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Designing a government form: a case study
investigations have been initiated, practical measurements among the workers have been introduced and an EMG-equipment for easy analysis of muscle tension in actual work situations has been constructed.
benefit when this functional abnormality is observed and, if at all possible - corrected !
Visual displays 16.2.24 (88753)
Jansen, C., and Steehouder, M. Improving the text of a public leaflet.
16.2.22 (89008)
Information Design Journal, 1984,
Bloswick, D.S. et al 16.2.20 (88718)
Webb, R.D.G., Tack, D., and Mcllroy, W.E. Assessment of musculo-skeletal discomfort in a large clerical office: A case study. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 3 9 2 - 3 9 6 . In response to reports of musculoskeletal discomfort among clerical workers in a large office building, a three-part assessment was carried out among 350 staff. Different jobs undertaken by clerical workers were observed and assessed in terms of posture and activity demands. Chair models currently in use were assessed against recommendations in the literature. Staff were asked to rate musculoskeletal discomfort over one working day. Personal factors such as height, weight and a history of musculoskeletal disorders were taken into account. The results assisted discrimination between task and chair types in terms of postural discomfort.
16.2.21 (88726)
Miller, M.G. The postal posture problem. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 5 5 9 - 5 6 3 . The employment of physical agents in the field of industrial medicine is becoming increasingly important. A very specific field o f industrial medicine has long been overlooked and that is the study of structural mechanics; specifically posture. We must realise, however, that postural training as a preventive agent can hardly be separated from postural training as a therapeutic agent. The attainment of a normal posture by a developing person may prevent certain ailments and deformities. The correction of a posture which has become abnormal may be curative. Many ailments and disabilities, including severe and crippling pain, may have abnormal posture as their causative factor - perhaps many more than is currently realised - and therefore they may be susceptible of
4.1, 1 0 - 1 8 .
Ladder climbing biomechanics. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 5 7 3 - 5 7 7 . Climbing movements are an inherent part of many manual activities, especially those performed in the work environment. In this paper an ongoing research programme at the University of Michigan Center for Ergonomics is discussed. The goal of this research is to develop and validate a biomechanical model which will allow a biomechanical analysis of the climbing activity for various combinations of task, equipment and individual parameters. In addition, the empirical data from this research are expected to provide a data base which may be used by those who must specify or design ladders for particular tasks or user populations.
16.2.23 (88683)
Astrand, P-O. Principles in ergometry and their implications in sports practice. Sports Medicine, 1984, 1.1, 1 - 5 . This short leading article provides an overview of recent research and principles in ergometry in sports practice. As a platform for the discussion it is important to point out that every sport event is in a way unique in that it has a specific pattern in its demand on such factors as the energy-yielding systems (aerobic and/ or anaerobic power), the neuromuscular function and l o c o m o t o r organs (including strength and technique) and the psychological factors (e g, motivation, tactics, perceived exertion). It should always be remembered that performances in sports events are best and most accurately measured by time or distance. On the other hand, it is of great interest to analyse why one person performs better than another; to do this, methods must be available to map out the specific demands of an event on various bodily functions and to study the sportsman's potential to comply with those demands. Ergometry is usually associated with measurements or prediction of the capacity and efficiency of the oxygen transport system, because it reflects the individual's ability to engage large muscle groups in vigorous activities lasting for a few minutes or longer.
In this article a provisional set of eight criteria is proposed for the analysis and the design of texts in the field of public information. To test the value of this set of criteria, an experiment was carried out concerning a Dutch leaflet on a regulation on Rent Rebate Grants. Rewriting the leaflet text did not produce satisfying results, possibly due to the high complexity of the regulation. Nevertheless, it seems that the criteria might be a useful contribution to the discussion on guidelines for textwriters. 16.2.25 (88754) Lopinto, L. Designing and writing operating manuals. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 1984, PC-27/1, 2 9 - 3 1 . A manual should communicate the design engineers' intentions for the operation of a process. To do this, it must be accurate, detailed and logical, and it must be completed in time for the start-up. Steps in preparation are structuring the manual; gathering and organising the information; making an outline; writing a draft; checking for technical accuracy; reviewing for consistency, style and format; cross referencing and making an index; and distributing and accumulating updates and corrections. 16.2.26 (88756)
Smith, S.L., and Aucetla, A.F. Numbering formats for hierarchic lists.
