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Density of Macaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus in the old city of Jaipur: a three year survey
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 27 ( 1990 ) 351-361
351
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., A m s t e r d a m
Density of Macaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus in the old city of Jaipur: a three year survey Reena Mathur and B. Ram Manohar Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur 302004 (India) (Accepted for publication 7 May 1990)
ABSTRACT Mathur, R. and Manohar, B.R., 1990. Density ofMacaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus in the old city of Jaipur: a three year survey. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 27:351-361.
Macaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus have been living in the old city of Jaipur for many years, their abundance in the area is eye-catching. A density estimate was carried out using a modified line transect method for 3 consecutive years from 1986 to 1988. The average of 3 years data indicate that the total density of monkeys was 430 km -2. Rhesus were predominant (372.6 km -2) with a very small fraction (58.4 km -z) contributed by langurs. The major concentration of monkeys was in Transect 6 which passed through a temple area. The revered image of monkeys is restricted to their association with temples and by and large they are treated as pests. A suggestion has been made for their capture and translocation to an ecologically favourable area without disrupting their social organization.
INTRODUCTION
Macaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus have been found in and around the city of Jaipur. The city has two distinct parts: old city and outskirts. The old city is extremely crowded, with very little vegetation, and a high density of residential houses and shops. There are also hotels, restaurants, hospitals, banks, movie halls, temples, tourist areas and offices. In contrast, the outskirts are relatively open, more vegetated and less crowded, with more residential areas and offices than markets. The distribution of two species of monkeys in the city of Jaipur is very distinct: langurs are found in the outskirts and the old city is full of rhesus (Mathur and Manohar, 1987). Monkeys have been known to carry diseases infectious to man (Kalter, 1975 ); in a city like Jaipur where monkeys live in great concentrations, precautions are a necessity. The citizens of Jaipur believe that the population of monkeys has increased to an annoying level in recent years but as no earlier data are available no conclusions can be made concerning population trends. In the present study, a density estimate of monkeys was carried out in the old city of Jaipur for 3 consecutive years, and a suggestion has been made to re0168-1591/90/$03.50
© 1990 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
352
R. MATHURAND B.R. MANOHAR
locate monkeys groupwise to a more open area. However, no behavioral observations of the monkeys were made in this study. ANIMALS, MATERIALS A N D M E T H O D S
Jaipur city (75 ° 50'E and 26 ° 50'N) lies in semi-arid zone. Climate is subtropical, with the rainy season from July to September. The hot weather extends from March to mid-June. The total area of Jaipur city is 120 km 2 with a population of 1 000 000; population density is 9166 km -2 (Administrative Atlas of Rajasthan, 1981 ). The city can be broadly divided into two parts, old city and outskirts (Fig. 1 ). Of interest in the present investigation is the old city, which encompasses an approximate area of 7.26 km 2. The density of people in the old city is very high (33 480 km-2; source: Census Department, Jaipur; R. Mathur and B.R. Manohar, personal communication). Ten roads were selected in the old city: four ran in an east-west direction and the remaining six in a north-south direction (Fig. 1 ). These roads were called transects. A modified line transect m e t h o d was used (Lehner, 1979). The selection of transects was based on the broadness of the road and on the presence of monkeys; therefore, the sample cannot be considered truly random. The transects were numbered 1-10 (Fig. 1 ). Of these 10 road transects, nine were straight roads but Transect 6 was a road with many turns (Fig. 1 ). Each transect was 1 km long (therefore, the total length covered by all transects was 10 k m ) . All transects, except Transect 6, had fixed widths calculated by taking into account the width of the road, pavements, shops and parts of houses on both sides of the road. This gave the total width. Transect 6 was of a different kind. It passed through an area which attracted tourists (Jantar Mantar, City Palace) and included the very famous Lord Krishna's temple (Govindeo). This road was not straight; therefore 1 k m for this transect was measured on the milometer of a scooter. On this particular transect, 4-5 stopovers were made and the area was walked to count the monkeys and estimate the perpendicular distance of the farthest animal from the transect; the mean value of these distances gave the final width of Transect 6. The area of each transect was calculated (Table 1 ). The surveyed area covered 7.85% of the total area. All the transects were visited 20 times at a fixed time of day (early in the morning) in January and February of 1986 (Mathur and Lobo, 1988) and 1987, and during March and April in 1988. In all the surveys a scooter was used for covering the transects and was carried out by two people; one person drove the scooter and the other counted the animals. The scooter was driven at a slow speed ( 15 k m h - i ) with frequent stopovers to count the individuals. Census was done by careful inspection of each transect. All precautions were taken not to count the same monkey twice. To prevent double counting the
~l"emple
I~Langur g r o u p
Fig. 1. Old city of Jaipur showing the layout of transects.
A l m o s t nil ~ 5 h O p S
I-rl R h e s u s g r o u p
INDEX ~BTransect J~ Very h~ghdensity~J~HighUModerale~Low ~Very low
OLD CITY OFJAIPUR ..............
