Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

C H A P T E R

6 Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties Amit Kumar Pandey1, Prafulla Kumar1, M.J. Saxena1, Prabhakar Maurya2 1

Ayurvet Limited Office, Delhi, India; 2CEHTRA Chemical Consultants Pvt Ltd, Delhi, India

O U T L I N E Introduction

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Uses of aromatic plants

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Historic preview

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Present status and conservation initiatives

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Definition of medicinal and aromatic plants

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Conclusion and way forward

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Classification Classification of aromatic plants

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References

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Distribution pattern in the world market

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Introduction Aromatic plants come in Medicinal plants category and collectively they are known as Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAP). These are plants, which provide medicines or help in preservation of health. With the development of science, there is a tremendous increase in scientific knowledge of these plant species that open new paths for their use in many facets of our life (e.g., cosmetics, medicinal products, food and feed additives). According to the World Health Organization (WHO) 30% of the drugs sold worldwide contain compounds

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6. Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

derived from plant materials, which include more than 21,000 taxa (Orzechowski et al., 2002; Giannenas, 2008). Aromatic and Medicinal plants are widely distributed globally including south and southeast Asia, as well as America, Europe, Africa and Australia. In India, more than 7500 species are used in ethnomedicines (Shankar and Majumdar, 1997) which is half of country’s Indian native plant species. China has around 6000 species in use that have medicinal properties (Xiao, 1991). In Africa, over 5000 plant species are used for medicinal purpose (Iwu, 1993). In Europe at least 2000 MAPs are being used and two-thirds of those (1200e1300) are native in the European continent. Most of these plants are still collected in the wild. The pharmacological activity of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) is due to their biologically active ingredients classified into four groups: alkaloids, glycosides, essential oils and other miscellaneous active substances. Secondary metabolites, being end products of metabolic processes of the plants, can be observed through color, taste, or odor, and be determined by chemical analysis. Growth and development of MAPs and their metabolites are influenced by the physical environment, including light, temperature, rainfall, and soil properties. Changes can occur in the course of the plant cycle and even during one single day known as diurnal variations. These aromatic plants are distributed in the whole word and they can be classified according to their cultivation into different climatic zones of the world like tropical, equatorial, temperate etc. The chemical properties/active ingredients of the same species of a plant differs in different climatic zones due to the change in the micro and macro environment of the plant.

Historic preview Plants are the basic lifeline for survival of human life on earth throughout centuries. Plants have been studied by humans from ancient times and are an integral part of the ecosystem for continuance of life cycle running on the earth are the basic producers in the food chain. The knowledge of scientific properties of plants is fundamental to human life on earth. Plants are used in all aspects of our everyday life and humans are dependent on plants for almost every aspect of lifedfrom the breathing air, the food that is consumed, the clothes that are worn, the substances that are being employed in medicine. These essential services provided by plants are far too often taken for granted (World’s Plant Report, 2017). The irony is that for the advancement of human race, the very same plants are used indiscriminately. However, it is undoubtable that whether species of plant Kingdom getting extinct or lost, humanity and the world lose a great deal of scientific knowledge and natural resource. Plants are known to hold keys to some of the most valuable medicinal compounds and it is essential to realize that conservation and propagation of not only domestic but even wild varieties of plants is essential for the continuance and survival of human race (Table 6.1). The agriculturists, pastoralists, famers, animal herders, herbalists of ancient times gathered some knowledge about plants which was passed on from generation to generation and botany as a scientific discipline only emerged much later. There is evidence of knowledge of plants and their properties in ancient Mesopotamian (Milton-Edwards, 2003) and Harappa civilizations (Weber, 1991). Plants have been classified from ancient times into various categories based on their appearance, usages, properties, geographical location and any such

TABLE 6.1 Time-line in history of medicinal and aromatic plants. Book/Monograph/ Treatise/Document

Author(s)

Importance

Geography

800e1000 BC

Sushrut Sutra

Sushruta

Classified plants in 4 categories on basis of flowering pattern structure and life span viz. Vanspataya, Vruksha, Virudh, Aushodh

India

500e300 BC

Hippocratic corpus

Hippocrates

Formalized medicine practices in diagnosis and treatments; list of medicinal plants and application

Greek

372e287 BC

De Causis Plantarum and Historia Plantarum

Theophrastus

Formalized medicine practices in diagnosis and treatments; list of medicinal plants and application

Greek

w150e100 BC

Huangdi Neijing

Author unknown

Theoretical foundation of Chinese medicine, diagnostic methods, and acupuncture

China

w100 BCe100 AC

De Medicina

Celsus

Alexandrian medicine; pharmacopoeia of herbs and the medicines

Greek

w40e90 AD

De Materia Medica

Dioscorides

w23e79 AD

Naturalis Historia

Plinius

A work of 160 volumes, in which he described several plants and gave them Latin names. Many of these names we still recognize, like Populus alba and Populus nigra, and since Latin was later kept for botanical science, we may call him the father of Botanical Latin.

Roman

w200e300 AD

Shennong Bencaojing

Author unknown

Agriculture and medicinal plants; 113 herbal prescriptions and six stages of disease

China

Shanghan Lun

Shang Zhongjing

w500 AD

Treatise on agriculture

Parasara

Classified the plants into many “ganas” or families giving clear picture of the morphology of flowers and fruits.

