold during last two decades, with over 50% of nutrients resulting from

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diffuse agricultural activities (Cao et al., 2003). Research by Shen et al. (2003) showed

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that diffuse agricultural sources in the Changjiang River catchment were the major source

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of riverine nitrogen fluxes. Some coastal water areas in the Jiulong River region have,

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since the mid-1980s, been negatively affected by eutrophication and excessive growth of

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benthic algae, with 60.9% of total nitrogen resulting directly from the contribution of

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agricultural activities (Cao et al., 2005). Zhang (1996) considered the significant increase

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in riverine nitrogen fluxes of Changjiang River estuary to be the result of an increase in

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chemical fertilizer uses within the river catchment, and Li et al. (2007a) agreed with this

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view.

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In China, coastal cities located along the coastline, including Dalian, Tianjin,

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Qingdao, Shanghai, and Guangzhou, are usually densely populated with the mean

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population of 8.29 million (NBS, 2010). The markedly fast population explosion in China

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can be noted in the top three most densely populated coastal cities (13.08-24.25 million in

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2014), i.e., Shanghai (24.25 million), Tianjin (15.17 million), and Guangzhou (13.08

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million) (NBS, 2004-2014) (Fig. 7). Although population growth and urbanization are

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rapid, sewage treatment is limited. This creates a significant gap between the increase in

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domestic waste and the availability of waste disposal facilities, with consequent water

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degradation and eutrophication in receiving water bodies (Cao and Wong, 2007).

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Domestic waste contributes organics, which increase biological oxygen demand (BOD),

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soluble nitrogen, and phosphorus, among others.

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Industrial activity tends to be concentrated in highly industrialized cities, with dense

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concentrations of these in China's coastal zone (Cao and Wong, 2007). Pan and Wang

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(2012) suggested that metal contamination in the coastal environment is closely

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associated with accelerated economic growth over past decades. High metal content can

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be detected in sediments collected from across coasts in China. Wastewater and solid

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wastes from various sources significantly pollute coastal regions, either through direct

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discharge into the sea or via transport through river systems to coastal seas. Annually

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around 9.6 × 109 t of sewage is discharged directly into coastal areas. Since the early

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1990s, pollutants have increased by around 1.1 × 109 t each year and more than 90% of

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these are carried by rivers (Xu and Zhang, 2007). Data for major Chinese rivers indicate

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high fluxes of riverine pollutants (Table 3), with inter-annual variability in volumes of

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pollutants carried by some rivers into the sea. In Dagu River, for example, levels of

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various pollutants in 2013 were many times greater than those recorded in other years,

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with this possibly related to annual runoff. One cause of greater runoff may be higher

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amounts of precipitation; for example, in the Qingdao region where the Dagu River

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flows, summer precipitation in 2013 was 67.4% higher than during the corresponding

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period in 2012 (Cui, 2013).

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Sources of pollution affecting the Yellow River delta wetland include petrol,

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industrial wastes, agricultural non-point pollution, and household garbage. With rapid

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economic development, greater quantities of industrial wastewater and domestic sewage

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are being discharged into water bodies. In 2009, Liu et al. (2011) sampled water from 14

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locations within the Yellow River estuary wetland, detecting various pollutants, including

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nutritive salt, heavy metals, and petrol.

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Li et al. (2007b) investigated heavy metal (Zn, Ni, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Cd)

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concentrations in coastal wetland sediments of the Pearl River Estuary. Results showed

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that sediments were significantly contaminated by Cd, Zn, and Ni, with concentration

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ranges of 2.79–4.65 mg/kg, 239.4–345.7 mg/kg, and 24.8–122.1 mg/kg, respectively. Cd

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and Zn pose the most significant potential risk, and sediment quality is no longer meeting

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the requirements of current wetland utilization strategies.

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Coastal wetlands in China are therefore seriously threatened by a number of factors, including diffuse agricultural activities, urbanization, industrialization, and population

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growth. In order to make progress towards the restoration, future management, and

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maintenance of coastal wetlands, these factors must be better controlled.

