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Dissociative experiences, creative imagination, and artistic production in students of Fine Arts
Thinking Skills and Creativity 6 (2011) 44–48
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Thinking Skills and Creativity journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tsc
Dissociative experiences, creative imagination, and artistic production in students of Fine Arts María José Pérez-Fabello a,∗ , Alfredo Campos b a b
University of Vigo, Spain University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 20 June 2010 Received in revised form 11 September 2010 Accepted 30 November 2010 Available online 9 December 2010 Keywords: Dissociative experiences Imagination Creativity Artistic production Fine Arts students
a b s t r a c t The current research was designed to assess the influence of dissociative experiences and creative imagination on the artistic production of Fine Arts students of the University of Vigo (Spain). The sample consisted of 81 students who were administered the Creative Imagination Scale and The Dissociative Experiences Scale. To measure artistic production students were given an art assignment requiring them to produce a picture 180 cm × 180 cm in format with freedom of choice regarding technique and materials. The artistic productions were scored on three factors: analysis of the idea, implementation of the idea and technical skill. The results support our working hypothesis that dissociative experiences influence the artistic production of Fine Arts students. Notwithstanding, no significant differences in artistic production were observed between students with high in comparison to low creative imagination. The scarce availability of the literature underscores the need for further research. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Dissociation has been the subject of considerable controversy, and research during the XIX century had reached much eminence in the late XX century (for a review see Pérez & Galdón, 2003). Though the traditional notion of dissociation was drawn from clinical settings, the prevailing perspective is to view it as non-pathological phenomena (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986; Frankel, 1990, 1996). Dissociation encompasses a broad spectrum of experiences ranging from common experiences in normal populations (e.g. transient experiences of absorption or imaginative involvement while driving, reading or watching television) to more pathological forms (characterized by dissociative amnesia, derealization, depersonalization and altered self-perception). These experiences are reflected in the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES), which is a 28-item self-report instrument (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986). Studies on dissociative experiences undertaken on non-clinical samples, mainly undergraduate students, have attempted to establish a nexus between dissociative experiences and normal functioning variables such as absorption and fantasy proneness. One of the most consistent findings is the correlation between dissociative experiences and fantasy proneness and imagination (Levin & Spei, 2003; Lynn & Rhue, 1988; Willson & Barber, 1983). Sapp and Hitchock (2003) found a significant correlation (r = .241, p < .01) between creative imagination and the DES. Several studies have observed that the higher the level of dissociation, the greater the involvement in day dreaming and fantasy proneness (Merckelbach & Jelicic,
∗ Corresponding author at: University of Vigo, Faculty of Fine Arts, Rúa Maestranza, 2, 36002 Pontevedra, Spain. Tel.: +34 986 801 879; fax: +34 986 801 885. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.J. Pérez-Fabello). 1871-1871/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2010.11.001
M.J. Pérez-Fabello, A. Campos / Thinking Skills and Creativity 6 (2011) 44–48
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2004; Merckelbach, Muris, Rassin, & Horselenberg, 2000; Waldo & Merritt, 2000). Parra (2007) found significant differences between the variables fantasy proneness, psychological absorption and dissociative experiences and the variable of hallucinogenic experiences in normal individuals. These variables together with the visual imagery and/or cognitive and perceptual variables have been associated with out-of-body experiences (Parra, 2008). Hence, undergraduate students with high scores in fantasy proneness psychological absorption, dissociative experiences, visual imagery as well as other cognitive and perceptual variables had more hallucinogenic and out-of-body experiences than participants who scored low on these variables. Dissociation has also been associated with a cognitive style reliant on mental imagery (Vannucci & Mazzoni, 2006, 2009). In non-clinical samples, there is considerable discrepancy regarding the findings i.e., several studies have found no significant correlations between dissociative experiences and some aspects of mental imagery vividness (Heaps & Nash, 1999; Vannucci & Mazzoni, 2006, 2009; Winograd, Peluso, & Glover, 1998). In contrast, other authors have reported significant correlations between dissociation and the degree of imaginative suggestibility (Winograd et al., 1998), a strong positive significant association between the DES and a specific aspect of mental imagery, namely the production and use of mental imagery of future events (Vannucci & Mazzoni, 2006), and have found that individuals with a higher level of dissociation report a greater use of an imagery-based strategy (Giolas & Sanders, 1992; Vannucci & Mazzoni, 2006). Traditionally, dissociative experiences have been associated with classical notions of creativity i.e., creative inspiration is said to occur in an altered state of consciousness; thus, individuals who report frequent depersonalization experiences score high for fantasy proneness and imagination, similar to creative