India

w750e800 AD

The Classic of Tea

Lu Yu wrote

Tea tree, making tea, and tea ceremony

China

91

(Continued)

Historic preview

Time period

92

TABLE 6.1 Time-line in history of medicinal and aromatic plants.dcont'd Time period

Book/Monograph/ Treatise/Document

Importance

Geography

Book of Healing and Canon of Medicine

Avicenna

Clinical trials on medicines; Encyclopedia of medical practices; Scientific and medicinal properties of various plants; Medical encyclopedia

Arabic countries and Germany

Kitab al-Tasrif

Albucasis

Ohysica

Hildegard of Bingen

Kulliyat

Averroes

w1000e1500 AD

Compendium on Simple Medicaments and Foods

Ibn al-Baitar

Pharmacopoeia listing 1400 plants

Arabic countries

w1100 AD

Upaban Vinoda

Sarangadhara

Dealt with different aspects of plant life and classification of plants.

India

w1200e1300 AD

De Vegetabilis

Albert Magnus

Difference in the stem structure of di-cotyledons and Monocotyledons was shown and the two groups were given the terms Tunicate and Corticate.

German

w1530e36 AD

Herbarium vivae Eiconis (3 volumes)

Otto Brunfels

Profusely illustrated with good figures

German

w1498e1554 AD

Nue Kreuterbuch

Jerome Bock

Accurate descriptions of about 600 species of flowering plants.tried to trace the natural relationship of plants while classifying them into 3 major groups, viz., herbs, shrubs, and trees and also noted the original distribution of each species.

German

w1519e1603 AD

De plants in 16 volumes

Andrea Caesalpino Classified the plants on the character of their habit, viz., trees, shrubs, and herbs but also took into account the characters of ovary, fruit, and seed.

Italy

w1545e1612 AD

Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes

John Gerard

England

w800e1000 AD

Heavily illustrated of 1000 plants

6. Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

Author(s)

w1541e1631 AD

Historia plantarum universalis

Bauhin brothers Jean (Johna) Bauhin

Made use of the habit-character of plants in classifying them.

w1560e1624 AD

3 botanical treatises the third one of which, viz., Pinax theatri Botanic

Gaspard (Casper) Bauhin

Formulated the idea of a genus and in many cases gave binary nomenclature to his plants. He also collected all names of plants published in different botanical works till his time and referred them as synonyms along with names he used as correct ones.

w1628e1705 AD

Historia plantarum

John Ray

First to recognise 2 major taxa of flowering plants, viz., Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. He also tried to group the plants into several families which he called “classes”.

England

w1707e1778 AD

Systema Naturae, Species plantarum, Philosophia Botanica

Carolus Linnaeus

He used the character of stamens, i.e., the number and nature of stamens, to distinguish the 20 classes in which he divided the plant kingdom. He also used the number and nature of carpels to distinguish the orders, i.e., subdivisions of his classes.

Sweden

w1862e83 AD

Genera Plantarum

George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker

Elaborate descriptions of each and every genera and of the natural orders were given together with names of all species under each genus, the synonyms, localities and reference to literature.

British

1887e99 AD

Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien

Adolf Engler and Karl Prantl

All the genera of plants were arranged and described systematically. In doing so they proposed a new system of classification for the whole plant kingdom-true phylogenetic system.

Germany

w1900e2000 AD

Aromathérapie

René-Maurice Gattefossé

Aroma and essential oil for medicine

France

w1900e2000 AD

Aromathérapie

René-Maurice Gattefossé

Aroma and essential oil for medicine

France

France eSwitzerland

Historic preview

BC, before Christ; AD, after Christ.

93

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parameter which was simple to identify useful and edible plants and avoid poisonous ones. It was by Theophrastus (372e287 BC), the Greek philosopher-scientist who placed the knowledge of plants on a scientific footing. In “De Causis Plantarum” and “Historia Plantarum” he dealt with the plants at large and attempted to arrange the plants in several groups. For his contributions, he is rightly called the “Father of Botany”. Hippocrates (500e300 BC) in his treatise “Hippocratic corpus” formalized medicine practices in diagnosis and treatments and gave a list of medicinal plants and their application. After him, many philosophers, academics and alike have attempted to understand and classify plants into a reasonable taxonomical classification. Pliny who wrote “Historia Naturalis”, Dioscorides who wrote “Materia Medica” where he described about 600 species of plants mentioning their local name and giving their medicinal properties along with their sketches making the identification much easier, has made the major contributions. In the 13th century, Albert Magnus wrote “De Vegetabilis” where the difference in the stem structure of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons was mentioned. Printed books on plants were available toward the close of the 15th century, which made the study of Botany quite popular. The attempts by Charles Darwin through his book “Organic Evolution” and classification systems by Carolus Linnaeus (1707e78), a Swedish naturalist and Whittaker were the most significant landmarks in the history of understanding of the science of plants. Healing with medicinal plants is as old as mankind itself (Petrovska, 2012). Ancient people became aware of the worth and charm of aromatic and medicinal plants. One guidance for the efficient use of these plant materials is the knowledge retrieved from historical books. Initially, books on use on medicinal and aromatic plants were sourced in various parts of the world, such as the Middle East, Greece, China, and India, indicating that these ancient civilizations used indigenous aromatic and medicinal plants to improve lives in their own separate ways before ideas were shared (Inoue et al., 2017). There is mention in Bible and the holy Jewish book the Talmud, during various rituals accompanying a treatment, aromatic plants were utilized such as myrtle and incense (Dimitrova, 1999). In ancient Persia, plants were commonly used as a drug and disinfectant and aromatic agent (Hamilton, 2004). As per an estimate, 70,000 plant species were used in traditional medicine in 1990s (Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1991). Nowadays, this number has considerably increased.