~i:!!i!i
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'7
Transect no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total area Total area minus Transect 6 Total no. of individuals Total no. of individuals minus Transect 6 Density over all transects Total density Total density minus Transect 6
0.0478 0.0478 0.0478 0.0478 0.0438 0.1586 0.0408 0.0450 0.0450 0.0450 0.5694 0.4108
Area (km 2)
64.3 412.7
74.4
8.0 10.0 7.3 0.15 6.4 140.0 2.3 14.8 9.2 6.2
204.35
234.3 251.0 418.4 18.82 236.3 1012.6 19.6 137.7 157.7 151.1
235.0
11.2 12.0 20.0 0.9 10.35 160.6 0.8 6.2 7.1 6.8
358.0
167.36 209.2 152.7 3.1 146.1 882.7 56.3 328.8 204.4 137.7
Density (km -2)
5.8
40.4
0.0 1.5 0.0 2.0 0.5 34.6 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.0
Mean no.
70.9
0.0 31.38 0.0 41.8 11.4 218.1 0.0 40.0 0.0 0.0
Density (km -2)
2.15
38.6
0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.2 36.5 0.0 0.65 0.35 0.55
Mean no.
67.0
0.0 8.36 0.0 0.0 4.56 230.1 0.0 14.4 7.7 12.2
Density (kin -2)
Mean no.
Mean no.
Density (km -2)
1987
1988
1987
1988
Mean no. and density oflangurs
Mean no. and density of rhesus
Estimate of rhesus and langur densities in the old city of Jaipur ( 1987-1988 )
TABLE 1
483.6 195.2
1987
426.0 161.0
1988
Density of rhesus and langurs (km - z )
> z o = >
z
DENSITY OF MONKEYS IN JAIPUR
355
transects were visited in a fixed sequence of 1 - 5 - 8 - 2 - 6 - 9 - 3 - 7 - 1 0 - 4 . This m e t h o d provided a rapid estimate of primate density in a crowded city. In the 1986 and 1987 census, only the total n u m b e r of animals were counted but in 1988 the animals in each transect were counted according to their sex and approximate age. RESULTS
The entire city of Jaipur covers an area of about 120 km 2 and out of this the old city encompasses only 7.26 km 2. Ten road transects covering an area of 0.5694 km 2 (56.94 ha; Table 1 ) were selected. The sample area covered 7.8% of the total area. Over a period of 3 years, 270 h were spent patrolling the 10 transects, that is ~ 90 h in a year. 1986 In this year the total density of monkeys was 383.0 km -2. The density of rhesus monkeys was 346.4 km -2 and the density of langurs was 36.6 km -2. If Transect 6 was not considered then the total density fell to 278.5 monkeys km -2 (Mathur and Lobo, 1988). 1987 The total density in all the 10 transects was 483.6 monkeys km -2, again predominantly rhesus (412.7) with only 70.9 langurs (Table 1). Of all 10 transects, Transect 6 contributed most to the total density. If Transect 6 was eliminated then the density of monkeys fell from 483.6 to 195.2 km -2. The rhesus were found in all 10 transects, whereas langurs were restricted to Transect 6 (Fig. 1 ). 1988 The area for each transect remained the same as it was in 1986 and 1987 (Table 1 ). All the procedures were exactly as in previous years except that, this time account was taken of sex and approximate age. The distribution of monkeys in each transect did not change much from what it was in 1986 and 1987, but this time the estimate of total density of both species was 426.0; 358.7 for rhesus and 67.7 of langurs (Table 1 ). In 1988 also, most monkeys appeared in Transect 6, and if this transect were eliminated from the calculation the density would be only 161.7 monkeys km -2.
356
R. MATHUR AND B.R. MANOHAR
Average density 1986-1988 An average of 3 years data reveals that the density of monkeys (rhesus and langur) in the old city of Jaipur was 430.8, the rhesus (372.6 km-2) clearly outnumber the langurs (58.4 km -2). The major part of this density is constituted by the animals of Transect 6. If this transect is excluded from the study, then the average total density would remain at only 211.8 monkeys km -2.
Mean numbers of rhesus and langurs according to age and sex (based on the census of 1988) Mean number of rhesus The highest mean number of rhesus adult males (13.4) was recorded in Transect 10, whereas the lowest was found in Transect 4 (Table 2). Most rhesus adult females (52.5) were observed in Transect 6 whereas the least number (0.8) was recorded in Transects 5 and 7 (Table 2 ). Rhesus subadult males (5.3) were mostly recorded in Transect 6 and the minimum (0.2) was in Transect 9, two of the other transects, 4 and 7, had no subadult males. Maximum subadult females were also recorded in Transect 6, minimum number of subadult females (0.05) was recorded in Transect 4, no subadult female was seen in Transect 7. The number of rhesus juveniles was highest in Transect 6 (26.6; Table 2 ) and the same was true for the infants. The age-sex ratios of adult male to female, of adult female to juvenile, and of adults to infants were 1: 1.9, 1:0.5 and 1:0.6, respectively. Mean number of langurs In Transect 6 (Table 3), all age-sex classes of langurs were found. Five transects (transects 2, 6, 7, 8 and 9) had only adult males of langurs. Adult females were recorded only in three transects (2,5 and 6). Langur subadult males were recorded in four transects (6, 7, 8 and 9) whereas subadult females were recorded only in Transect 6. Juveniles were noted in Transects 6, 7 and 9, but infants were recorded only in Transect 6. Group size Twenty-one groups of rhesus and four groups of langurs could be located (Fig. 1 ) along the transects. In 1987 the total number of rhesus seen in all the transects was 235.0, thus average group size of rhesus in the old city was 11.20 individuals. The total number oflangurs was 40.4 and four groups were identified, hence the group size was 10.1 for langurs.