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3. Restoration of coastal wetlands in China

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China has stepped up efforts to restore coastal wetlands, with varying degrees of

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progress in different regions, most notably after the country became a contracting party to

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the Ramsar Convention in 1992. In the main, phyto-remediation techniques have been

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used for wetland remediation in the country (Wang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2013), with

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these focusing on the propagation of plants which can sprout and grow adaptively to

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coastal surroundings, while restraining biological invasions.

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3.1 Restoration practice in China

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Mangroves are typical in southern wetlands along the coastlines of tropical and

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subtropical regions in China. They have special adaptations to stressful environments and

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high demand for nutrients because of their rapid growth, high productivity, fast

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metabolism, and rapid turnover. Mangrove forests could help stabilize ecosystems by

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reducing erosion from storm surges, currents, waves, and tides. The intricate root system

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of mangroves also provides fish and other organisms with substantial food richness and

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with shelter from predators (Lin, 1999). Currently, a relatively complete system of

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mangrove restoration technologies has been established and is widely used in southern

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coastal areas (Zhang and Sui, 2000), with both local and foreign species used for

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afforestation (Liao et al., 2004a). In 1957, the coastal city of Wenzhou took the lead in systematic mangrove

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introduction for wetland restoration, with Kandelia candel successfully introduced into

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areas with no mangrove cover (Lin, 1999). In the 1990s, mangrove wetland construction

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and restoration entered a new stage. Sonneratia apetala, Sonneratia caseolaris, and

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Bruguiera sexangula were successfully introduced into Shenzhen and Lianjiang.

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Bruguiera gymnorrhiza was introduced from Sanya, Hainan to Shenzhen Bay (Liao et al.,

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2002). Furthermore, species from Qiongshan, Hainan were found to also grow well in

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Shenzhen Bay (Liao et al., 2004b).

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In 2002, local governments initiated a series of transplantation efforts in order to restore mangrove ecosystems in Quanzhou Bay. Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco and

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Kandelia candel Druce were planted at different tidal depths in mangrove wetlands, with

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results indicating that shallow and medium-depth beds provide preferable growing

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environments, and pointing to an optimal density of 0.5 m × 1.0 m. The transplantations

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were successful, covering a total area of 300 ha between 2002 and 2006. By 2008,

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average tree height had reached 1.0 m, with crab population density increasing by nearly

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five times compared to that recorded in 2002 (Chen et al., 2012).

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Since the 1980s, many other mangrove restoration programs and practices have also

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been launched in other coastal areas in China. Fig. 8 shows the result of an investigation

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of mangrove resources in China conducted in 2002 (SFA, 2003). Mangrove restoration

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was ongoing in five provinces, the main mangrove distribution regions (Zhejiang, Fujian,

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Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan). The mangrove area in China has consequently

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increased from 14,877 ha in 1997 to 23,081.5 ha in 2008 (Chen et al., 2009).

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Besides mangroves, other plants had also been selected during the plant schedules for restoration work. Suaeda sp., which is regarded as a pioneer plant, spreads from land to

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coast and could restore wetlands by adsorbing excess nutrients and pollutants, thus

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ameliorating the physico-chemical environment. Suaeda heteroptera is widely distributed

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in the wetlands of Shuangtaizi Estuary in Liaoning province, and could significantly

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accumulate Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd from the ambient environment (Zhu et al., 2005). This

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community has also been shown to effectively reduce nutrient content in wetland waters

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(Liu et al., 1999). Suaeda salsa has been successfully used in restoring an oil-polluted

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estuarine wetland in Tianjin, with this species now covering >60% of the wetland area.

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Spartina angilica and Spartina alterniflora, which were intentionally introduced into

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China in 1963 and 1982, respectively, are now frequently used in wetland restoration

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(Wang and Zhu, 2006) with their unique characteristics (Zhong, 1985).

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As an initial restoration and reforestation effort for the lost or damaged coastal wetland habitats, these introduced alien species, such as Sonneratia apetala and Spartina

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alterniflora, exhibited invasive characteristics of overgrowth and high spreading ability

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that evidently affects local ecosystem structure and function in the coastal areas in China

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(Ren et al. 2009; Li et al., 2009). While these alien plants have clearly offered some

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benefits at some coastal wetlands where the vegetation had been damaged, it appeared

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harmful to other native species, posing a major practical problem to both ecologists and

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land managers. It had been reported that many native species, including plants,

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endangered birds and human-food molluscs are threatened by Spartina sp. invasions (Ma

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et al., 2003; Li et al., 2009). Thus for the restoration of coastal wetlands it is quite

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important to select proper species to introduce, intensively observe its development after

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introduction, and effectively control the species invasion.