Definition of medicinal and aromatic plants Aromatic plants as the name suggests are the plants that exude aroma. Aromatic plants are mostly described in association with medicinal plants as together they form a special category described by ethnobotanists as Medicinal and Aromatic Plants abbreviated as MAP. Different authors have tried to describe aromatic plants on different basis. The standard definitions are described in this review. Aromatic plants are a special class of plants mainly used for their aroma and flavor. Many of them are exclusively used also for medicinal purposes in aromatherapy as well as in various systems of medicine (Maiti et al., 2007). Plants that produce and exude aromatic substances (largely ether oils), which are used in making perfumes, in cooking, and in the food, pharmaceutical, and liquor industries. Many aromatic plants are species of the Lauraceae, Umbelliferae, Myrtaceae, and Labiatae families. In the USSR roses,

Definition of medicinal and aromatic plants

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geraniums, laurel, lavender, and rosemary are among the plants used in industry (The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 2010). Some plants are endowed with specific aroma characteristics. Such particularities are due to the presence of volatile compounds known as essential oils. Consequently, aromatic plants, herbs and herbal extracts have always constituted the most characteristic elements of the Mediterranean Cuisine and in this area, those mainly used in the local gastronomical traditions are Ocimum basilicum (basil), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Salvia officinalis (sage), Allium schoenoprasum (chives), Origanum majorana (oregano), Allium sativum (aglio) (Orto Botanico di Napoli, 2018). Aromatic plants are a section of plants mainly used for their aroma and flavor. Many of them are also have medicinal use. They represent a large group of economically important plants. There are growing needs for plant compounds, essential oils, aromatic chemicals and pharmaceuticals in the world market for the last 2 decades. These needs will cover the demand to replace drugs with nature identical compounds. Aromatic compounds are present in plants i.e., in root, wood, bark, foliage, flower, fruit, seed etc (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 2018). An aromatic plant or food has a strong, pleasant smell of herbs or spices (Collins English Dictionary, 2018). Aromatic plants possess odorous volatile substances which occur as essential oil, gum exudate, balsam and oleoresin in one or more parts, namely, root, wood, bark, stem, foliage, flower and fruit (Joy et al., 2001a,b, 2014). Aromatic plant - a plant with an aroma, something we can smell, has aromatic qualities, not all aromatic plants are essential oil crops (Jeljazkov and Cantrell, 2016). In 1997, the International Standards Organization (ISO) defined an essential oil as a “product obtained from vegetable raw material, either by distillation with water or steam, or from the epicarp of citrus fruits by a mechanical process, or by dry distillation.” A range of essential oils have been found to have various degrees of antimicrobial activity and are believed to have antiviral, nematocidal, antifungal, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. Medicinal and aromatic plants is a category assigned to plants, which are being traditionally used since ancient times for medicinal usage and are having some sort of aroma mostly a pleasing one, which is utilized in essential oils and toiletries. The nomenclature “Medicinal and aromatic plants” is based on traditional and conventional usage. It is interesting to be noted that there is no solid scientific base as prerequisite as some nonaromatic plants can also be classified as of medicinal usage and some aromatic plants may not have any medicinal usage. This group of plants plays an important role in the life of people and their usage dates back to ancient times for which a time-line is not been recorded, hence difficult to establish one. As per second annual State of the World’s Plants Report-2017; 3,900,900 plant species are known to science and of those approximately 3,690,400 (94%) are flowering and at least 28,187 (7.21%) plant species are currently recorded as being of medicinal use which seems a very conservative figure indeed. Based on the best available estimate, scientists say that 21% of all plant speciesdor one in every five-plant speciesdis likely threatened with extinction. The report highlights that fewer than 16% (4478) of the species used in plant-based medicines are cited in medicinal regulatory publications. Interestingly, there are currently 15 alternative names for each medicinal species, causing confusion and risk in the sector. The report suggests how this can be streamlined and improved in databases like Kew’s Medicinal Plant Names Service (MNPS) (World’s Plants Report, 2017).

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However, there is no clear solution on the elusive problem of the definition of “Medicinal and Aromatic Plants”. As per one definition, MAPs are botanical raw materials, also known as herbal drugs that are mostly used for aromatic, therapeutic and/or culinary purposes as components of cosmetics, medicinal products, health foods and other natural health products. Also, they can be regarded as the basic materials for value-added processed natural ingredients such as essential oils, dry and liquid extracts and oleoresins (International Trade Center, 2018). An older definition of Medicinal Plants is a large group of plants used in medicine or veterinary practice for therapeutic or prophylactic purposes (The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 2010). As per modernized definitions, Medicinal Plants can be regarded as: “Medicinal plants are those plants which are used in official and various traditional systems of medicines throughout the world”. In analogous way, other definition could be “Medicinal plants are plants that provide people with medicines - to prevent disease, maintain health or cure ailments” (Maiti and Geetha, 2007). Medicinal plants are plants used as natural medicines. Many modern medicines had their origin in medicinal plants. Examples include aspirin from willow bark (Salix spp.), digitalis from foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), and vinblastine from Madagascar periwinkle (Vinca rosea) for the treatment of childhood leukemia (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2013).

Classification Aromatic plant essences offer an infinite variety of possibilities for regeneration, revitalizing and healing Rodolphe Balz

Conventionally, aromatic plants have been categorized along with medicinal plants since most of the aromatic plants have found their usage in medicines in addition to other uses. Aromatic plants have been used traditionally in perfumery and cosmetics because of the rich aroma that they produce which is due to essential oils as a phytoconstituent of these plants. Aromatic plants have a great importance in commerce and trade because of such properties and the continuous scientific investigations have opened up new avenues in the aromatic plant research. The most important usage of aromatic plants is still in the field of medicines and pharmaceutical industries continuously search for new effective drug molecules at a time when antibiotic resistance is taking new leaps. Aromatic plants have rich usage in traditional systems of medicine such as Ayurveda (India), an ancient Chinese system of medicine and many other traditional systems of medicine. Aromatherapy is one of the alternative therapy systems in natural medicine, which fully relies on aromatic plants and uses essential oils for therapy. Essential oils have been used since ancient period, with the purpose of improvising a person’s health or mood. The National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy (NAHA) defines aromatherapy as “the therapeutic application or the medicinal use of aromatic substances (essential oils) for holistic healing.” Aromatherapy applications include massage, topical applications, and inhalation. However, we should not forget that natural products are also chemicals and they can be hazardous if used wrongly.