individuals (see Martindale, 1989). Likewise Wolfradt and Pretz (2001) note that depersonalization or unusual perceptual experiences may be closely linked to creativity. Grosso (1998) views creative dissociation in relation to inspiration, mediumship, and surrealism. Similarly, Csikszentmihalyi (1996) defines it as a “flow”, a state of optimum experience, moments in which one finds oneself possessed by a profound feeling of creative bliss, moments of active concentration, absorption in what one is doing at the time, experiences similar to those described in the DES. Nevertheless, the results obtained in experimental studies are considerably contradictory in terms of the relationship between dissociative experiences and creativity ranging from significant relations (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, in press; Sapp & Hitchock, 2003), to the absence of any relationship whatsoever (Wolfradt & Pretz, 2001). Creativity is considered to be a key factor in the world of art (see Runco, 2007); nevertheless, the data from experimental studies do not substantiate the claim either among high school students (Campos, González, & Calderón, 1996a; Campos, González, & Calderón, 2000) or university students, including Fine Arts students (Campos & González, 1993; Campos & González, 1994; Campos, González, & Pérez, 1996; Pérez-Fabello & Campos, 2007). Campos and González (1993) and PérezFabello and Campos (2007) note there are several types of creativity associated with specific fields, which underscores the need to apply an array of measurement instruments in order to assess possible significant relations. Recent studies have found a greater frequency of dissociative experiences among Fine Arts students than among Psychology students (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, submitted for publication) or Social Education students (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, 2009). Moreover, significant differences in creativity (creative imagination and creative experiences) have been observed among Fine Arts students with high as opposed to low dissociative experiences (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, in press). Therefore, the aim of this study, in line with previous research, was to assess the influence of dissociative experiences and creative imagination on the artistic production of Fine Arts students in the undertaking of an art assignment i.e., to produce a picture. 2. Method The sample consisted of 81 students from the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Vigo, Spain (61 women and 20 men). The mean age was 19.94 year (SD = 1.76, range 18–24 years). All participated voluntarily. 2.1. Materials and procedure The Creative Imagination Scale (CIS) (Wilson & Barber, 1978), which assesses subjective responses to ten test-suggestions was translated into Spanish. The ten suggestions provide descriptions that guide respondents to use their own thinking and creative imagination in order to experience the suggested effects. The experiences involved visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, and olfactory sensations. The students were administered the CIS, and asked to rate their experiences for each of the ten test-suggestions by indicating the extent to which each imagined experience matched the corresponding real experience on a five-point scale ranging from: “Not at all the same” as the real thing (score of 0) to “Almost exactly the same” as the real thing (score of 4). Thus scores on each of the ten test-suggestions can range from 0 to 4, and overall scale score on the CIS can range from 0 to 40. The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986, Spanish version by Icarán, Colom, & Orengo, 1996) is a self-report instrument to measure dissociative symptoms in both normal and clinical populations. Items include experiences of amnesia, gaps in the continuity of awareness, depersonalization, derealization, absorption, and identity alteration. Examples of DES items include having no memory for important past events in one’s life (autobiographical amnesia), being in a familiar place and finding it strange and unfamiliar (derealization), feeling as if one’s body is not one’s own (depersonalization), becoming so absorbed in watching television or a movie that one is unaware of what is happening (absorption), and feeling as if one is two different people (identity alteration). Instructions on the cover sheet specify that participants should not include experiences that occurred when they were under the influence of alcohol or drugs. To answer DES questions
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M.J. Pérez-Fabello, A. Campos / Thinking Skills and Creativity 6 (2011) 44–48
circle the percentage of time that dissociative experiences occur (given in 10% increments ranging from 0 to 100). Total scores are calculated by averaging the 28-item scores. The assessment of artistic production involved an art assignment i.e., a picture 180 cm × 180 cm in format. The entire process from inception to creation was assessed in terms of the choice of a stimulus taken from the outside world, followed by the analysis of the stimulus, and finally the conclusion in terms of the transformed stimulus into an artistic idea and ˜ product. The art project designed by the lecturer Marina Nunez in her painting class in the Faculty of Fine Arts, involved choosing a subjective stereotype to deconstruct. Thus, once the concept had been defined, the student was required to stage a scene or dramatize the deconstruction, and then photograph it. Thereafter, students were asked to produce a freestyle painting in large format (minimum 1.80 cm square) using the photographic material. Three criteria were appraised: formulation of the idea, implementation of the idea, and technical skill. 