2.3 1.85 1.3 0.05 1.7 12.4 0.7 2.6 1.9 13.4
38.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Total
72.9
2.7 3.45 2.4 0 0.85 52.5 0.8 5.2 3.2 1.8
Adult females
8.45
0.55 0.5 0.4 0 0.75 5.3 0 0.4 0.2 0.35
Subadult males
6.55
0.25 0.35 0.25 0.05 0.25 4.6 0 0.3 0.35 0.15
Subadult females
1.0
0.15 0.2 0.2 0 0.05 0.02 0 0.05 0.15 0
Under subadult
16.05
0.95 1.05 0.85 0.05 1.05 10.1 0 0.75 0.75 0.50
Total no. subadults
14.85
0.45 0.5 0.5 0 0.65 10.5 0 1.3 0.6 0.35
Juvenile males
4.1
0.05 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.1 3.3 0 0.1 0.15 0.05
Juvenile females
Age-sex ratio: adult male to adult female, 1 : 1.9; adult female to juvenile, 1:0.5; adult female to infants, 1:0.6.
Adult males
Transect no.
Mean no. of rhesus (according to age and sex ) in different transects
TABLE 2
19.04
1.1 1.45 0.45 0 0.7 12.8 0 0.9 0.9 0.74
Under juveniles
37.99
0.61 1.95 1.05 0.05 1.45 26.6 0 2.3 1.65 1.14
Total no. juveniles
49.65
0.01 1.65 1.1 0 1.35 39.35 0.05 2.6 1.35 1.2
Infants
R. MATHURAND B.R. MANOHAR
358 TABLE 3 Mean no. o f H a n u m a n langur in all the transects Transect
Adult males
Adult females
Subadult males
Subadult females
Juveniles
Infants
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 0.4 0 0 0 0.5 0.35 0.15 0.25 0
0 0.5 0 0 0.2 2.5 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.15 0
0 0 0 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1.2 0.2 0 0.15 0
0 0 0 0 0 0.9 0 0 0 0
Total
1.65
3.2
0.65
0.75
1.55
0.9
Age-sex ratio: adult male to adult female, 1 : 1.9; adult female to juvenile, 1:0.4. DISCUSSION
The presence ofPresbytis entellus and Macaca mulatta in the old city is eyecatching. The spatial distribution of these two species is very distinct: the langurs occupy only the temple areas in the old city, whereas almost the entire old city is the domain of the rhesus. Among adults, females were more numerous than males, even when subadult males were included. There were more males than females under juvenile age. This indicated differences in age-specific mortality rate. Towards the end of the juvenile phase, especially during the subadult stage of development, male mortality was higher and brought the socionomic sex ratio slightly in favour of females. The same trend was reported in M. sinica by Dittus ( 1979 ) and in M. radiata by Singh et al. (1984). In the present study, the male to female ratio of rhesus in old city of Jaipur was 1 : 1.6 compared with 1 : 3 at other research sites (Pirta et al., 1981 ). According to Singh et al. (1984) the sex ratio is ultimately determined by ecological factors. The rhesus living in a crowded city are constantly threatened by street dogs, and chased away by people; against such threats, a larger number of males in a group would certainly improve the survival chances of an individual, and provide a safer environment for the rearing of young. Therefore, ideally in the urban habitat the sex ratio of adult males to females should be 1 : 1, in Jaipur city it is 1 : 1.9. The present study indicated that there were very few langurs in the old city. The great concentration of rhesus in the old city was attributed to their omnivorous feeding habits and their more aggressive and daring, terrestrial nature. The rhesus raided shops, stealing food items from people and vendors,
DENSITY OF MONKEYS IN JAIPUR
3 59
whereas langurs were restricted to temple areas only because of relatively more vegetation. The distribution and density of these two species along the transects had a close relation with the wholesale shops selling fruits, vegetables, grains and jaggery (Table 4). It was noted that even within a transect there was a clear concentration of monkeys around these shops, the remaining part of the transect being totally without monkeys. Their association with these shops is inevitable. The greater concentration of monkeys in Transect 6 can be ascribed to the following reasons: ( 1 ) it passes through an area which has the famous Lord Krishna's temple, Jantar Mantar (Observatory) and City Palace, which attract large numbers of tourists; (2) number of shops selling provisions is very high; (3) there were few residential houses and therefore monkeys were seldom chased away. The results indicate that the population of monkeys has not really increased over a period of 3 years but rather it is the human population which has increased in geometrical proportions, hence the presence of monkeys has become more of a nuisance. The citizens of Jaipur have a contradictory attitude towards urban monkeys. In the temple the monkeys are treated as sacred; people feed them, the monkeys are protected and are not harassed. However, when the monkeys visit the residential areas they are treated as pests. On one hand there have been scientific reports for the evaluation of human influence on monkeys (Bishop et al., 1981 ) and