Human Factors, 1983, 2 5 . 3 , 3 4 3 - 3 4 8 . People scanned lists of hierarchically numbered items in order to perform various tasks. For tasks involving location of individual items, a list of format with complete numbering resulted in superior performance. For tasks requiring perception of list structure, an alternative format with implicit numbering was equally good if not better. 16.2.27 (88757)
Waller, R. Designing a government form: a case study. Information Design Journal, 1984, 4.1, 3 6 - 5 7 . This paper describes a case history of the design of a government form. In particular, three kinds o f problem are identified and discussed: contextual problems of relevance and interpretation; problems of reading
Applied Ergonomics June 1985
153
sequence and conditional branching instructions; and a range of typographic problems. Typography is seen as a particularly important way of signalling the information structure of forms, and typographic techniques are discussed in some detail.
Auditory displays 16.2.28 (88760)
Kragt, H., and Bonten, J. Evaluation of a conventional processalarm system in a fertilizer plant. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 1983, SMC-13/4, 5 8 6 - 6 0 0 . A study to gain insight into the way 'process-alarm systems' are actually used and evaluated in practice, and to know how busy the human operator is in dealing with the system, is presented. Observations and interviews were carried out with eight experienced control room operators from a fertiliser plant. For 63 h all the warning signals of the conventional system were recorded and rated by the operators. The method of observation is briefly described. The actual ratings were compared with those assumed in advance. The results indicated that in the fertiliser plant the process-alarm system was mainly used as a monitoring tool and not as an alarm system requiring action. Therefore 'annunciator system' would be a better term. The number of warning signals recorded was surprisingly high. Suggestions are given to reduce the number; e g, annunciator systems can be improved by reducing the number of irrelevant cluster and oscillation signals. In interviews outside the control room favourable and less favourable aspects of the system were discussed with the operators and critical incidents (human errors) were analysed. Five incidents are briefly described. On the basis of this study, the various functions of the annunciator system are discussed. A plea is made for further research in the laboratory, so as to tackle some of the 'interface' problems that were found.
of a nuclear power plant, that consideration for human factors principles are critical to man-machine integration with the system design. A crucial component of the control room that alerts the human operator to a disruption in the status quo of the plant is the alarm (or annunciator) system. In a case study of a two-unit power plant, the Advanced Resource Development (ARD) Corporation reviewed the annunciator/alarm system and made specific human factors recommendations.
Workplace layout and equipment design 16.2.30 (88784)
Sexton, G.A. Pilot's Desk Flight Station. In: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Columbus, Ohio, April 2 5 - 2 8 , 1983, Edited by R.S. Jensen, pp 2 7 - 3 6 . Rapidly changing technology, increasing amounts of air traffic, new and improved air traffic control systems, emphasis on flying fuel efficient profiles, and the desire to optimise crew complements are factors which are influencing the design of transport aircraft flight stations for the mid-to-late 1990s. The LockheedGeorgia Company, in conjunction with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, has developed a candidate conceptual design for a 1995 flight station. New technologies are being exploited in the design of efficient and effective crew systems. Research simulation facilities are being constructed which will provide the capability to simulate advanced functional aircraft systems, to develop additional conceptual crew systems, and to test them all in a full-mission context and in a near-real-world environment. This paper describes the unique and functional Pilot's Desk Flight Station, including projected aircraft systems, controls and display formats for the 1990s.
16.2.29 (88762) 16.2.31 (88790)
A case study: Nuclear power plant alarm system. Human factors review. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 8 1 - 8 5 .
Garg, A.