Classification

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As aromatic plants have been grouped with medicinal plants for identification and taxonomical purposes, the general classification is also more feasible under the category of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. For the purpose of study and utilization of MAPs, the primary step is the identification of the plants and then their taxonomical classification. Earlier the identification of plants was solely based on senses of vision, olfaction and touch in absence of any scientific precedent hence the main basis for classification of aromatic plants was their external morphology. With the advent of science and the identification of large number of plants with similar morphologies it not only became difficult to classify them morphologically but it also pushed for the need of a more standard classification system where new species identified in future could be accommodated and hence classification system used other characters such as chemical traits such as phytochemical profiling, DNA markers, biosynthetic causes of chemo-differentiation, and now even the plant metabolome is used as a tool for identification and classification. Thus, botany assisted by other scientific achievements seems to open up promising perspectives for the breeding of new, highly powerful chemo-cultivars of medicinal and aromatic taxa (Shukla et al., 2009; Mathe, 2015). Out of a total of about 1500 species of aromatic plants known, only a little over 500 species have been studied in some detail. Of the 50 species which find use as a commercial source of essential oils and aroma-chemicals, the total number of those having regular and large-scale utilization hardly exceeds two dozen (Joy et al., 2014; Inoue et al., 2017). It is not possible to ascertain the exact number of species of aromatic plants or MAP material in use in the world. This is because firstly, some aromatic and medicinal plant material is used in minute amounts and will therefore not be listed in trader’s catalog. Secondly, an aromatic or MAP commodity may come from several species yet be traded under a trade name which obscures the various specific origins. Lastly, many species are only used at local the level and their use is not comprehensively documented (Lange, 1998). According to a very recent review, a comprehensive classification has been suggested for medicinal including aromatic herbs or plants (Alamgir, 2017). They may be classified in various ways according to Fig. 6.1. According to another system of classification (Fig. 6.2) for aromatic plants exclusively, the following system has been proposed (Joy et al., 2014) The main points of MAPs classification are:

Classification of aromatic plants 1. Based on importance Plants grown exclusively for extraction of aromatic principles for use in perfumery cosmetics are classified as major whereas those in which volatile oil and aroma principles are by-products or secondary products, are classified as minor aromatic crops. (i) Major aromatic crops: e.g., Chamomile, Vetiver, Lemongrass, Patchouli, Tea tree, Eucalyptus (ii) Minor aromatic crops: e.g., Cinnamon, Marigold, Dill, Ambrette, Celery 2. Based on the part used (i) Herbage: e.g., Patchouli, Citronella, Sweet basil, Geranium, Rosemary (ii) Root: e.g., Vetiver, Sassafras albidum, Sandalwood, Camphor

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FIGURE 6.1 Classification system of aromatic and medicinal plants (Alamgir, 2017).

FIGURE 6.2

Classification system of aromatic plants (Joy et al., 2014).

Distribution pattern in the world market

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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(iii) Wood: e.g., Ocotea cymbarum, Ocotea pretiosa, Sandalwood, camphor, Linaloe. (iv) Bark: e.g., Cinnamomum verum, C. burmannii (v) Leaf: e.g., Eucalyptus, Tea tree, Skimmia laureola, Doryphora sassafras, Laurus nobilis, Lemon grass, Mint, Camphor (vi) Flower: e.g., Jasmine, Rose, Marigold, Chamomile, Champak, Tuberose, Ylang ylang (vii) Flowering tops: e.g., Davana, Palmarosa, Thyme (viii) Fruit: e.g., Dill, Litsea cubeba, Linaloe (ix) Seed: Ambrette, Ajowan, Celery, Clarysage Based on growth habitat (i) Grasses: Palmarosa, Rosha grass, Lemongrass, Vetiver, Citronella (ii) Herbs: Sweet basil, Tuberose, Thyme, Rosemary, Chamomile, Ajowan, Davana, Marigold, Mint (iii) Shrubs: Skimmia laureola, Patchouli, Rose, Geranium, Jasmine (iv) Trees: Eucalyptus, Tea tree, Camphor, Champak, Cinnamon, Linaloe, Ylang ylang Based on habitat (i) Tropical: Lemon grass, Ocimum, Cinnamon, Linaloe, Sandalwood, Eucalyptus, Citronella, Palmarosa, Patchouli, Vetiver, Ylang ylang (ii) Sub-tropical: Vetiver, Mint, Eucalyptus, Ajowan, Thyme, Rosemary, Citronella, Davana, Fennel, Japanese mint (iii) Temperate: Chamomile, Ajowan, Fennel, Pepper mint, Spear mint, Bergamot mint Based on crop duration (i) Annuals: Chamomile, Ocimum basilicum, Ajowan, Davana (ii) Biennials: Vetiver, Celery (iii) Perennials: Lemon grass, Geranium, Lemon grass, Mint, Palmarosa, Rose, Cinnamon, Ylang ylang, Tea tree Based on method of propagation (i) Vegetatively propagated: Citronella, Geranium, Jasmine, Patchouli, Rose, Tuberose (ii) Sexually (seed) propagated: Clarysage, Cumin, Davana, Camphor, Eucalyptus, Sandalwood, Palmarosa, Ylang Ylang (iii) Both vegetatively and sexually propagated: Lemon Grass, Linaloe, Marigold, Palmarosa, Rosemary, Thyme, Vetiver Based on Botanical classification Following Fig. 6.3 explains in brief, the botanical system of classification. The detailed botanical classification has been explained in Table 6.2.