on the other, there have been regular news items appearing in national newspapers on the nuisance created by monkeys. Considering the changing attitude of residents of the old city, the high density of monkeys, and an ever-increasing human population, it is very necessary that some measures are taken to check unwanted human influence on monkeys and vice versa. We firmly support the suggestion made by Southwick and Siddiqui (1984) that the excess number of monkey groups should be translocated to a more favourable environment, but one point remains to be considered. Would these monkeys, which have been living in urban conditions for generations, be able to adjust to another kind of habitat? To check this, initially only one group should be translocated to an area where there is enough water and trees to give shelter and food. To begin with, the group could be given food until they gradually adapt to the changed surroundings. This kind of translocation has been successfully carried out with a group of baboons in Kenya recently (Strum, 1987 ) and with rhesus in India (Malik, 1989). Translocation from the city has become all the more necessary to prevent possible transmission of diseases (Mohnot, 1978 ). In a crowded city like Jaipur the human and non-human primates are living in close proximity, and the health hazard is very high. Therefore, it is necessary that either the mon-
Moderate
Many
Many Very few
Many
Few
Few
Moderate
Many
Few
Moderate Many
Few
Many
Many
Many
Many
Few
Moderate
Few
Few Moderate
Few
Many
None
Many
Food and Fruit
NIL
NIL
+
NIL
NIL
NIL
NIL
NIL
+
Provisioning
Poor
Fair
Fair
Fair
Poor Very poor
Poor
Poor
Fair
Poor
Street sanitation
~Density: very high, 800 km2; high, 300 km2; moderate, 200 km2; low, 130 km2; very low, 50 km 2. +, Provisioning occurs.
Few
Many
2 Chotichopad to Badichopad 3 Badichopad to Ramganj 4 Ramganj to Surajpole 5 Brahmpuri Road 6 Atish Bazar to Govindeo 7 Ramganj to Chardarwaza 8 Chotichopad to Kishanpole 9 Badichopad to Johri Bazar l0 Ramganj chopad to Ghatgate
Moderate
Residential
Many
Business
Building use
1 Chandpole Bazar
Transect
Habitat description of the different transects and the density of rhesus monkey in the old city
TABLE 4
Very low Moderate Very high Very low Moderate Moderate
Vegetable shops City Palace Temple No food shops Sweet shops Vegetable, sweet, fruit markets Jaggery, fruit, grain markets
Majority Majority Very few Majority Majority Very few
Few
Few
Majority
Low
High
High
Moderate
Jaggery, vegetable markets, temple Near City Palace, tourist area Jaggery, vegetable and fruit market Few food shops
Few
Density of monkeys l (km -2)
Business
Presence of Hindus
> Z ©
~r
Z
DENSITYOF MONKEYSIN JAIPUR
361
key group are translocated or the city inhabitants are educated to share their habitat with monkeys and also to prevent possible spread of disease.
REFERENCES Bishop, N., Hrdy, S.B., Teas, J. and Moore, J., 1981. Measures of human influence in habitats of South Asian monkeys. Int. J. Primatol., 2:153-157. Dittus, W.P.J., 1979. The evolution of behaviours regulating density and age specific ratio in primate population. Behaviour, 69: 265-302. Kalter, S.S., 1975. Infectious diseases in primates - Introduction and Bibliography. J. Phys. Anthropol., 38: 487-490. Lehner, N.P., 1979. Handbook of Ethological Methods. Garland STPM Press, New York and London. Malik, I., 1989. Of monkeys: Trapping and Conservation. The Hindustan Times Sunday Magazine, Dec. 10, pp. 9-10. Mathur, R. and Lobo, A., 1988. Density estimates of monkeys of Jaipur, India. Primate Rep. 19. Mathur, R. and Manohar, B.R., 1987. Group number and composition of Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus) in Jaipur, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 86:193-199. Mohnot, S.M., 1978. Observation of primates in India, In: D.J. Chivers and M.L. Petter (Editors), Recent Advances in Primatology. Vol. II, Conservation. Academic Press, London, pp. 47-53. Pirta, R.S., Prakash, P. and Singh, M., 1981. A population study of two species of non-human primates: Macaca mulatta and Macaca radiata. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 77: 429-434. Singh, M., Akram, N. and Pitra, R.S., 1984. Evolution of demographic patterns in the bonnel monkey (Macaca radiata). In: M.L. Roonwal, S.M. Mohnot and N,S. Rathore (Editors), The Current Primate Researches. Department of Zoology, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, pp. 7-16. Southwick, C.H. and Siddiqui, M.E., 1984. A proposal for conservation of rhesus :nonkeys in agricultural habitats of North India. In: M.L. Roonwal, S.M. Mohnot and N.S. Rathore (Editors), The Current Primate Researches. Department of Zoology, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, pp. 553-561. Strum, S.C., 1987. The "gang" moves to a strange New Land, Nat. Geogr., 172 ( 5 ): 676-690.