Numerous historical examples show that accidents at nuclear power plants are often attributed to h u m a n error. In the nuclear utility industry, errors can prove very costly. It is in the control room, the major 'pulse point'
Biomechanical and ergonomic stresses to the wholesale grocery order selectors were studied in three different warehouses. Biomechanical job evaluation showed that at least one out of three male industrial workers
Applied Ergonomics
16.2.32 (88792)
Paluch, R.
Weiss, C.F., and Kershner, R.L.
154
and three out of four female industrial workers do not have sufficient strength to perform certain tasks even occasionally without overexerting themselves. Ergonomic evaluation showed that the racks were either too high or too low. The order selectors are required to lift heavy and bulky loads to a vertical height which exceeds the reach limit for most people and at a horizontal distance which is close to the functional reach limit.
June 1985
Biomechanical and ergonomic stresses in warehouse operations. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 2 5 2 - 2 5 5 .
The determination and estimation of the workplace for the seated operator. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 386. The purpose of this research study is the determination and estimation of the horizontal workplace on the basis of the movement time of an upper limb for a sitting work posture. The bases for the estimation of a workplace were the differences between the movement times of the tested distance and angle combinations and the movement time at the minimal hand range (10 cm) standardised by a standard deviation of a minimal range. The standardised points on a plane formed the base for drawing the curves of a constant movement time of an arm, The curve of 3 SD delimits a basic work zone of an arm and a curve of 6 SD is a critical value for the reaching operation and an arm displacement. 16.2.33 (89024)
Drury, E.G., and Brill, M. Human factors in consumer product accident investigation. Human Factors, 1983, 2 5 . 3 , 3 2 9 - 3 4 2 . Using task analysis as a basis, a job aid was developed to enable accident investigators to obtain human factors data during their investigations. For each product, a limited number of characteristic accident patterns were found; these are referred to as hazard patterns or scenarios. These patterns were used to stucture 'intelligent' questionnaires, with sections on the victim, the task, the product and the environment.
Illumination 16.2.34 (88816)
Vaidya, V.V. et al A control room lighting study. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9
benefit when this functional abnormality is observed and, if at all possible - corrected !
Visual displays 16.2.24 (88753)
Jansen, C., and Steehouder, M. Improving the text of a public leaflet.
16.2.22 (89008)
Information Design Journal, 1984,
Bloswick, D.S. et al 16.2.20 (88718)
Webb, R.D.G., Tack, D., and Mcllroy, W.E. Assessment of musculo-skeletal discomfort in a large clerical office: A case study. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 3 9 2 - 3 9 6 . In response to reports of musculoskeletal discomfort among clerical workers in a large office building, a three-part assessment was carried out among 350 staff. Different jobs undertaken by clerical workers were observed and assessed in terms of posture and activity demands. Chair models currently in use were assessed against recommendations in the literature. Staff were asked to rate musculoskeletal discomfort over one working day. Personal factors such as height, weight and a history of musculoskeletal disorders were taken into account. The results assisted discrimination between task and chair types in terms of postural discomfort.
16.2.21 (88726)
Miller, M.G. The postal posture problem. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 5 5 9 - 5 6 3 . The employment of physical agents in the field of industrial medicine is becoming increasingly important. A very specific field o f industrial medicine has long been overlooked and that is the study of structural mechanics; specifically posture. We must realise, however, that postural training as a preventive agent can hardly be separated from postural training as a therapeutic agent. The attainment of a normal posture by a developing person may prevent certain ailments and deformities. The correction of a posture which has become abnormal may be curative. Many ailments and disabilities, including severe and crippling pain, may have abnormal posture as their causative factor - perhaps many more than is currently realised - and therefore they may be susceptible of
4.1, 1 0 - 1 8 .
Ladder climbing biomechanics. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 5 7 3 - 5 7 7 . Climbing movements are an inherent part of many manual activities, especially those performed in the work environment. In this paper an ongoing research programme at the University of Michigan Center for Ergonomics is discussed. The goal of this research is to develop and validate a biomechanical model which will allow a biomechanical analysis of the climbing activity for various combinations of task, equipment and individual parameters. In addition, the empirical data from this research are expected to provide a data base which may be used by those who must specify or design ladders for particular tasks or user populations.