1. Formulation of the Idea involved three factors: Pertinence, Discourse Complexity, and Total. The score for Pertinence ranged from 0 to 10 points (according to whether the deconstruction of the stereotype was adequate, contemporary and significant, and the degree to which the idea was obvious; 0 “not very adequate and very evident”, and 10 “very adequate and not obvious”). The score for Discourse Complexity ranged from 0 to 10 (according to originality and the power of invocation; 0 “not very complex”, and 10 “very complex”). The Total score for the Formulation of the Idea involved the sum of Pertinence and Discourse Complexity, the maximum score being 20. Moreover, for the scoring of the Formulation of the Idea students were individually interviewed and asked to explain their ideas concerning their chosen stereotype. 2. Implementation of the Idea involved three factors: Visual Impact, Formal Complexity, and Total. The score for Visual Impact ranged from 0 to 10 (according to the emotional value of the product, 0 “little emotional value”, and 10 “high emotional value”). The score for Formal Complexity ranged from 0 to 10 (in relation to the degree of sophistication in the representation, 0 “little formal complexity”, and 10 “great formal complexity”). The Total score for Implementation of the Idea was derived by adding the scores for Visual Impact and Formal Complexity, the maximum score being 20. The evaluation of Implementation of the Idea was undertaken using the photographed scenes as well as the final product i.e., the large painting. 3. Technical skill, the score ranged from 0 to 20 according to several criteria of technical skill such as mastery of colour, form, gesture, volume, perspective, etc.; 0 “little technical skill” and 20 “great technical skill”. Technical skill was also assessed taking into account the final artistic product i.e., the large picture. The students worked on painting class for approximately two hours per week for a four-month period in groups of 20–30. Moreover, they were administered the CIS and the DES. All participants received academic credits for participating in the study and students were assured their results would remain strictly confidential. For the analyses described below, participants were divided into high or low in the CIS and the DES according to whether their score was above or below the whole-sample mean. The analysis of the data was conducted by the authors of the article. 3. Results The internal consistency as measured by Cronbach’s ˛, was .69 for the CIS, and .88 for the DES, which is similar to the results reported in other studies. Yu (2005) found in a sample of Hong Kong university students that both the alpha reliability coefficient and the Guttman split-half coefficient for the 10 CIS components were .71. Pérez-Fabello and Campos (submitted for publication) found an internal consistency for the DES was .90 for Fine Arts students, .89 for Psychology students, and .91 for the entire sample (Cronbach’s ˛). In order to determine any significant differences between high or low dissociative experiences and creative imagination in artistic production (i.e., Formulation of the Idea, and Implementation of the Idea), two Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) were conducted with DES performance (high or low) and CIS performance (high or low) as independent variables, and the different factors of creative production as dependent variables. The results show DES scores influenced the Formulation of the Idea, Wilks’ lambda distribution = .77, F(2, 76) = 9.049, p < .001, power = .97 (see means and standard deviations in Table 1). Later univariate analysis revealed significant differences in Pertinence, F(1, 77) = 12.953, p < .001, power = .94; Discoursal Complexity, F(1, 77) = 17.971, p < .001, power = .99; and the Total, F(1, 77) = 17.856, p < .001, power = .99. In comparison, the CIS scores did not influence the Formulation of the Idea, Wilks’ lambda = .99, F(2, 76) = .202, p > .05, power = .08. The interaction between the two variables was not significant at the 5% level, Wilks’ lambda distribution = .98, F(2, 76) = .783, p > .05, power = .18. Moreover, DES scores also influenced the Implementation of the Idea, Wilks’ lambda = .90, F(2, 76) = 3.539, p < .05, power = .64 (see means and standard deviations in Table 1). Later univariate analysis showed significant differences in Visual Impact, F(1, 77) = 6.510, p < .05, power = .71; Formal Complexity, F(1, 77) = 6.622, p < .05, power = .72; and the Total, F(1, 77) = 7.189, p < .01, power = .75. Fine Arts students scoring high on the DES obtained higher scores in the different levels of Formulation of the Idea and Implementation of the Idea than those who scored low on the DES. In comparison, the CIS score did not influence the Implementation of the Idea, Wilks’ lambda = .93, F(2, 76) = 2.397, p > .05, power = .47. The interaction between the two variables was not significant, Wilks’ lambda distribution = .96, F(2, 76) = 1.286, p > .05, power = .27. To determine the influence of dissociative experiences and creative imagination on Technical Skills, an ANOVA was carried out with DES performance (high or low) and CIS performance (high or low) as independent variables and Technical
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Table 1 Means and standard deviation of artistic production with high and low DES and CIS scores. Creative production
DES
CIS
High
Formulation of the Idea p DC Total Implementation of Idea VI FC Total Technical Skill
Low
Total
High
Low
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
8.0 8.27 16.27
.62 .75 1.20
7.28 7.20 14.48
.93 1.14 1.97
7.58 7.68 15.25
.93 1.09 1.91
7.53 7.55 15.09
.85 1.19 1.95
7.56 7.62 15.18
.89 1.13 1.92
7.96 7.75 15.71 17.37
1.29 1.16 2.32 1.31
7.18 7.03 14.20 16.76
1.31 1.18 2.38 1.34
7.31 7.30 14.61 16.91
1.41 1.32 2.62 1.47
7.71 7.33 15.03 17.12
1.26 1.09 2.25 1.20
7.48 7.31 14.80 17.00
1.35 1.21 2.46 1.35
Note: P, Pertinence; DC, Discoursal Complexity; VI, Visual Impact; FC, Formal Complexity; DES, Dissociative Experiences Scale; CIS, Creative Imagination Scale.