351
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., A m s t e r d a m
Density of Macaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus in the old city of Jaipur: a three year survey Reena Mathur and B. Ram Manohar Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur 302004 (India) (Accepted for publication 7 May 1990)
ABSTRACT Mathur, R. and Manohar, B.R., 1990. Density ofMacaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus in the old city of Jaipur: a three year survey. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 27:351-361.
Macaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus have been living in the old city of Jaipur for many years, their abundance in the area is eye-catching. A density estimate was carried out using a modified line transect method for 3 consecutive years from 1986 to 1988. The average of 3 years data indicate that the total density of monkeys was 430 km -2. Rhesus were predominant (372.6 km -2) with a very small fraction (58.4 km -z) contributed by langurs. The major concentration of monkeys was in Transect 6 which passed through a temple area. The revered image of monkeys is restricted to their association with temples and by and large they are treated as pests. A suggestion has been made for their capture and translocation to an ecologically favourable area without disrupting their social organization.
INTRODUCTION
Macaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus have been found in and around the city of Jaipur. The city has two distinct parts: old city and outskirts. The old city is extremely crowded, with very little vegetation, and a high density of residential houses and shops. There are also hotels, restaurants, hospitals, banks, movie halls, temples, tourist areas and offices. In contrast, the outskirts are relatively open, more vegetated and less crowded, with more residential areas and offices than markets. The distribution of two species of monkeys in the city of Jaipur is very distinct: langurs are found in the outskirts and the old city is full of rhesus (Mathur and Manohar, 1987). Monkeys have been known to carry diseases infectious to man (Kalter, 1975 ); in a city like Jaipur where monkeys live in great concentrations, precautions are a necessity. The citizens of Jaipur believe that the population of monkeys has increased to an annoying level in recent years but as no earlier data are available no conclusions can be made concerning population trends. In the present study, a density estimate of monkeys was carried out in the old city of Jaipur for 3 consecutive years, and a suggestion has been made to re0168-1591/90/$03.50
© 1990 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
352
R. MATHURAND B.R. MANOHAR
locate monkeys groupwise to a more open area. However, no behavioral observations of the monkeys were made in this study. ANIMALS, MATERIALS A N D M E T H O D S
Jaipur city (75 ° 50'E and 26 ° 50'N) lies in semi-arid zone. Climate is subtropical, with the rainy season from July to September. The hot weather extends from March to mid-June. The total area of Jaipur city is 120 km 2 with a population of 1 000 000; population density is 9166 km -2 (Administrative Atlas of Rajasthan, 1981 ). The city can be broadly divided into two parts, old city and outskirts (Fig. 1 ). Of interest in the present investigation is the old city, which encompasses an approximate area of 7.26 km 2. The density of people in the old city is very high (33 480 km-2; source: Census Department, Jaipur; R. Mathur and B.R. Manohar, personal communication). Ten roads were selected in the old city: four ran in an east-west direction and the remaining six in a north-south direction (Fig. 1 ). These roads were called transects. A modified line transect m e t h o d was used (Lehner, 1979). The selection of transects was based on the broadness of the road and on the presence of monkeys; therefore, the sample cannot be considered truly random. The transects were numbered 1-10 (Fig. 1 ). Of these 10 road transects, nine were straight roads but Transect 6 was a road with many turns (Fig. 1 ). Each transect was 1 km long (therefore, the total length covered by all transects was 10 k m ) . All transects, except Transect 6, had fixed widths calculated by taking into account the width of the road, pavements, shops and parts of houses on both sides of the road. This gave the total width. Transect 6 was of a different kind. It passed through an area which attracted tourists (Jantar Mantar, City Palace) and included the very famous Lord Krishna's temple (Govindeo). This road was not straight; therefore 1 k m for this transect was measured on the milometer of a scooter. On this particular transect, 4-5 stopovers were made and the area was walked to count the monkeys and estimate the perpendicular distance of the farthest animal from the transect; the mean value of these distances gave the final width of Transect 6. The area of each transect was calculated (Table 1 ). The surveyed area covered 7.85% of the total area. All the transects were visited 20 times at a fixed time of day (early in the morning) in January and February of 1986 (Mathur and Lobo, 1988) and 1987, and during March and April in 1988. In all the surveys a scooter was used for covering the transects and was carried out by two people; one person drove the scooter and the other counted the animals. The scooter was driven at a slow speed ( 15 k m h - i ) with frequent stopovers to count the individuals. Census was done by careful inspection of each transect. All precautions were taken not to count the same monkey twice. To prevent double counting the
~l"emple
I~Langur g r o u p
Fig. 1. Old city of Jaipur showing the layout of transects.
A l m o s t nil ~ 5 h O p S
I-rl R h e s u s g r o u p
INDEX ~BTransect J~ Very h~ghdensity~J~HighUModerale~Low ~Very low
OLD CITY OFJAIPUR ..............