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In recent years, there has been significant progress in the restoration and

reconstruction of northern coastal wetlands in China. In 2002, the government spent one

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hundred million yuan on the restoration of the Yellow River Delta wetland. During the

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project, water from the Yellow River was diverted into the wetland to improve surface

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runoff circulation and irrigation conditions and the ecological environment. After 2002,

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due to scientific management strategies of the Yellow River, runoff from the river stopped

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decreasing and increased to 18.0 and 19.0 billion m3 in 2003 and 2004, respectively. In

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the following years, river runoff stabilized at 20.0 billion m3, making it possible to

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provide sufficient water for downstream wetland restoration. Freshwater from the Yellow

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River has been directed to the downstream wetlands and is providing continuous surface

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flow. As a result, soil salinity in the whole area has been significantly altered. Meanwhile,

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irrigation conditions in the wetland improved, enabling rapid vegetation colonization. Cui

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et al. (2009) monitored water quality, soil salinity, soil organic matter content, and the

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condition of vegetation and birds in the wetland between 2001 and 2007, and showed that

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after restoration, water quality improved, with reduced nitrogen and total phosphorus

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content. The removal rates of total nitrogen and total phosphorus were both

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approximately 40%, with respective maxima of 76% and 62%. The quality of soil also

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improved, with reduced salinity and increased organic matter accumulation. Over the

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analysis period, salinity decreased by 70% and 45% in the upper (0−20 cm) and middle

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(20−40 cm) soil layers respectively, while organic matter content increased by 38% and

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47% at these same depths, reaching 17 g/kg and 9.9 g/kg in 2007. This accelerated

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vegetation growth eventually provides a better habitat for birds (with a total of 37 bird

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species recorded in October 2007, compared to only 10 in 2001).

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Wang et al. (2012) compared ecological characteristics (plant composition structure, species diversity, and community similarity in three kinds of Phragmites australis

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wetlands) of wetland vegetation in a series of restoration projects carried out in the

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wetlands of the Yellow River Delta. They found that P. australis was the dominant

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species throughout the restoration process and the species richness of restored wetlands

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more closely approximated that of natural reed wetlands with increasing restoration time,

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with plant communities also becoming more and more similar to the natural community.

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Results indicate that the vegetation of P. australis wetlands improved greatly after several

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years of restoration, and that it is feasible to restore these degraded P. australis wetlands

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by diverting fresh water into the wetlands of the Yellow River Delta. From 2007 to 2010,

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1200 ha of wetlands were restored in the Yellow River Delta Wetland Reserve. With the

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water cover area increasing from 0.53% to 11.82%, species of wild higher plants

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increased from 14 to 47, and bird species from 20 to 64 (Tang et al., 2013).

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4. Protection and management Given the severe situation of coastal wetlands in China, effective protective actions

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and appropriate management practices are urgently needed. Over the last decades, the

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government has made significant efforts to develop a more efficient and coordinated

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scheme for coastal areas. Although tremendous progress has been made, this is still far

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from adequate.

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Development of a protection and management scheme is fairy complex due to the high spatial heterogeneity of coastal areas. There are about twenty related ministries and

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agencies, with the main ones including the State Oceanic Administration, the Ministry of

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Environmental Protection, the State Forestry Administration, the Ministry of Agriculture,

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and the Ministry of Transport. These are variously responsible for construction,

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environmental protection, flood control, transport, and natural resources management in

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coastal areas (Table 4).

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Many projects of the State Oceanic Administration (SOA) have been implemented,

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aimed at protecting the coastal environment through improvement of water quality. One

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such initiative was the national “Clean Bohai Sea Program”, the first regional ocean

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governance program in China (Peng et al., 2009). The concept of marine functional

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zonation has been promulgated at national level from October 2002 to protect and

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improve the coastal environment, with marine functional zones determined depending

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upon zonation, natural resources, and environmental conditions. The Provincial Ocean

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Administrations have also formulated strategic marine function zonation schemes across

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their jurisdictions, as systems supplementary to the national scheme.