Distribution pattern in the world market The knowledge of important herbs, their usage in common household and their importance in dealing with common diseases are passed from generation to generation either in the form of written documents or in the form of practice. Earlier society was totally depending on the wild harvest for their need of medicinal and aromatic plants. When we are discussing about aromatic plants or Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAP), the role of wild harvest should not be neglected. Even today also wild harvest is contributing

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6. Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

FIGURE 6.3 Botanical classification of aromatic plants.

a great portion in the availability of medicinal and aromatic plant. In developing countries, wild crafting is of two types based on the uses. 1. Small-scale wild plant harvesting for the purpose of local use (health practitioner collect plant for their own use or depend on collectors for the plant for improving the livelihood) 2. Large-scale wild plant harvesting to comply the need of global market on a commercial basis. In the Indian context the record of MAPs based on old literature 7500 to 8000 spices are in use (Sati, 2013). For fulfilling most of the demands of aromatic plants, suppliers are depended mostly on wild plants of highland region. Although the domestic cultivation of aromatic plants increases still the proportion of cultivated in comparison with the wild plants remain low. In Pithoragarh alone (Himalayan region), more than 1300 tons are collected annually. Over half a million tons of dry raw material is collected from the wild every year (Tandon, 2006). The below average economic condition of the people stimulates wild harvesting which provides income. Still the gap between the demand and supply is very huge which is estimated to be about (about 162 species),200,000e400,000 tons (Sati, 2013). In Yunnan Province in southwestern China, well known for its richness and diversity of medicinal plants, 216 medicinal species belonging to 194 genera in 98 families were recorded in the local markets (Lee et al., 2008). 173 species (80.1%) are wild and 43 (19.9%) are cultivated in gardens or semicultivated in wild habitats. The wild plant’s species, which are included in the China Red list of endangered species.

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Distribution pattern in the world market

TABLE 6.2

Botanical classification of aromatic plants. DIVISION: EMBRYOPHYTA

Family

Genus (species names given in parentheses)

SUBDIVISION: I. GYMNOSPERMAE Class: Coniferae Podocarpaceae

Dacrydium (franklini)

Pinaceae

Picea (abies, alba, canadensis, excelsa, glauca, jezoensis, mariana, nigra, obovata, vulgaris) Tsuga (canadensis, douglasii, heterophylla) Pseudotsuga (douglasii, glauca, mucronata, taxifolia) Abies (alba, balsamea, balsamifera, douglasii, excelsa, mayriana, mucronata pectinata, picea, sachalinensis, sibirica) Cedrus (atlantica, deodara, libani, libanotica) Pinus (albicaulis, aristata, attenuata, ayacahuite, balfouriana, balsamea, banksiana, caribaea, cembra, clausa, contorta, coulteri, echinata, edulis, flexilis, glabra, jeffreyi, lambertiana, longifolia, monophylla, montana, monticola, mugo.)

Taxodiaceae

Sciadopitys (verticillata) Cryptomeria (japonica)

Cupressaceae

Callitropsis (araucarioides) Thujopsis (dolabrata) Thuja (plicata) Cupressus (fastigiata, glauca, Japonica, lambertiana, lawsoniana lusitanica, macrocarpa, pendula, sempervirens, sinensis, torulosa) Chamaecyparis (lawsoniana, obtusa, taiwanensis, thyoides) Juniperus (communis, mexicana, oxycedrus, phoenicea, procera, sabina, thurifera, virginiana)

SUBDIVISION: II. ANGIOSPERMAE Class: 1. Monocotyledonae Graminae (Poaceae)

Elyonurus (latiflorus, tripsacoides) Vetiveria (zizanioides) Cymbopogon (afronardus, caesius, citratus, clandestinus, coloratus, confertiflorus, densiflorus, exaltatus, flexuosus, georingii, giganteus, jwarancusa, rectus, martinii, nardus, nervatus, polyneuros, procerus, proximus, schoenanthus, senaarensis, stipulatus,virgatus, winterianus) Andropogon (aciculatus, connatus, fragrans, intermedius, kuntzeanus, muricatus, nardoides, odoratus, versicolor)

Cyperaceae

Cyperus (rotundus)

Palmae (Palmaceae)

Cocos (nucifera)

Araceae

Acorus (calamus) Liliaceae Allium (cepa, sativum) Lilium (candidum) Hyacinthus (non-scriptus, orientalis) Convallaria (majalis)

Amaryllidaceae

Narcissus (jonquilla, poeticus, tagetta) Polyanthes (tuberosa)

Irridaceae

Crocus (sativus) Iris (florentina, germanica, pallida) (Continued)

102 TABLE 6.2

6. Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

Botanical classification of aromatic plants.dcont'd DIVISION: EMBRYOPHYTA

Family

Genus (species names given in parentheses)

Zingiberaceae

Hedychium (flavum) Kaempferia (galanga, rotunda) Curcuma (amada, aromatica, caesia, domestica, longa, xanthorrhiza, zedoaria, zerumbet) Alpinia (alleghas, galanga, officinarum, calcarata, khulanjan, malaccensis, nutans) Zingiber (mioga, nigrum, officinale) Amomum (angustifolium, aromaticum, cardamom, globosum, hirsutum, korarima, melegueta) Elettaria (cardamomum)