Skill as the dependent variable. The results indicate the scores obtained by the participants on the DES influenced Technical Skill, F(1, 77) = 3.986, p < .05, power = .50 (see means and standard deviations in Table 1). Fine Arts students scoring high on the DES obtained higher scores in Technical Skill than those who scored low on the DES. However, the scores obtained by participants on the CIS did not influence Technical Skill, F(1, 77) = .941, p > .05, power = .16. The interaction between the CIS and the DES was not significant, F(1, 77) = 3.549, p > .05, power = .46. 4. Discussion The results of this study reveal significant differences in artistic production (Formulation of the Idea, Implementation of the Idea, and Technical Skill) between Fine Arts students scoring high or low in dissociative experiences. Fine Arts students who obtained high scores for dissociative experiences obtained high scores in Formulation of the Idea (Pertinence, Discoursal Complexity and Total), Implementation of the Idea (Visual Impact, Formal Complexity and Total), and Technical Skill. The results support the hypothesis that the dissociative experiences of Fine Arts students influenced the outcome of artistic production given that artistic activity entails levels of absorption, fantasy and dissociation. Previous studies have corroborated the association between dissociative experiences and creativity, a fundamental variable for artistic production both at an experimental level (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, in press; Sapp & Hitchock, 2003) and in theoretical assumptions (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Martindale, 1989; Wolfradt & Pretz, 2001). However, no significant differences were observed in artistic production between students with high or low creative imagination. Similar results have been reported by PérezFabello and Campos (2007) using the same creative imagination scale of academic performance of Fine Arts students. In our opinion the results of our study of the Creative Imagination Scale are a measure of general aspects of creativity whereas the ad hoc test of the creative product is more specifically related to artistic creativity. As the literature on dissociation and visual Arts is scarce further research is required to assess our working hypothesis. In line with Putnam (1994), we assert that many dissociative experiences regarded as pathological in adults are considered as normal for young children or adolescents and even positive for their development, as is the case with “make-believe”, including imaginary phenomena such as the “imaginary friend”. In the field of students of Fine Arts, dissociative experiences may prove positive and productive by enriching creativity. Notwithstanding, further studies using other measures of creativity are required to assess the specific artistic productions of Fine Arts. Acknowledgment ˜ for her collaboration in the development and evaluation process The authors would like to thank the artist Marina Núnez of artistic production. References Bernstein, E. M., & Putnam, F. W. (1986). Development, reliability and validity of a dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 727–735. Campos, A., & González, M. A. (1993). Creatividad y rendimiento académico en estudiantes de Bellas Artes, Ciencias y Letras [Creativity and academic performance of students in Arts, Sciences and Letters]. Adaxe, 9, 19–28. Campos, A., & González, M. A. (1994). ¿Es la creatividad un factor determinante en los estudios de Bellas Artes? [Is creativity a key factor in studies of Fine Arts?] Revista Galega de Psicopedagoxía, 8–9, 209–217. Campos, A., González, M. A., & Calderón, M. L. (1996a). Incidencia del control de imagen y la producción creativa en las calificaciones de bachillerato [Impact of image control and creative production skills in high school]. Adaxe, 12, 9–15. Campos, A., González, M. A., & Calderón, M. L. (2000). Imágenes y creatividad: Su relación con el rendimiento académico [Images and Creativity: Its relation to academic performance]. Revista de Educación, 321, 343–350. Campos, A., González, M. A., & Pérez, M. J. (1996b). Control de imagen, pensamiento creativo y rendimiento académico en Bellas Artes [Image control, creative thinking and academic achievement in Fine Arts]. Revista Galega de Psicopedagogía, 13, 245–252. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity. Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper-Collins.
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Frankel, F. H. (1990). Hypnotizability and dissociation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 823–829. Frankel, F. H. (1996). Dissociation: The clinical realities. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 64–70. Giolas, M. J., & Sanders, B. (1992). Pain and suffering as a function of dissociation level and instructional set. Dissociation, 5, 205–209. Grosso, M. (1998). Inspiration, mediumship, surrealism: The concept of creative dissociation. In S. Krippner, & S. M. Powers (Eds.), Broken images, broken selves: Dissociative narratives in clinical practice (pp. 181–198). Washington, DC: Brunner/Mazel. Heaps, C., & Nash, M. (1999). Individual differences in imagination inflation. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 6, 313–318. Icarán, E., Colom, R., & Orengo, F. (1996). Experiencias disociativas: Una escala de medida [Dissociative experiences: A scale of measure]. Anuario de Psicología, 70, 69–84. Levin, R., & Spei, E. (2003). Relationship of purported measures of pathological and nonpathological dissociation to self-reported psychological distress and fantasy immersion. Assessment, 11, 160–168. Lynn, S. J., & Rhue, J. W. (1988). Fantasy proneness: Hypnosis, developmental antecedents, and psychopathology. American Psychologist, 43, 35–44. Martindale, C. (1989). Personality, situation, and creativity. In J. A. Glover, R. R. Ronning, & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 211–232). New York: Plenum Press. Merckelbach, H., & Jelicic, M. (2004). Dissociative symptoms are related to endorsement of vague trauma items. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 45, 70–75. Merckelbach, H., Muris, P., Rassin, E., & Horselenberg, R. (2000). Dissociative experiences and interrogative suggestibility in college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 1133–1140. Parra, A. (2007). Interrelación entre disociación, absorción y propensidad a la fantasía con experiencias alucinatorias en población no-clínica [Interrelation between dissociation, absorption and fantasy-prone to hallucinatory experiences in non-clinical population]. Alcmeon, 14, 61–71. Parra, A. (2008). La experiencias extracorpóreas y las experiencias alucinatorias: Relación con variables cognitivas y perceptuales [The extracorporeal experiences and hallucinatory experiences: Relation to cognitive and perceptual variables]. Revista Liberabit, 14, 5–14. Pérez, S., & Galdón, M. J. (2003). Los fenómenos disociativos: Una revisión conceptual [Dissociative fenomena: A conceptual review]. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 8, 85–108. Pérez-Fabello, M. J., & Campos, A. (2007). Creatividad y rendimiento académico de los estudiantes de Bellas Artes [Creativity and academic performance of students of Fine Arts]. Revista Galego-Portuguesa de Psicología e Educación, 15, 127–133. Pérez-Fabello, M. J., & Campos, A. (2009). ¿Son las expericencias disociativas una característica distintivas de los estudiantes de Bellas Artes? Un estudio preliminar [Are the dissociative experiences a distinguishing characteristic of students of Fine Arts? A preliminary study]. In B. D. Silva, L. S. Almeida, A. Barca, M. Peralbo (Eds.), Actas do X Congresso Internacional Galego-Português de Psicopedagogia (pp.563-568). Braga, Portugal: Universidade do Minho. Pérez-Fabello, M. J., & Campos, A. (in press). Dissociative experiences and creativity in Fine Arts students. Creativity Research Journal. Pérez-Fabello, M. J., & Campos, A. (submitted for publication). The dissociative experiences of Fine Arts students. Putnam, F. W. (1994). Dissociative disorders in children and adolescents. In S. J. Lynn, & J. W. Rhue (Eds.), Dissociation. Clinical and Theoretical Perspectives (pp. 175–189). New York: Guilford. Runco, M. A. (2007). Creativity. Theories and themes: Research, development, and practice. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. Sapp, M., & Hitchock, K. (2003). Creative imagination, absorption, and dissociation with African American college students. Sleep and Hypnosis, 5, 95–104. Vannucci, M., & Mazzoni, G. (2006). Dissociative experiences and mental imagery in undergraduate students: When mental images are used to foresee uncertain future events. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 1143–1153. Vannucci, M., & Mazzoni, G. (2009). Individual differences in object and spatial imagery: Personality correlates. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 402–405. Waldo, T. G., & Merritt, R. D. (2000). Fantasy proneness, dissociation, and DSM-IV axis II symptomatology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 555–558. Wilson, S. C., & Barber, T. X. (1978). The Creative Imagination Scale as a measure of hypnotic responsiveness: Applications to experimental and clinical hypnosis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 20, 235–249. Willson, S. C., & Barber, T. X. (1983). Fantasy-prone personality: Implications for understanding imagery, hypnosis, and parapsychological phenomena. In A. A. Sheikh (Ed.), Imagery: Current theory, research, and application (pp. 340–387). New York: Wiley. Winograd, E., Peluso, J. P., & Glover, T. A. (1998). Individual differences in susceptibility to memory illusions. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, S5–S27. Wolfradt, W., & Pretz, J. E. (2001). Individual differences in creativity: Personality, story writing, and hobbies. European Journal of Personality, 15, 297–310. Yu, C. K. (2005). Suggestibility of the Chinese as revealed by the Creative Imagination Scale. Contemparty Hypnosis, 22, 77–83.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Thinking Skills and Creativity journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tsc
Dissociative experiences, creative imagination, and artistic production in students of Fine Arts María José Pérez-Fabello a,∗ , Alfredo Campos b a b
University of Vigo, Spain University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 20 June 2010 Received in revised form 11 September 2010 Accepted 30 November 2010 Available online 9 December 2010 Keywords: Dissociative experiences Imagination Creativity Artistic production Fine Arts students
a b s t r a c t The current research was designed to assess the influence of dissociative experiences and creative imagination on the artistic production of Fine Arts students of the University of Vigo (Spain). The sample consisted of 81 students who were administered the Creative Imagination Scale and The Dissociative Experiences Scale. To measure artistic production students were given an art assignment requiring them to produce a picture 180 cm × 180 cm in format with freedom of choice regarding technique and materials. The artistic productions were scored on three factors: analysis of the idea, implementation of the idea and technical skill. The results support our working hypothesis that dissociative experiences influence the artistic production of Fine Arts students. Notwithstanding, no significant differences in artistic production were observed between students with high in comparison to low creative imagination. The scarce availability of the literature underscores the need for further research. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Dissociation has been the subject of considerable controversy, and research during the XIX century had reached much eminence in the late XX century (for a review see Pérez & Galdón, 2003). Though the traditional notion of dissociation was drawn from clinical settings, the prevailing perspective is to view it as non-pathological phenomena (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986; Frankel, 1990, 1996). Dissociation encompasses a broad spectrum of experiences ranging from common experiences in normal populations (e.g. transient experiences of absorption or imaginative involvement while driving, reading or watching television) to more pathological forms (characterized by dissociative amnesia, derealization, depersonalization and altered self-perception). These experiences are reflected in the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES), which is a 28-item self-report instrument (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986). Studies on dissociative experiences undertaken on non-clinical samples, mainly undergraduate students, have attempted to establish a nexus between dissociative experiences and normal functioning variables such as absorption and fantasy proneness. One of the most consistent findings is the correlation between dissociative experiences and fantasy proneness and imagination (Levin & Spei, 2003; Lynn & Rhue, 1988; Willson & Barber, 1983). Sapp and Hitchock (2003) found a significant correlation (r = .241, p < .01) between creative imagination and the DES. Several studies have observed that the higher the level of dissociation, the greater the involvement in day dreaming and fantasy proneness (Merckelbach & Jelicic,
∗ Corresponding author at: University of Vigo, Faculty of Fine Arts, Rúa Maestranza, 2, 36002 Pontevedra, Spain. Tel.: +34 986 801 879; fax: +34 986 801 885. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.J. Pérez-Fabello). 1871-1871/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2010.11.001
M.J. Pérez-Fabello, A. Campos / Thinking Skills and Creativity 6 (2011) 44–48
45