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The Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) has adopted the “polluters-pay”

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policy for pollution control and coastal environmental protection (Lo and Tang, 1994). A

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pollution monitoring system has been established, improved, and strengthened by

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satellites, ships, and offshore monitoring stations (Zhang et al., 2006).

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The State Forestry Administration (SFA) has conducted two nationwide surveys of

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wetland resources in China (SFA, 2003, 2014). The first large-scale multidisciplinary

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investigation was conducted between 1995 and 2003, on the resources of wetlands with

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an area >100 ha in 31 provinces (with the exceptions of Hong Kong, Macao, and

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Taiwan). Between 2009 and 2013, a second national study was conducted on wetlands

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with a single block area >8 ha, including the three areas omitted from the first survey.

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These actions and practices illustrate the great efforts being made, and the progress

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achieved with regard to coastal management in China.

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A preliminary legal system has been promulgated for comprehensive coastal wetland protection. Laws regulating water, environmental protection, and marine environmental

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protection have been issued during the last decade, with all of these playing an important

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role in coastal wetland protection. The “Regulations on the Prevention of Environmental

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Pollution by Marine Construction Projects” came into effect on November 1, 2006. It

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covers the legal monitoring and management of marine construction projects and their

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impacts; these may include the building of artificial islands, bridges, and pipelines in

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coastal areas. The “Wetland Conservation and Management Regulations” were

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implemented in May 2013. The “Regulations of the People's Republic of China on

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Wetland Conservation (draft)” are expected to be issued soon. In February of 2007, China

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also formally established the People’s Republic of China International Wetland

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Convention Compliance Office in order to improve its legislation and governance.

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Nature reserves have been established to protect existing coastal wetland resources

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and to promote the restoration of degraded wetlands. The first national nature reserve was

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established in the 1970s. To date, 577 wetland nature reserves and 468 wetland parks

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have been designated.

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Despite all the government legislation, policies and programs, coastal wetlands will not be protected if the regulations are not enforced. One important issue is the extent to

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which these very laudable regulations are actually applied. For example, though the

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regulations on the prevention of environmental pollution, one of the key factors causing

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the damage and deterioration of the wetlands, were promulgated, the pollution control

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measures were somewhat overlooked due to the top priority of economic growth. China

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is known as the world's factory and many industries locate around coastal regions.

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Serious pollution is exacerbated by potent combination of industrialization, urban

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development and by foreign companies operating with little regard for the impact on the

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local environment (Wang et al., 2013). As a result, wastewater containing various

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pollutants eventually continue enters into the coasts and sea (Tang et al., 2008; Wang et

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al., 2013). Thus, supervisory power should be clearly defined in order to realize execution

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of the laws and regulations by the relative departments. Strict law enforcement is

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indispensable for the sustainable development of coastal wetlands, providing the legal

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support for coastal wetland protection.

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5. Proposals and perspectives

During past decades, the most severe problem in wetland management in China has

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been inadequate attention being given to sustainability issues, in addition to the lack of a

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clear nationwide governance framework for coastal wetland planning and management.

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Even if some regional schemes have been proposed (Shi et al., 2001), the coastal zone

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management framework in China remains largely sectoral in nature. Overlapping

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jurisdiction is a very common phenomenon in the country, making it difficult to tackle

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environmental problems in a comprehensive and integrated manner. For example, the

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state MEP has the leading role in overall marine environmental management, while

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marine environmental research, surveys, monitoring, surveillance, as well as the

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designation of marine protected areas, are under the mandate of the SOA. This creates

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overlapping jurisdictions between related government agencies. Agencies should

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therefore strengthen solidarity and closely cooperate and coordinate with each other with

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respect to common affairs. On March 2, 2010, MEP and SOA signed the “Framework

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Agreement on Setting up the Cooperation Working Mechanism on Improving Ocean

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Environment Protection Communication” in Beijing. The signing of this “United Front of

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Ocean Environmental Protection” agreement marked the formation of the new situation

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for the protection of ocean environment with the coordination between land and ocean.

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The two parties will strengthen communication and cooperation in nine aspects, including

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strengthening the coordination in division of marine functional zonation, sustaining the

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control of nitrogen, phosphorous, oil and heavy metals in key sea areas, reinforcing the

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interaction between the supervision and administration over ocean environment

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protecting, bolstering ocean eco-protection, and expanding sharing in ocean environment

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protection data and technology.