Class: 2. Dicotyledonae Piperaceae

Piper (acutifolium, angustifolium, asperifolium, camphoriferum, clusii, crassipes, cubeba, guineense, lineatum, longum, lowong, mollicomum, molissimum, nigrum, officinarum, ribesioides)

Betulaceae

Betula (alba, brea, dulce, lenta, papyrifera, pendula, pubescens)

Moraceae

Humulus (americanus, lupulus)

Santalaceae

Osyris (tenuifolia) Santalum (album, lanceolatum, preissianum, spicatum, zygnorum) Fusanus (spicatus)

Aristolochiaceae

Asarum (canadense, europaeum)

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium (ambrosioides)

Caryophyllaceae

Dianthus (caryophyllus)

Ranunculaceae

Nigella (damascena)

Magnoliaceae

Magnolia (grandiflora) Michelia (champaca, longifolia, excelsa, figo, kisopa, nilagirica, rheedi) Illicium (anisatum, japonicum, religiosum, verum)

Anonaceae

Cananga (odorata)

Myristicaceae

Myristica (argentea, fragrans, malabarica, succedanea)

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum (aromaticum, infers, glanduliferum, camphora, cassia, culilawan, kanahirai, loureirii, micranthum, obtusifolium, xanthoneuron, zeylanicum, tamala) Ocotea (caudata, cymbarum, parviflora, pretiosa, sassafras) Sassafras (albidum) Cryptocaria (massoia) Laurus (nobilis) Umbellularia (californica) Aniba (parviflora, rosaeodora)

Cruciferae

Cochlearia (armoracia) Brassica (alba, juncea, napus, nigra) Raphanus (sativus)

Resedaceae

Reseda (odorata)

Saxifragaceae

Philadelphus (coronarius)

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Distribution pattern in the world market

TABLE 6.2

Botanical classification of aromatic plants.dcont'd DIVISION: EMBRYOPHYTA

Family

Genus (species names given in parentheses)

Hamamelidaceae

Hamamelis (virginiana) Liquidambar (orientalis, styraciflua)

Rosaceae

Spiraea (ulmaria) Rosa (alba, canina, centiflolia, damascena, gallica, indica, glandulifera, moschata, pubescens) Prunus (amygdalus, laurocerasus)

Leguminosae

Acacia (cavenia, dealbata, decurrens, farnesiana, floribunda) Copaifera (coriacea, glycycarpa, guianensis, martii, multijuga, officinalis, reticulata) Myroxylon (balsamum, pereirae) Lupinus (luteus) Genista (sibirica, tinctoria) Spartium (junceum) Wistaria (sinensis) Hardwickia (mannii) Myrocarpus (fastigiatus, frondosus,)

Geraniaceae

Geranium (lugubre, macrorrhizum) Pelargonium (capitatum, fragrans, graveolens, odoratissimum, radula, roseum, terebinthinaceum)

Zygophyllaceae

Bulnesia (sarmienti)

Rutaceae

Xanthoxylum (piperitum) Ruta (angustifolia, bracteosa, graveolens, montana) Pilocarpus (jaborandi, microphyllus, racemosus, spicatus) Cusparia (trifoliata) Boronia (megastigma) Barosma (betulina, crenulata, serratifolia) Amyris (balsamifera) Clausena (anisata, anisum-olens, excavata) Citrus (acida, aurantifolia, decumana, aurantium, deliciosa, limetta, limon, medica, nobilis, paradisi, reticulata, sinesis, unshiu)

Burseraceae

Boswellia (carterii) Bursera (aloexylon, delpechiana, fragroides, glabrifolia) Commiphora (abyssinica, erythraea, myrrha, schimperi) Canarium (luzonicum)

Euphorbiaceae

Croton (eluteria)

Anacardiaceae

Pistacia (lentiscus) Schinus (molle)

Tiliaceae

Tilea (cordata, platyphyllos, tomentosa,)

Malvaceae

Hibiscus (abelmoschus)

Dipterocarpaceae

Dryobalanops (aromatica, camphora) Dipterocarpus (tuberculatus, turbinatus)

Cistaceae

Cistus (ladaniferus)

Violaceae

Viola (odorata) (Continued)

104 TABLE 6.2

6. Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

Botanical classification of aromatic plants.dcont'd DIVISION: EMBRYOPHYTA

Family

Genus (species names given in parentheses)

Myrtaceae

Myrtus (aeris, caryophyllata, communis, pimenta) Pimenta (acris, citrifolia, officinalis, racemosa) Eugenia (acris, caryophyllata, pimenta,) Leptospermum (citratum, flavescens) Melaleuca (alternifolia, bracteata, cajeputi, leucodendron, linariifolia, maideni minor, smithii, trichyostachya, viridiflora) Eucalyptus (amygdalina, australiana, bicostata, citriodora, cneorifolia, dives, dumosa, elaeophora, fruticetorum, globulus, leucoxylon, lindleyana, macarthuri, maculosa, numerosa, phellandra, polybractea, radiata, sideroxylon, smithii, viridis)

Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)

Coriandrum (sativum) (Apiaceae) Cuminum (cyminum) Apium (graveolens, petroselinum) Petroselinum (hortense, sativum) Carum (ajowan, bulbocastanum, carvi, copticum, petroselinum, verticillatum) Pimpinella (anisum, diversifolia, saxifragra) Foeniculum (vulgare,) Anethum (graveolens, sowa) Oenanthe (phellandrium) Levisticum (officinale) Angelica (archangelica, atropurpurea, glabra, levisticum Ferula (alliacea, asafoetida, badra-kema, ceratophylla, foetida, galbaniflua, rubricaulis, suaveolens, sumbul) Peucedanum (ostruthium) Daucus (carota) Crithmum (maritimum)