2004; Merckelbach, Muris, Rassin, & Horselenberg, 2000; Waldo & Merritt, 2000). Parra (2007) found significant differences between the variables fantasy proneness, psychological absorption and dissociative experiences and the variable of hallucinogenic experiences in normal individuals. These variables together with the visual imagery and/or cognitive and perceptual variables have been associated with out-of-body experiences (Parra, 2008). Hence, undergraduate students with high scores in fantasy proneness psychological absorption, dissociative experiences, visual imagery as well as other cognitive and perceptual variables had more hallucinogenic and out-of-body experiences than participants who scored low on these variables. Dissociation has also been associated with a cognitive style reliant on mental imagery (Vannucci & Mazzoni, 2006, 2009). In non-clinical samples, there is considerable discrepancy regarding the findings i.e., several studies have found no significant correlations between dissociative experiences and some aspects of mental imagery vividness (Heaps & Nash, 1999; Vannucci & Mazzoni, 2006, 2009; Winograd, Peluso, & Glover, 1998). In contrast, other authors have reported significant correlations between dissociation and the degree of imaginative suggestibility (Winograd et al., 1998), a strong positive significant association between the DES and a specific aspect of mental imagery, namely the production and use of mental imagery of future events (Vannucci & Mazzoni, 2006), and have found that individuals with a higher level of dissociation report a greater use of an imagery-based strategy (Giolas & Sanders, 1992; Vannucci & Mazzoni, 2006). Traditionally, dissociative experiences have been associated with classical notions of creativity i.e., creative inspiration is said to occur in an altered state of consciousness; thus, individuals who report frequent depersonalization experiences score high for fantasy proneness and imagination, similar to creative individuals (see Martindale, 1989). Likewise Wolfradt and Pretz (2001) note that depersonalization or unusual perceptual experiences may be closely linked to creativity. Grosso (1998) views creative dissociation in relation to inspiration, mediumship, and surrealism. Similarly, Csikszentmihalyi (1996) defines it as a “flow”, a state of optimum experience, moments in which one finds oneself possessed by a profound feeling of creative bliss, moments of active concentration, absorption in what one is doing at the time, experiences similar to those described in the DES. Nevertheless, the results obtained in experimental studies are considerably contradictory in terms of the relationship between dissociative experiences and creativity ranging from significant relations (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, in press; Sapp & Hitchock, 2003), to the absence of any relationship whatsoever (Wolfradt & Pretz, 2001). Creativity is considered to be a key factor in the world of art (see Runco, 2007); nevertheless, the data from experimental studies do not substantiate the claim either among high school students (Campos, González, & Calderón, 1996a; Campos, González, & Calderón, 2000) or university students, including Fine Arts students (Campos & González, 1993; Campos & González, 1994; Campos, González, & Pérez, 1996; Pérez-Fabello & Campos, 2007). Campos and González (1993) and PérezFabello and Campos (2007) note there are several types of creativity associated with specific fields, which underscores the need to apply an array of measurement instruments in order to assess possible significant relations. Recent studies have found a greater frequency of dissociative experiences among Fine Arts students than among Psychology students (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, submitted for publication) or Social Education students (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, 2009). Moreover, significant differences in creativity (creative imagination and creative experiences) have been observed among Fine Arts students with high as opposed to low dissociative experiences (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, in press). Therefore, the aim of this study, in line with previous research, was to assess the influence of dissociative experiences and creative imagination on the artistic production of Fine Arts students in the undertaking of an art assignment i.e., to produce a picture. 2. Method The sample consisted of 81 students from the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Vigo, Spain (61 women and 20 men). The mean age was 19.94 year (SD = 1.76, range 18–24 years). All participated voluntarily. 2.1. Materials and procedure The Creative Imagination Scale (CIS) (Wilson & Barber, 1978), which assesses subjective responses to ten test-suggestions was translated into Spanish. The ten suggestions provide descriptions that guide respondents to use their own thinking and creative imagination in order to experience the suggested effects. The experiences involved visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, and olfactory sensations. The students were administered the CIS, and asked to rate their experiences for each of the ten test-suggestions by indicating the extent to which each imagined experience matched the corresponding real experience on a five-point scale ranging from: “Not at all the same” as the real thing (score of 0) to “Almost exactly the same” as the real thing (score of 4). Thus scores on each of the ten test-suggestions can range from 0 to 4, and overall scale score on the CIS can range from 0 to 40. The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986, Spanish version by Icarán, Colom, & Orengo, 1996) is a self-report instrument to measure dissociative symptoms in both normal and clinical populations. Items include experiences of amnesia, gaps in the continuity of awareness, depersonalization, derealization, absorption, and identity alteration. Examples of DES items include having no memory for important past events in one’s life (autobiographical amnesia), being in a familiar place and finding it strange and unfamiliar (derealization), feeling as if one’s body is not one’s own (depersonalization), becoming so absorbed in watching television or a movie that one is unaware of what is happening (absorption), and feeling as if one is two different people (identity alteration). Instructions on the cover sheet specify that participants should not include experiences that occurred when they were under the influence of alcohol or drugs. To answer DES questions