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The poor quality of the pollution monitoring network, with scattered stations and

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long monitoring time cycles, has resulted in data of weak representativeness and inferior

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quality, leading to insufficient protection of many coastal natural reserves. Even worse,

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coastal ecosystem degradation and environmental deterioration have, to some extent,

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worsened recently. Comprehensive coastal management is therefore urgently required to

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improve the current system and to ameliorate the coastal environment and protect coastal

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wetlands. In the past, some scholars had put forward proposals for coastal wetland

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restoration and protection through three aspects: management by government, scientific

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research, and public consciousness (Han et al., 2006; Cao and Wong, 2007). A long-term national coastal wetland protection and management framework should

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therefore be designed to ensure the sustainability of coastal wetlands. This would provide

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an overall guiding template for the development and implementation of coastal projects,

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also including appropriate utilization of land, moderate exploitation of biological

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resources, and effective control of pollution. Each administrative body must have a clear

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work remit; additional requirements include (1) building a system for the examination

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and approval of coastal wetland reclamation, (2) improving policies for reducing

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pollutant emissions, (3) improving the legal system for wetland management and

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protection, and establishing laws and regulations to limit and penalize polluting actions,

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(4) strengthening the designation and management of coastal wetland nature reserves, (5)

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creating an integrated management system and coordinating mechanism for coastal

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wetlands, and (6) establishing a coastal wetland compensation system. The above would

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produce a better-coordinated relationship between coastal economic development, land

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use, infrastructural constructions, fish/salt industries, and environmental protection.

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In addition, as coastal wetland science is an integrated discipline, restoration and

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management should be conducted taking into account various factors. Comprehensive

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and systematic scientific research provides a scientific basis for the sustainable

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development of coastal wetlands. At present, there are still significant data gaps. For

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example, there are still no data on the real extent and area of loss of various types of

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coastal wetlands in different regions. Existing data are not elaborate and accurate enough.

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There are also data consistency issues. Fundamental databases should be established

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accurately using 3S technology (remote sensing (RS), geographic information systems

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(GIS), and global position systems (GPS)). Developments in restoration and monitoring

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technology are required to ensure long-term sustainability.

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Finally, protection and management of coastal wetlands is a long-term strategic task, but it is not adequate to rely solely on the power of government. Close cooperation and

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joint efforts between the government and the public are necessary. Publicity and

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education can serve to improve knowledge of coastal wetlands and to foster

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consciousness of the need for their protection. It is worthwhile for government to

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consider further measures to step up necessary programs for public involvement, enabling

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wetland management and protection to receive support from the public and from

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organizations at all levels.

Wetlands are seriously threatened by anthropogenic factors, including population

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pressure, rapid urbanization, mining, industrial waste pollution, dam construction, and

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transportation. Coastal wetland restoration and management has therefore become

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particularly important. Moreover, it is equally important to protect wetlands that are

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currently still functioning well. Additional wetlands will help, but can never make up for

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the ones that have been destroyed. It is highly desirable to promote the practice of

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Environmental Impact Assessment, before the siting of any major industrial projects.

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We also need to attach great importance to natural factors causing deterioration of

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coastal wetlands. It is reported that global warming induced rising sea level and this

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threatened coastal wetlands (Morris et al., 2002; Cahoon et al., 2006). At present, the

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main contributor to global warming may be emission of greenhouse gases (typically

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CO2), as widely recognized worldwide (Mitchell et al., 1995). Significant greenhouse

2

gases are generated through human activity, so, in this sense, the natural factors causing

3

the deterioration of coastal wetlands can nevertheless also be attributed to human factors.

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The government needs to take measures to control greenhouse gas emissions by changing

5

car fuels and controlling automobile exhaust, developing new forms of energy to replace

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fossil fuels, prohibiting the use of chlorofluorocarbons, etc. All these measures can help

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to protect not only the coastal wetlands, but also the whole wetland system and even the

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global ecosystems.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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We thank the editor and the anonymous reviews whose helpful comments have

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greatly improved the quality of this paper. This study was supported by the National

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Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41276024), Major International Joint

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Research Project of Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41320104008), and

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the National Research Project of Marine Public Welfare (Grant No. 201205009-3,

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20130543-4).