Ericaceae

Gaultheria (procumbens)

Primulaceae

Cyclamen (europaeum)

Oleaceae

Syringa (vulgaris) Jasminum (officinale, grandiflorum, auriculatum, sambac, undulatum)

Verbenaceae

Lippia/Aloysia (citriodora)

Labiatae (Lamiaceae) Rosmarinus (flexuosus, lavandulaceus, laxiflorus, officinalis, tournefortii) Lavandula (barmanni, dentata, hybrida, intermedia, latifolia, officinalis, pedunculata, spica, stoechas, vera, viridis) Nepeta (cataria, liniaris, spicata) Salvia (carnosa, espanola, hiemalis, hispanorum, lavandulaefolia, leucophylla, moscatel, officinalis, sclarea, triloba, verbenaea) Monarda (citriodora, fistulosa, menthaefolia, pectinata, punctata) Melissa (officinalis) Hedeoma (pulegioides) Satureia (hortensis, montana) Hyssopus (officinalis) Origanum (compactum, elongatum, fort-queri, grossi, majorana, virens, vulgare) Marjorana (silvestre, hortensis) Thymus (capitatus, cephalotus, hiemalis, hirtus, loscossi, mastichina, serpyllum, virginicus, vulgaris, zygis)

Distribution pattern in the world market

TABLE 6.2

105

Botanical classification of aromatic plants.dcont'd DIVISION: EMBRYOPHYTA

Family

Genus (species names given in parentheses)

Myoporaceae

Mentha (aquatica, arvensis, cablin, canadensis, citrata, japonica, longifolia, piperita, pulegium, rotundifolia, spicata, sylvestris, verticillata, viridis) Perilla (citriodora, frutescens, nankinensis, ocymoides) Pogostemon (cablin, heyneanus, hortensis, patchouli) Ocimum (americanum, basilicum, canum, carnosum, gratissimum, kilimandscharicum, album, anisatum, menthaefolium, micranthum, minimum, nakurense, pilosum, sanctum, suave, viride.) Mosla/Orthodon (angustifolia, chinesis, formosana, hadai, japonica, lanceolata, lysimachiiflora, punctata, thymolifera) Pycnanthemum (incanum, lanceolatum, muticum, pilosum) Coridothymus (capitatus) Eremophila (mitchelli)

Rubiaceae

Gardenia (citriodora, florida, grandiflora, longistyla, resinifera, floribunda, latifolia) Leptactina (senegambica)

Caprifoliaceae

Lonicera (caprifolium, gigantea, japonica)

Valerianaceae

Valeriana (celfica, officinalis, wallichii, brunoniana, hardwickii)

Compositae

Solidago (odora)

Asteraceae

Erigeron (canadensis) Blumea (balsamifera, lacera, ampletectens, densiflora, aurita, glabra) Helichrysum (angustifolium, arenarium, italicum, stoechas) Inula (helenium) Tagetes (glandulifera, minuta, erecta, patula) Santolina (chamaecyparisus) Anthemis (nobilis) Achillea (millefolium, moschata) Matricaria (chamomilla, inodora) Artemisia (absinthium, cina, dracuculus, maritima, pallens, pontica, tridentata, vulgaris, vestita, scoparia, parviflora) Arnica (montana) Saussurea (lappa) Tanacetum (vulgare)

Source: Guenther, E., 1952. The Essential Oils. vol. 5. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., New York, Modified; Joy, P.P., Thomas J., Mathew S., Jose, G., Johnson J., 2014. Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, Research Station, Odakkali Asamannoor e 683 549, Kerala, India.

Africa is also very rich in terms of diversity of the aromatic plants. It is also exporter of many wild species of plants e.g., Aloe faro, Aloe sinkatana, Aloe scabrifolia, Prunus africana, Garcinia afzelii, Randia acuminate Warburgia salutaris, Warburgia ugandensi. Some species have now become subject to international trade controls under CITES (Maundu et al., 2006). In South Africa, nearly 4000 species are used. About 700 indigenous species are traded locally. 20,000 tons of plant material is marketed yearly (McGaw et al., 2005). Ghana alone sold 133,951 tons of medicinal and aromatic plants annually of about 7.8 million dollars in addition to that 6 tons used locally (Van Andel et al., 2012). The list also includes some rainforest species and species harvested in officially protected areas, which are also enlisted in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list of Ghana.

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6. Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

Moreover, in Latin America and especially in northern Peru, the maximum quantity of plant materials marketed is mostly harvested from wild where cultivation is negligible (Bussmann and Sharon, 2009). Here more than two-third of the species are originated from the highlands and more than 40% of the dales is represented by seven native species (Croton lechleri, Uncaria tomentosa, Equisetum giganteum, Peumus boldus, Erythrina spp., Buddleja utilis and Piper aduncum) and three exotic species (Chamomilla recutita, Ruta graveolens, Eucalyptus globulus). On the other hand, in Ukraine, the trade of medicinal and aromatic plants declines, partly due to exhausted natural stocks because of excessive past exploitation. The change in ecosystem also contributes in the decline of MAP trade. According to one study, about 600 tons of wild materials and 400 tons of cultivated materials are used in Ukraine (Minarchenko, 2011). In Turkey, collection in protected areas (e.g., national parks), is still legal (Baser and Franz, 2009). Collectors pay a fee to General Directorate of Forestry which issues licenses (Cetinkaya, 2010). Approximately some 472 tons of aromatic and medicinal plants were collected from wild (reported to be sustainable) in Kanyon National Park in 2005, in Turkey, alone (Baricevic et al., 2015).