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circle the percentage of time that dissociative experiences occur (given in 10% increments ranging from 0 to 100). Total scores are calculated by averaging the 28-item scores. The assessment of artistic production involved an art assignment i.e., a picture 180 cm × 180 cm in format. The entire process from inception to creation was assessed in terms of the choice of a stimulus taken from the outside world, followed by the analysis of the stimulus, and finally the conclusion in terms of the transformed stimulus into an artistic idea and ˜ product. The art project designed by the lecturer Marina Nunez in her painting class in the Faculty of Fine Arts, involved choosing a subjective stereotype to deconstruct. Thus, once the concept had been defined, the student was required to stage a scene or dramatize the deconstruction, and then photograph it. Thereafter, students were asked to produce a freestyle painting in large format (minimum 1.80 cm square) using the photographic material. Three criteria were appraised: formulation of the idea, implementation of the idea, and technical skill. 1. Formulation of the Idea involved three factors: Pertinence, Discourse Complexity, and Total. The score for Pertinence ranged from 0 to 10 points (according to whether the deconstruction of the stereotype was adequate, contemporary and significant, and the degree to which the idea was obvious; 0 “not very adequate and very evident”, and 10 “very adequate and not obvious”). The score for Discourse Complexity ranged from 0 to 10 (according to originality and the power of invocation; 0 “not very complex”, and 10 “very complex”). The Total score for the Formulation of the Idea involved the sum of Pertinence and Discourse Complexity, the maximum score being 20. Moreover, for the scoring of the Formulation of the Idea students were individually interviewed and asked to explain their ideas concerning their chosen stereotype. 2. Implementation of the Idea involved three factors: Visual Impact, Formal Complexity, and Total. The score for Visual Impact ranged from 0 to 10 (according to the emotional value of the product, 0 “little emotional value”, and 10 “high emotional value”). The score for Formal Complexity ranged from 0 to 10 (in relation to the degree of sophistication in the representation, 0 “little formal complexity”, and 10 “great formal complexity”). The Total score for Implementation of the Idea was derived by adding the scores for Visual Impact and Formal Complexity, the maximum score being 20. The evaluation of Implementation of the Idea was undertaken using the photographed scenes as well as the final product i.e., the large painting. 3. Technical skill, the score ranged from 0 to 20 according to several criteria of technical skill such as mastery of colour, form, gesture, volume, perspective, etc.; 0 “little technical skill” and 20 “great technical skill”. Technical skill was also assessed taking into account the final artistic product i.e., the large picture. The students worked on painting class for approximately two hours per week for a four-month period in groups of 20–30. Moreover, they were administered the CIS and the DES. All participants received academic credits for participating in the study and students were assured their results would remain strictly confidential. For the analyses described below, participants were divided into high or low in the CIS and the DES according to whether their score was above or below the whole-sample mean. The analysis of the data was conducted by the authors of the article. 3. Results The internal consistency as measured by Cronbach’s ˛, was .69 for the CIS, and .88 for the DES, which is similar to the results reported in other studies. Yu (2005) found in a sample of Hong Kong university students that both the alpha reliability coefficient and the Guttman split-half coefficient for the 10 CIS components were .71. Pérez-Fabello and Campos (submitted for publication) found an internal consistency for the DES was .90 for Fine Arts students, .89 for Psychology students, and .91 for the entire sample (Cronbach’s ˛). In order to determine any significant differences between high or low dissociative experiences and creative imagination in artistic production (i.e., Formulation of the Idea, and Implementation of the Idea), two Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) were conducted with DES performance (high or low) and CIS performance (high or low) as independent variables, and the different factors of creative production as dependent variables. The results show DES scores influenced the Formulation of the Idea, Wilks’ lambda distribution = .77, F(2, 76) = 9.049, p < .001, power = .97 (see means and standard deviations in Table 1). Later univariate analysis revealed significant differences in Pertinence, F(1, 77) = 12.953, p < .001, power = .94; Discoursal Complexity, F(1, 77) = 17.971, p < .001, power = .99; and the Total, F(1, 77) = 17.856, p < .001, power = .99. In comparison, the CIS scores did not influence the Formulation of the Idea, Wilks’ lambda = .99, F(2, 76) = .202, p > .05, power = .08. The interaction between the two variables was not significant at the 5% level, Wilks’ lambda distribution = .98, F(2, 76) = .783, p > .05, power = .18. Moreover, DES scores also influenced the Implementation of the Idea, Wilks’ lambda = .90, F(2, 76) = 3.539, p < .05, power = .64 (see means and standard deviations in Table 1). Later univariate analysis showed significant differences in Visual Impact, F(1, 77) = 6.510, p < .05, power = .71; Formal Complexity, F(1, 77) = 6.622, p < .05, power = .72; and the Total, F(1, 77) = 7.189, p < .01, power = .75. Fine Arts students scoring high on the DES obtained higher scores in the different levels of Formulation of the Idea and Implementation of the Idea than those who scored low on the DES. In comparison, the CIS score did not influence the Implementation of the Idea, Wilks’ lambda = .93, F(2, 76) = 2.397, p > .05, power = .47. The interaction between the two variables was not significant, Wilks’ lambda distribution = .96, F(2, 76) = 1.286, p > .05, power = .27. To determine the influence of dissociative experiences and creative imagination on Technical Skills, an ANOVA was carried out with DES performance (high or low) and CIS performance (high or low) as independent variables and Technical
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Table 1 Means and standard deviation of artistic production with high and low DES and CIS scores. Creative production
DES
CIS
High
Formulation of the Idea p DC Total Implementation of Idea VI FC Total Technical Skill
Low
Total
High
Low
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
8.0 8.27 16.27
.62 .75 1.20
7.28 7.20 14.48
.93 1.14 1.97
7.58 7.68 15.25
.93 1.09 1.91
7.53 7.55 15.09
.85 1.19 1.95
7.56 7.62 15.18
.89 1.13 1.92
7.96 7.75 15.71 17.37
1.29 1.16 2.32 1.31
7.18 7.03 14.20 16.76
1.31 1.18 2.38 1.34
7.31 7.30 14.61 16.91
1.41 1.32 2.62 1.47
7.71 7.33 15.03 17.12
1.26 1.09 2.25 1.20
7.48 7.31 14.80 17.00
1.35 1.21 2.46 1.35
Note: P, Pertinence; DC, Discoursal Complexity; VI, Visual Impact; FC, Formal Complexity; DES, Dissociative Experiences Scale; CIS, Creative Imagination Scale.