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Accumulation and tolerance of Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd in plant Suaeda heteroptera Kitag in

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tideland. Marine Environmental Science 24, 13-16.

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Feature Less than 6 m deep at low tide; vegetation coverage < 30%; including sea bays and straits Underwater vegetation; vegetation coverage ≥ 30%; including kelp beds and sea grass beds, and tropical marine meadows Abundant in coral reefs; including coral island and coral beach More than 75% of the bottom are rock; vegetation coverage <30%; including rocky inlands and rocky cliffs Vegetation coverage < 30%; the bottom are sand and/or shingle Vegetation coverage < 30%; the bottom are mud or sand Vegetation coverage ≥ 30%; saltwater marshes Abundant in Mangroves; intertidal marshes Brackish or saline lagoons in coastal zone Freshwater lagoons in coastal zone Semi-enclosed body of water connected to the sea as far as the tidal limit or the salt intrusion limit and receiving freshwater runoff Formed from deposition of sediment carried by a river; vegetation coverage < 30%

Coral Reefs Rocky marine shores

5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Intertidal sand/shingle/pebble beaches Intertidal mud/sand flats Intertidal marshes Mangroves Coastal brackish/saline lagoons Coastal freshwater lagoons Permanent estuarine waters

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Estuarine systems of deltas

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3 4

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Types Permanent shallow marine waters Marine subtidal aquatic beds

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TABLE 1. Types of coastal wetlands in China.

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Notes: State Forestry Administration b Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department c Ministry of Agriculture a

1992 1992 2002 2002 2002 2002 2002 2002 2002 2005 2008 2008 2008 2008 2013

Hainan Hong Kong Liaoning Jiangsu Jiangsu Shanghai Guangdong Guangdong Guangdong Liaoning Shanghai Guangxi Fujian Guangdong Shandong

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Dongzhaigang National Nature Reserve Mai Po Nature Reserve Dalian Harbor Seal Nature Reserve Dafeng Pere David Deer National Nature Reserve Yancheng Rare Birds National Nature Reserve Chongming Dongtan Nature Reserve Huidong Turtles National Nature Reserve Zhanjiang Mangrove National Nature Reserve Shankou Mangrove National Nature Reserve Shuangtaihekou National Nature Reserve Changjiangkou Chinese sturgeon Nature Reserve Beilunhekou National Nature Reserve Zhangjiangkou Mangrove National Nature Reserve Haifeng Gongpingdahu Provincial nature reserve Yellow River Delta Wetland National Nature Reserve

Location

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Nature Reserve

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No.

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TABLE 2. Coastal wetlands in China listed in Ramsar Convention. Area/ha 5,400 1,513 11,700 78,000 453,000 32,600 400 20,279 4,000 128,000 27,600 3,000 2,360 11,591 153,000

Administrative Departments SFAa AFCDb MAc SFA MEPd SFA SFA SFA SOAe SFA SFA SFA SFA SFA SFA

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d

Ministry of Environmental Protection State Oceanic Administration

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e

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TABLE 3. Major pollutants from riverine exports in 2012 and 2013 (unit: ton/year) (SOA, 2012; SOA, 2013; SOA, 2014). Nitrate

Total Phosphorus

Nitrite

153 710 14 341 32 265 17 573 2 243 154.00 73

1 504 277 26 160 426 475 20 270 11 193 134 33

9 234 1 720 30 973 1 280 1 426 172 6

6 264 780 1 170 931 536 180 348 635 95 811 83 524 12 753

132 366 10 337 15 069 4 895 9 096 695 259

1 549 677 26 685 318 886 7 161 18 380 960 177

7 332 015 1 233 162 1 162 800 156 197 11 819 47 184 527

140 359 13 272 22 766 7 833 1 639 72 8

Heavy Metal

Arsenic

56 331 954.00 9 783 8 692 186 47 8

36 245 1 834 3 726 1 110 31 16 3

2 516 40.00 725 56 13 2.50 0.20

8 938 1 288 25 652 2 829 2 626 248 13

171 288 6 423 20 149 650.00 1 989 133 48

11 471 571 11 288 4 911 144 122 63

15 455 1 315 2 888 704 221 22 19

1 975 130 452 40 15 3 2

11 021 1 611 24 266 2 207 689 146 1

158 040 4 883 24 847 1 704 471 137 6

21 393 1 074 12 240 978 20 87 1

10 208 840 4 781 386 13 21 0.5

2 187 63 581 58 3 4 0.05

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Oil

150 734 6 044 152 205 3 070 763 115 12

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7 769 810 813 944 464 585 439 794 89 755 55 000 2 667