~i:!!i!i
:!!~iiiiilili~i~,~i~~' ,~i~' "~i~~',~,°~~' i'!~i~' i!i!i~,~i~ m
o z
,< ©
'7
Transect no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total area Total area minus Transect 6 Total no. of individuals Total no. of individuals minus Transect 6 Density over all transects Total density Total density minus Transect 6
0.0478 0.0478 0.0478 0.0478 0.0438 0.1586 0.0408 0.0450 0.0450 0.0450 0.5694 0.4108
Area (km 2)
64.3 412.7
74.4
8.0 10.0 7.3 0.15 6.4 140.0 2.3 14.8 9.2 6.2
204.35
234.3 251.0 418.4 18.82 236.3 1012.6 19.6 137.7 157.7 151.1
235.0
11.2 12.0 20.0 0.9 10.35 160.6 0.8 6.2 7.1 6.8
358.0
167.36 209.2 152.7 3.1 146.1 882.7 56.3 328.8 204.4 137.7
Density (km -2)
5.8
40.4
0.0 1.5 0.0 2.0 0.5 34.6 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.0
Mean no.
70.9
0.0 31.38 0.0 41.8 11.4 218.1 0.0 40.0 0.0 0.0
Density (km -2)
2.15
38.6
0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.2 36.5 0.0 0.65 0.35 0.55
Mean no.
67.0
0.0 8.36 0.0 0.0 4.56 230.1 0.0 14.4 7.7 12.2
Density (kin -2)
Mean no.
Mean no.
Density (km -2)
1987
1988
1987
1988
Mean no. and density oflangurs
Mean no. and density of rhesus
Estimate of rhesus and langur densities in the old city of Jaipur ( 1987-1988 )
TABLE 1
483.6 195.2
1987
426.0 161.0
1988
Density of rhesus and langurs (km - z )
> z o = >
z
DENSITY OF MONKEYS IN JAIPUR
355
transects were visited in a fixed sequence of 1 - 5 - 8 - 2 - 6 - 9 - 3 - 7 - 1 0 - 4 . This m e t h o d provided a rapid estimate of primate density in a crowded city. In the 1986 and 1987 census, only the total n u m b e r of animals were counted but in 1988 the animals in each transect were counted according to their sex and approximate age. RESULTS
The entire city of Jaipur covers an area of about 120 km 2 and out of this the old city encompasses only 7.26 km 2. Ten road transects covering an area of 0.5694 km 2 (56.94 ha; Table 1 ) were selected. The sample area covered 7.8% of the total area. Over a period of 3 years, 270 h were spent patrolling the 10 transects, that is ~ 90 h in a year. 1986 In this year the total density of monkeys was 383.0 km -2. The density of rhesus monkeys was 346.4 km -2 and the density of langurs was 36.6 km -2. If Transect 6 was not considered then the total density fell to 278.5 monkeys km -2 (Mathur and Lobo, 1988). 1987 The total density in all the 10 transects was 483.6 monkeys km -2, again predominantly rhesus (412.7) with only 70.9 langurs (Table 1). Of all 10 transects, Transect 6 contributed most to the total density. If Transect 6 was eliminated then the density of monkeys fell from 483.6 to 195.2 km -2. The rhesus were found in all 10 transects, whereas langurs were restricted to Transect 6 (Fig. 1 ). 1988 The area for each transect remained the same as it was in 1986 and 1987 (Table 1 ). All the procedures were exactly as in previous years except that, this time account was taken of sex and approximate age. The distribution of monkeys in each transect did not change much from what it was in 1986 and 1987, but this time the estimate of total density of both species was 426.0; 358.7 for rhesus and 67.7 of langurs (Table 1 ). In 1988 also, most monkeys appeared in Transect 6, and if this transect were eliminated from the calculation the density would be only 161.7 monkeys km -2.
356
R. MATHUR AND B.R. MANOHAR
Average density 1986-1988 An average of 3 years data reveals that the density of monkeys (rhesus and langur) in the old city of Jaipur was 430.8, the rhesus (372.6 km-2) clearly outnumber the langurs (58.4 km -2). The major part of this density is constituted by the animals of Transect 6. If this transect is excluded from the study, then the average total density would remain at only 211.8 monkeys km -2.
Mean numbers of rhesus and langurs according to age and sex (based on the census of 1988) Mean number of rhesus The highest mean number of rhesus adult males (13.4) was recorded in Transect 10, whereas the lowest was found in Transect 4 (Table 2). Most rhesus adult females (52.5) were observed in Transect 6 whereas the least number (0.8) was recorded in Transects 5 and 7 (Table 2 ). Rhesus subadult males (5.3) were mostly recorded in Transect 6 and the minimum (0.2) was in Transect 9, two of the other transects, 4 and 7, had no subadult males. Maximum subadult females were also recorded in Transect 6, minimum number of subadult females (0.05) was recorded in Transect 4, no subadult female was seen in Transect 7. The number of rhesus juveniles was highest in Transect 6 (26.6; Table 2 ) and the same was true for the infants. The age-sex ratios of adult male to female, of adult female to juvenile, and of adults to infants were 1: 1.9, 1:0.5 and 1:0.6, respectively. Mean number of langurs In Transect 6 (Table 3), all age-sex classes of langurs were found. Five transects (transects 2, 6, 7, 8 and 9) had only adult males of langurs. Adult females were recorded only in three transects (2,5 and 6). Langur subadult males were recorded in four transects (6, 7, 8 and 9) whereas subadult females were recorded only in Transect 6. Juveniles were noted in Transects 6, 7 and 9, but infants were recorded only in Transect 6. Group size Twenty-one groups of rhesus and four groups of langurs could be located (Fig. 1 ) along the transects. In 1987 the total number of rhesus seen in all the transects was 235.0, thus average group size of rhesus in the old city was 11.20 individuals. The total number oflangurs was 40.4 and four groups were identified, hence the group size was 10.1 for langurs.