Skill as the dependent variable. The results indicate the scores obtained by the participants on the DES influenced Technical Skill, F(1, 77) = 3.986, p < .05, power = .50 (see means and standard deviations in Table 1). Fine Arts students scoring high on the DES obtained higher scores in Technical Skill than those who scored low on the DES. However, the scores obtained by participants on the CIS did not influence Technical Skill, F(1, 77) = .941, p > .05, power = .16. The interaction between the CIS and the DES was not significant, F(1, 77) = 3.549, p > .05, power = .46. 4. Discussion The results of this study reveal significant differences in artistic production (Formulation of the Idea, Implementation of the Idea, and Technical Skill) between Fine Arts students scoring high or low in dissociative experiences. Fine Arts students who obtained high scores for dissociative experiences obtained high scores in Formulation of the Idea (Pertinence, Discoursal Complexity and Total), Implementation of the Idea (Visual Impact, Formal Complexity and Total), and Technical Skill. The results support the hypothesis that the dissociative experiences of Fine Arts students influenced the outcome of artistic production given that artistic activity entails levels of absorption, fantasy and dissociation. Previous studies have corroborated the association between dissociative experiences and creativity, a fundamental variable for artistic production both at an experimental level (Pérez-Fabello & Campos, in press; Sapp & Hitchock, 2003) and in theoretical assumptions (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Martindale, 1989; Wolfradt & Pretz, 2001). However, no significant differences were observed in artistic production between students with high or low creative imagination. Similar results have been reported by PérezFabello and Campos (2007) using the same creative imagination scale of academic performance of Fine Arts students. In our opinion the results of our study of the Creative Imagination Scale are a measure of general aspects of creativity whereas the ad hoc test of the creative product is more specifically related to artistic creativity. As the literature on dissociation and visual Arts is scarce further research is required to assess our working hypothesis. In line with Putnam (1994), we assert that many dissociative experiences regarded as pathological in adults are considered as normal for young children or adolescents and even positive for their development, as is the case with “make-believe”, including imaginary phenomena such as the “imaginary friend”. In the field of students of Fine Arts, dissociative experiences may prove positive and productive by enriching creativity. Notwithstanding, further studies using other measures of creativity are required to assess the specific artistic productions of Fine Arts. Acknowledgment ˜ for her collaboration in the development and evaluation process The authors would like to thank the artist Marina Núnez of artistic production. References Bernstein, E. M., & Putnam, F. W. (1986). Development, reliability and validity of a dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 727–735. Campos, A., & González, M. A. (1993). Creatividad y rendimiento académico en estudiantes de Bellas Artes, Ciencias y Letras [Creativity and academic performance of students in Arts, Sciences and Letters]. Adaxe, 9, 19–28. Campos, A., & González, M. A. (1994). ¿Es la creatividad un factor determinante en los estudios de Bellas Artes? [Is creativity a key factor in studies of Fine Arts?] Revista Galega de Psicopedagoxía, 8–9, 209–217. Campos, A., González, M. A., & Calderón, M. L. (1996a). Incidencia del control de imagen y la producción creativa en las calificaciones de bachillerato [Impact of image control and creative production skills in high school]. Adaxe, 12, 9–15. Campos, A., González, M. A., & Calderón, M. L. (2000). Imágenes y creatividad: Su relación con el rendimiento académico [Images and Creativity: Its relation to academic performance]. Revista de Educación, 321, 343–350. Campos, A., González, M. A., & Pérez, M. J. (1996b). Control de imagen, pensamiento creativo y rendimiento académico en Bellas Artes [Image control, creative thinking and academic achievement in Fine Arts]. Revista Galega de Psicopedagogía, 13, 245–252. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity. Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper-Collins.
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