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Total Ammonia Nitrogen

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Year 2012 Changjiang River Minjiang River Pearl River Yellow River Daliao River Shuangtaizi River Dagu River Year 2013 Changjiang River Minjiang River Pearl River Yellow River Daliao River Shuangtaizi River Dagu River Year 2014 Changjiang River Minjiang River Pearl River Yellow River Daliao River Shuangtaizi River Dagu River

COD

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River

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Administration/ministries State Oceanic Administration (SOA)

Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP)

3

State Forestry Administration (SFA)

4

State Fishery Administration

5

Ministry of Agriculture

6

Ministry of Transport

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Functions Overall management of ocean and coastal affairs, including supervision, management, and evaluation of the marine environment, organization of environment surveys/scientific research, development of ocean/coastal policy, and prevention/control of marine pollution. Overall guidance, coordination, and supervision of the country’s marine environment protection, and specifically takes responsibility for enforcing laws related to the prevention of marine pollution from land-based sources and coastal construction projects. National forestry affairs, such as the development of national policies, laws, and regulations for environmental protection, supervision of natural resource development and utilization activities that impact the ecological environment, and guidance and coordination of major environmental problems. Supervision and management of pollution from fishing vessels outside harbors, and the protection of ecosystems in fishing areas. Regulation, promotion, agricultural research, price support and agricultural subsidies, plant diseases, and invasive species. Overseeing, investigating, and dealing with vessel-source pollution, and for keeping waters under surveillance in port areas.

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TABLE 4. Authorities responsible for coastal wetland protecting.

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Liaoning 4

Hebei

Tianjin

8 9

CHINA

10

6 7

Cities Distribution Areas

Dandong

5

1 2 13

11

Dalian

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40

Yingkou

3

Qinhuangdao

Weihai

14

12

15

16

Shandong Qingdao

35

17

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Lianyungang

18

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Jiangsu

Shanghai

19

20

Hangzhou 21 Ningbo 22

30

Zhejiang 23

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Wenzhou

24 25 27 Fuzhou 28 60 30 29 Taipei Xiamen 61 Guangxi 31 64 Shenzhen 33 Guangdong 32 34 Taiwan 40 37 63 39 Shantou Zhuhai 36 35 38 46 Gaoxiong Zhanjiang41 62 Hongkong 45 Macau 49 47 42 48 43 59 44 50 Haikou 55 Hainan 51

Fujian 26

57

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25

56

20 105

52 54 53

110

115

120

58

125

130

FIGURE 1. Distribution of main coastal wetlands in China (Provinces and Autonomous Region (Guangxi) are shown in yellow).

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49. Beilun River Estuary Wetland 50. Dongzhai Harbour Wetland 51. Qinglan Harbour Wetland 52. Dazhou Island Wetland 53. Nanwan Monkey Island Wetland 54. Sanya Coastal Wetland 55. Changjiang, Lingao and Chengmai Coastal Wetlands 56. Paracel Islands Wetland 57. Macclesfield bank Wetland 58. Spratly Islands Wetland 59. Mai Po Wetland 60. Tamsui River Estuary Wetland 61. Lan Yang River Estuary Wetland 62. Kenting Wetland 63. Tainan Wetland 64. Tatu River Estuary Wetland