2.3 1.85 1.3 0.05 1.7 12.4 0.7 2.6 1.9 13.4
38.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Total
72.9
2.7 3.45 2.4 0 0.85 52.5 0.8 5.2 3.2 1.8
Adult females
8.45
0.55 0.5 0.4 0 0.75 5.3 0 0.4 0.2 0.35
Subadult males
6.55
0.25 0.35 0.25 0.05 0.25 4.6 0 0.3 0.35 0.15
Subadult females
1.0
0.15 0.2 0.2 0 0.05 0.02 0 0.05 0.15 0
Under subadult
16.05
0.95 1.05 0.85 0.05 1.05 10.1 0 0.75 0.75 0.50
Total no. subadults
14.85
0.45 0.5 0.5 0 0.65 10.5 0 1.3 0.6 0.35
Juvenile males
4.1
0.05 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.1 3.3 0 0.1 0.15 0.05
Juvenile females
Age-sex ratio: adult male to adult female, 1 : 1.9; adult female to juvenile, 1:0.5; adult female to infants, 1:0.6.
Adult males
Transect no.
Mean no. of rhesus (according to age and sex ) in different transects
TABLE 2
19.04
1.1 1.45 0.45 0 0.7 12.8 0 0.9 0.9 0.74
Under juveniles
37.99
0.61 1.95 1.05 0.05 1.45 26.6 0 2.3 1.65 1.14
Total no. juveniles
49.65
0.01 1.65 1.1 0 1.35 39.35 0.05 2.6 1.35 1.2
Infants
R. MATHURAND B.R. MANOHAR
358 TABLE 3 Mean no. o f H a n u m a n langur in all the transects Transect
Adult males
Adult females
Subadult males
Subadult females
Juveniles
Infants
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 0.4 0 0 0 0.5 0.35 0.15 0.25 0
0 0.5 0 0 0.2 2.5 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.15 0
0 0 0 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1.2 0.2 0 0.15 0
0 0 0 0 0 0.9 0 0 0 0
Total
1.65
3.2
0.65
0.75
1.55
0.9
Age-sex ratio: adult male to adult female, 1 : 1.9; adult female to juvenile, 1:0.4. DISCUSSION
The presence ofPresbytis entellus and Macaca mulatta in the old city is eyecatching. The spatial distribution of these two species is very distinct: the langurs occupy only the temple areas in the old city, whereas almost the entire old city is the domain of the rhesus. Among adults, females were more numerous than males, even when subadult males were included. There were more males than females under juvenile age. This indicated differences in age-specific mortality rate. Towards the end of the juvenile phase, especially during the subadult stage of development, male mortality was higher and brought the socionomic sex ratio slightly in favour of females. The same trend was reported in M. sinica by Dittus ( 1979 ) and in M. radiata by Singh et al. (1984). In the present study, the male to female ratio of rhesus in old city of Jaipur was 1 : 1.6 compared with 1 : 3 at other research sites (Pirta et al., 1981 ). According to Singh et al. (1984) the sex ratio is ultimately determined by ecological factors. The rhesus living in a crowded city are constantly threatened by street dogs, and chased away by people; against such threats, a larger number of males in a group would certainly improve the survival chances of an individual, and provide a safer environment for the rearing of young. Therefore, ideally in the urban habitat the sex ratio of adult males to females should be 1 : 1, in Jaipur city it is 1 : 1.9. The present study indicated that there were very few langurs in the old city. The great concentration of rhesus in the old city was attributed to their omnivorous feeding habits and their more aggressive and daring, terrestrial nature. The rhesus raided shops, stealing food items from people and vendors,
DENSITY OF MONKEYS IN JAIPUR
3 59
whereas langurs were restricted to temple areas only because of relatively more vegetation. The distribution and density of these two species along the transects had a close relation with the wholesale shops selling fruits, vegetables, grains and jaggery (Table 4). It was noted that even within a transect there was a clear concentration of monkeys around these shops, the remaining part of the transect being totally without monkeys. Their association with these shops is inevitable. The greater concentration of monkeys in Transect 6 can be ascribed to the following reasons: ( 1 ) it passes through an area which has the famous Lord Krishna's temple, Jantar Mantar (Observatory) and City Palace, which attract large numbers of tourists; (2) number of shops selling provisions is very high; (3) there were few residential houses and therefore monkeys were seldom chased away. The results indicate that the population of monkeys has not really increased over a period of 3 years but rather it is the human population which has increased in geometrical proportions, hence the presence of monkeys has become more of a nuisance. The citizens of Jaipur have a contradictory attitude towards urban monkeys. In the temple the monkeys are treated as sacred; people feed them, the monkeys are protected and are not harassed. However, when the monkeys visit the residential areas they are treated as pests. On one hand there have been scientific reports for the evaluation of human influence on monkeys (Bishop et al., 1981 ) and