16.2.23 (88683)
Astrand, P-O. Principles in ergometry and their implications in sports practice. Sports Medicine, 1984, 1.1, 1 - 5 . This short leading article provides an overview of recent research and principles in ergometry in sports practice. As a platform for the discussion it is important to point out that every sport event is in a way unique in that it has a specific pattern in its demand on such factors as the energy-yielding systems (aerobic and/ or anaerobic power), the neuromuscular function and l o c o m o t o r organs (including strength and technique) and the psychological factors (e g, motivation, tactics, perceived exertion). It should always be remembered that performances in sports events are best and most accurately measured by time or distance. On the other hand, it is of great interest to analyse why one person performs better than another; to do this, methods must be available to map out the specific demands of an event on various bodily functions and to study the sportsman's potential to comply with those demands. Ergometry is usually associated with measurements or prediction of the capacity and efficiency of the oxygen transport system, because it reflects the individual's ability to engage large muscle groups in vigorous activities lasting for a few minutes or longer.
In this article a provisional set of eight criteria is proposed for the analysis and the design of texts in the field of public information. To test the value of this set of criteria, an experiment was carried out concerning a Dutch leaflet on a regulation on Rent Rebate Grants. Rewriting the leaflet text did not produce satisfying results, possibly due to the high complexity of the regulation. Nevertheless, it seems that the criteria might be a useful contribution to the discussion on guidelines for textwriters. 16.2.25 (88754) Lopinto, L. Designing and writing operating manuals. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 1984, PC-27/1, 2 9 - 3 1 . A manual should communicate the design engineers' intentions for the operation of a process. To do this, it must be accurate, detailed and logical, and it must be completed in time for the start-up. Steps in preparation are structuring the manual; gathering and organising the information; making an outline; writing a draft; checking for technical accuracy; reviewing for consistency, style and format; cross referencing and making an index; and distributing and accumulating updates and corrections. 16.2.26 (88756)
Smith, S.L., and Aucetla, A.F. Numbering formats for hierarchic lists.
Human Factors, 1983, 2 5 . 3 , 3 4 3 - 3 4 8 . People scanned lists of hierarchically numbered items in order to perform various tasks. For tasks involving location of individual items, a list of format with complete numbering resulted in superior performance. For tasks requiring perception of list structure, an alternative format with implicit numbering was equally good if not better. 16.2.27 (88757)
Waller, R. Designing a government form: a case study. Information Design Journal, 1984, 4.1, 3 6 - 5 7 . This paper describes a case history of the design of a government form. In particular, three kinds o f problem are identified and discussed: contextual problems of relevance and interpretation; problems of reading
Applied Ergonomics June 1985
153
sequence and conditional branching instructions; and a range of typographic problems. Typography is seen as a particularly important way of signalling the information structure of forms, and typographic techniques are discussed in some detail.
Auditory displays 16.2.28 (88760)
Kragt, H., and Bonten, J. Evaluation of a conventional processalarm system in a fertilizer plant. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 1983, SMC-13/4, 5 8 6 - 6 0 0 . A study to gain insight into the way 'process-alarm systems' are actually used and evaluated in practice, and to know how busy the human operator is in dealing with the system, is presented. Observations and interviews were carried out with eight experienced control room operators from a fertiliser plant. For 63 h all the warning signals of the conventional system were recorded and rated by the operators. The method of observation is briefly described. The actual ratings were compared with those assumed in advance. The results indicated that in the fertiliser plant the process-alarm system was mainly used as a monitoring tool and not as an alarm system requiring action. Therefore 'annunciator system' would be a better term. The number of warning signals recorded was surprisingly high. Suggestions are given to reduce the number; e g, annunciator systems can be improved by reducing the number of irrelevant cluster and oscillation signals. In interviews outside the control room favourable and less favourable aspects of the system were discussed with the operators and critical incidents (human errors) were analysed. Five incidents are briefly described. On the basis of this study, the various functions of the annunciator system are discussed. A plea is made for further research in the laboratory, so as to tackle some of the 'interface' problems that were found.