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25. Sanmen Harbour Wetland 26. Ningde Donghu Wetland 27. Minjiang Estuary Wetland 28. Fuqing Bay Wetland 29. Putian Wetland 30. Quanzhou Bay Wetland 31. Jinjiang River Estuary Wetland 32. Jiulong River Estuary Wetland 33. Dongshan Bay Wetland 34. Hanjiang River Estuary Wetland 35. Lufeng Coastal Wetland 36. Haifeng Wetland 37. Huidong Wetland 38. Daya Bay Mangrove Wetland 39. Shenzhen Bay Wetland 40. Pearl River Estuary Wetland 41. Guanghai Bay Wetland 42. Zhanjiang Harbour Wetland 43. Zhanjiang Mangrove Wetland 44. Xuwen Coral reef wetland 45. Anpu Harbor Wetland 46. Tieshan Harbour Wetland 47. Qinzhou Bay Wetland 48. Fangchenggang Coastal Wetland

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Notes: 1. Yalu River Estuary Wetland 2. Dalian Bay Wetland 3. Yingkou Wetland 4. Shuangtaizi River Estuary Wetland 5. Beidaihe Estuary Wetland 6. Changli Gold Coast Wetland 7. Luanhe Estuary Wetland 8. Tianjin Coastal Wetland 9. Nandagang Wetland 10. Haixing Coastal Wetland 11. Yellow River Delta Wetland 12. Laizhou Bay Wetland 13. Miaodao IsIands Wetland 14. Rongcheng Coastal Wetland 15. Haiyang Coastal Wetland 16. Jiaozhou Bay Wetland 17. Haizhou Bay Wetland 18. Yancheng Beach Wetland 19. Chongming Eastern Beach Wetland 20. Fengxian Beach Wetland 21. Hangzhou Bay Wetland 22. Xiangshan Bay Wetland 23. Yueqing Bay Wetland 24. Nanji Islands Wetland

* Main coastal wetlands: wetlands with large size, generally more than 400 ha. Provinces (autonomous region) were marked in yellow.

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FIGURE 2. Area of different wetlands in China (104 ha) (Data from SFA, 2014).

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500000

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400000 300000 200000 100000

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Wetland area reduction (ha)

600000

-100000 Total

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Coastal wetland Riverine wetland Lake wetland

M arsh wetland

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FIGURE 3. Natural wetland area change (reduction for Coastal, riverine, and lake wetland;

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increase for marsh wetland) of Shandong province (Data from Li, 2014).

Structural damages

Biodiversity loss

Wetland component dysfunction

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Energy flows imbalance

Landscape fragmentation

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Resilience & stability reduction

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Natural threats

Ecoproductivity decrease

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Anthropic threats

Area decrease

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FIGURE 4. The process of wetland degradation.

Wetland ecosystem degradation

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15000

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10000

5000

0 2008

2009

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Authorized areas of reclaimed land (ha)

20000

2010

2011

2012

2013

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FIGURE 5. Authorized acreages of reclaimed wetland in China (Data from SOA, 2009, 2010,

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2011, 2012, 2013).

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100 Industrial Municipal Riverine Others

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60

40

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Over-standard rate (%)

80

20

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M ar .2 0 Au 11 g. 20 O 11 ct .2 0 M 11 ar .2 0 M 12 ay .2 0 Au 12 g. 20 O 12 ct .2 0 M 12 ar .2 0 M 13 ay .2 0 Au 13 g. 20 O 13 ct .2 0 M 13 ar .2 0 M 14 ay .2 01 4

0

FIGURE 6. Over-standard rate of sewage discharge for various types of sewage outlets (industrial sewage outlets, municipal construction sewage outlets, sewage discharge river and other outlets) into the sea Data from SOA, 2011a, b, c, 2012a, b, c, d, 2013a, b, c, 2014a, b).

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20 18

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Population (million)

22

Shanghai Tianjin Guangzhou

16 14

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2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 FIGURE 7. Population of three coastal cities (Shanghai, Tianjin and Guangzhou) in 11 years

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(2004-2014) (Data from NBS, 2004-2014).

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FIGURE 8. Mangrove acreages of five provinces (Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi

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and Hainan) in 2002 (Data from SFA, 2002).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Highlights 1． Wetland area in China ranks the first in Asia, and area of coastal wetlands account for 12.4% that of the total wetlands of the country.

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2． These wetlands provide numerous ecosystem goods and services, but are under devastating stress.

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3． Reasons for wetlands loss in China are urbanization, land use changes and

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pollution.

4． A proper, comprehensive regulatory framework for conservation of wetlands for all of China is urgently needed.

5． Future research should focus on policy and institutional factors influencing their

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condition.