on the other, there have been regular news items appearing in national newspapers on the nuisance created by monkeys. Considering the changing attitude of residents of the old city, the high density of monkeys, and an ever-increasing human population, it is very necessary that some measures are taken to check unwanted human influence on monkeys and vice versa. We firmly support the suggestion made by Southwick and Siddiqui (1984) that the excess number of monkey groups should be translocated to a more favourable environment, but one point remains to be considered. Would these monkeys, which have been living in urban conditions for generations, be able to adjust to another kind of habitat? To check this, initially only one group should be translocated to an area where there is enough water and trees to give shelter and food. To begin with, the group could be given food until they gradually adapt to the changed surroundings. This kind of translocation has been successfully carried out with a group of baboons in Kenya recently (Strum, 1987 ) and with rhesus in India (Malik, 1989). Translocation from the city has become all the more necessary to prevent possible transmission of diseases (Mohnot, 1978 ). In a crowded city like Jaipur the human and non-human primates are living in close proximity, and the health hazard is very high. Therefore, it is necessary that either the mon-
Moderate
Many
Many Very few
Many
Few
Few
Moderate
Many
Few
Moderate Many
Few
Many
Many
Many
Many
Few
Moderate
Few
Few Moderate
Few
Many
None
Many
Food and Fruit
NIL
NIL
+
NIL
NIL
NIL
NIL
NIL
+
Provisioning
Poor
Fair
Fair
Fair
Poor Very poor
Poor
Poor
Fair
Poor
Street sanitation
~Density: very high, 800 km2; high, 300 km2; moderate, 200 km2; low, 130 km2; very low, 50 km 2. +, Provisioning occurs.
Few
Many
2 Chotichopad to Badichopad 3 Badichopad to Ramganj 4 Ramganj to Surajpole 5 Brahmpuri Road 6 Atish Bazar to Govindeo 7 Ramganj to Chardarwaza 8 Chotichopad to Kishanpole 9 Badichopad to Johri Bazar l0 Ramganj chopad to Ghatgate
Moderate
Residential
Many
Business
Building use
1 Chandpole Bazar
Transect
Habitat description of the different transects and the density of rhesus monkey in the old city
TABLE 4
Very low Moderate Very high Very low Moderate Moderate
Vegetable shops City Palace Temple No food shops Sweet shops Vegetable, sweet, fruit markets Jaggery, fruit, grain markets
Majority Majority Very few Majority Majority Very few
Few
Few
Majority
Low
High
High
Moderate
Jaggery, vegetable markets, temple Near City Palace, tourist area Jaggery, vegetable and fruit market Few food shops
Few
Density of monkeys l (km -2)
Business
Presence of Hindus
> Z ©
~r
Z
DENSITYOF MONKEYSIN JAIPUR
361
key group are translocated or the city inhabitants are educated to share their habitat with monkeys and also to prevent possible spread of disease.
REFERENCES Bishop, N., Hrdy, S.B., Teas, J. and Moore, J., 1981. Measures of human influence in habitats of South Asian monkeys. Int. J. Primatol., 2:153-157. Dittus, W.P.J., 1979. The evolution of behaviours regulating density and age specific ratio in primate population. Behaviour, 69: 265-302. Kalter, S.S., 1975. Infectious diseases in primates - Introduction and Bibliography. J. Phys. Anthropol., 38: 487-490. Lehner, N.P., 1979. Handbook of Ethological Methods. Garland STPM Press, New York and London. Malik, I., 1989. Of monkeys: Trapping and Conservation. The Hindustan Times Sunday Magazine, Dec. 10, pp. 9-10. Mathur, R. and Lobo, A., 1988. Density estimates of monkeys of Jaipur, India. Primate Rep. 19. Mathur, R. and Manohar, B.R., 1987. Group number and composition of Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus) in Jaipur, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 86:193-199. Mohnot, S.M., 1978. Observation of primates in India, In: D.J. Chivers and M.L. Petter (Editors), Recent Advances in Primatology. Vol. II, Conservation. Academic Press, London, pp. 47-53. Pirta, R.S., Prakash, P. and Singh, M., 1981. A population study of two species of non-human primates: Macaca mulatta and Macaca radiata. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 77: 429-434. Singh, M., Akram, N. and Pitra, R.S., 1984. Evolution of demographic patterns in the bonnel monkey (Macaca radiata). In: M.L. Roonwal, S.M. Mohnot and N,S. Rathore (Editors), The Current Primate Researches. Department of Zoology, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, pp. 7-16. Southwick, C.H. and Siddiqui, M.E., 1984. A proposal for conservation of rhesus :nonkeys in agricultural habitats of North India. In: M.L. Roonwal, S.M. Mohnot and N.S. Rathore (Editors), The Current Primate Researches. Department of Zoology, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, pp. 553-561. Strum, S.C., 1987. The "gang" moves to a strange New Land, Nat. Geogr., 172 ( 5 ): 676-690.