of a nuclear power plant, that consideration for human factors principles are critical to man-machine integration with the system design. A crucial component of the control room that alerts the human operator to a disruption in the status quo of the plant is the alarm (or annunciator) system. In a case study of a two-unit power plant, the Advanced Resource Development (ARD) Corporation reviewed the annunciator/alarm system and made specific human factors recommendations.
Workplace layout and equipment design 16.2.30 (88784)
Sexton, G.A. Pilot's Desk Flight Station. In: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Columbus, Ohio, April 2 5 - 2 8 , 1983, Edited by R.S. Jensen, pp 2 7 - 3 6 . Rapidly changing technology, increasing amounts of air traffic, new and improved air traffic control systems, emphasis on flying fuel efficient profiles, and the desire to optimise crew complements are factors which are influencing the design of transport aircraft flight stations for the mid-to-late 1990s. The LockheedGeorgia Company, in conjunction with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, has developed a candidate conceptual design for a 1995 flight station. New technologies are being exploited in the design of efficient and effective crew systems. Research simulation facilities are being constructed which will provide the capability to simulate advanced functional aircraft systems, to develop additional conceptual crew systems, and to test them all in a full-mission context and in a near-real-world environment. This paper describes the unique and functional Pilot's Desk Flight Station, including projected aircraft systems, controls and display formats for the 1990s.
16.2.29 (88762) 16.2.31 (88790)
A case study: Nuclear power plant alarm system. Human factors review. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 8 1 - 8 5 .
Garg, A.
Numerous historical examples show that accidents at nuclear power plants are often attributed to h u m a n error. In the nuclear utility industry, errors can prove very costly. It is in the control room, the major 'pulse point'
Biomechanical and ergonomic stresses to the wholesale grocery order selectors were studied in three different warehouses. Biomechanical job evaluation showed that at least one out of three male industrial workers
Applied Ergonomics
16.2.32 (88792)
Paluch, R.
Weiss, C.F., and Kershner, R.L.
154
and three out of four female industrial workers do not have sufficient strength to perform certain tasks even occasionally without overexerting themselves. Ergonomic evaluation showed that the racks were either too high or too low. The order selectors are required to lift heavy and bulky loads to a vertical height which exceeds the reach limit for most people and at a horizontal distance which is close to the functional reach limit.
June 1985
Biomechanical and ergonomic stresses in warehouse operations. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 2 5 2 - 2 5 5 .
The determination and estimation of the workplace for the seated operator. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9 May 1984, Edited by D.A. Attwood and C. McCann, Vol 1, pp 386. The purpose of this research study is the determination and estimation of the horizontal workplace on the basis of the movement time of an upper limb for a sitting work posture. The bases for the estimation of a workplace were the differences between the movement times of the tested distance and angle combinations and the movement time at the minimal hand range (10 cm) standardised by a standard deviation of a minimal range. The standardised points on a plane formed the base for drawing the curves of a constant movement time of an arm, The curve of 3 SD delimits a basic work zone of an arm and a curve of 6 SD is a critical value for the reaching operation and an arm displacement. 16.2.33 (89024)
Drury, E.G., and Brill, M. Human factors in consumer product accident investigation. Human Factors, 1983, 2 5 . 3 , 3 2 9 - 3 4 2 . Using task analysis as a basis, a job aid was developed to enable accident investigators to obtain human factors data during their investigations. For each product, a limited number of characteristic accident patterns were found; these are referred to as hazard patterns or scenarios. These patterns were used to stucture 'intelligent' questionnaires, with sections on the victim, the task, the product and the environment.
Illumination 16.2.34 (88816)
Vaidya, V.V. et al A control room lighting study. In: Proceedings of the 1984 International Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Toronto, Ontario, 7 - 9