Uses of aromatic plants The aromatic plants are mainly used for the purpose of extraction of essential oils in the world. Essential oils are also termed as volatile oils, as name also implies, they are volatile in steam. These essential/volatile oils are accumulated in oil cells, in secretion ducts or cavities or in glandular hair of plants (Mathe, 2015). The production and consumption of essential oils is increasing rapidly because of their multipurpose uses. Essential oils are used in perfumery, the food industry, household industry, condiment industry, in making sweets and beverages as well as pharmaceutical and aroma therapeutic products of plants origin (Bernath, 2009). MAPs exhibit many bioactive compounds who are responsible of their biological properties, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiparasitic and other health promoting properties (Christaki et al., 2012; Giannenas et al., 2013). The beneficial use of aromatic and medicinal plants, their extracts, essential oils or herbal constituents are clearly presented in Fig. 6.4. In Table 6.3, some MAPs and their main compounds are listed. Various species of plants are used to produce essential oils, which can be categorized based on the regions they belong. The different climatic and ecological conditions, in which these plants grow, are the base of their classification. The three climatic zones, which is considered for this classification is tropical temperate and Mediterranean. Based on these climatic and ecological conditions some of the important species of plants and their important phytochemical constituents are classified in Table 6.3. The fragrance of an aromatic plant is due to the presence of traces of essential oils in different parts. Numerous fragrant materials are present in roots, stems, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and heartwoods. Gums, balsams and oleoresins are also valuable raw materials for perfumes by virtue of their tenacious but soft odor. Several processes like hydro

Uses of aromatic plants

107

FIGURE 6.4 Effect of herbal feed additives to support health and performance of animals as indicated by the philosophy of Ayurvet limited.

distillation, steam distillation, hydro diffusion, enfleurage, maceration, expression and solvent extraction are available for the extraction of aroma principles. Application of these processes, either singly or in combination, depends upon the nature of the material and of the essential oil or absolute intended to be recovered. 1. Distillation: The majority of essential oils are produced by distillation. There are three types of distillation process-hydro, hydro-steam and steam distillation. 2. Unconditional flower oils: Flower oils are obtained by maceration, expression, enfleurage and extraction with volatile solvents. 3. Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SCFE): This is flexible and important tool to separate components that are susceptible to thermal degradation. It is engaged for the extraction of perfumes, flavors and fragrances and from a wide variety of natural products. This method of extraction is better and take less time than distillation. 4. Natural Aroma Products: Essential oils production helps in developing agroindustry into an exceptionally cost-effective business with high profitability. This trend started only very recently. It has provided plethora of diversification to the agricultural sector and is become very popular on the rural front. This is because the demand of natural products has been increased in developed countries, along with its constant consumption in developing countries. Due to the availability of essential oils more freely in the market, not only their direct uses as attars, floral and aromatic waters, perfumery grade alcohol and in flavor encapsulation, but also the end uses have been widening. As it has been already described, the essential oils are today used in soaps, perfumery, cosmetics, incense sticks, disinfectants, deodorants, mosquito repellents, flavoring of foods and pharmaceuticals and a range of allied products.

TABLE 6.3 Essential oils of aromatic and medicinal plants and their phytochemical bioactive components (Bernath, 2009). Scientific name

Main components of essential oil

Essential oil producing species of tropical origin Cananga (ylang-ylang)

Cananga odorata

Linalool, beta-caryophyllene, farnesene

Pelargonium (geranium)

Pelargonium spp.

Linalool, isomenthone, citronellol, geraniol, citronellyl formate

Citronella

Cymbopogon spp.

Citronellal, citronellol, geraniol

Cymbopogon citratus Cymbopogon flexuosus

Neral, geranial

Palmarosa (gingergrass)

Cymbopogon martinii

Linalool, geranyl acetate, geraniol

Vetiver

Vetiveria zizamoides

Vetiverol

Patchouli

Pogostemon cabin

Camphor

Cinnamomum camphora

Patchoulol, norpatchoulenol, azulene Camphor, safrole, cineol

Cassia

Cinnamomum cassia

Cinnamaldehyde

Cinnamon

Cinnamomum verum

Eugenol, beta-caryophyllene,

Sassafras albidum

Safrole, phellandrene, pinene

Sassafras Cubeba

Litsea cubeba

Nutmeg

Myristica fragrans

Clove

Syzygium aromaticum

Citral Alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, sabinene Eugenol, beta-caryophyllene

Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus spp.

Cineole, phellandrene, piperitone

Melaleuca

Melaleuca alternifolia

Terpinen-4-ol, gamma-terpinene

Cajuput

Melaleuca cajuputi

Jasmine

Jasminum spp.

Pepper

Piper nigrum

Lime

Citrus aurantifolia

Sweet orange

Citrus sinensis

Sandalwood

Santalum album

Ginger

Zingiber officinale

Cineole benzyl acetate, phytol, isophytol Limonene, sabinene, pinene, caryophyllene Limonene, gamma-terpinene, alpha-terpinrol Limonene, myrcene Santalol, santalyl acetate, santalene Monoterpenoid and sesquiterpenoid hydrocarbons, zingiberene, geraniol, nerol

6. Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

Lemongrass

108

Common names

Essential oil producing species of Mediterranean origin Myrte

Myrtus communis

Rose

Rosa damascena

Bitter orange Bergamot orange

a a

Lavender Sage

Linalool, linalyl acetate, geraniol, limonene

C. aurantium subsp. bergamia

Linalyl acetate, linalool, D-limonene, pinene

Foeniculum vulgare

Fennel

a a

Garden thyme

Stearoptene, nerol, geraniol, citronellol

Citrus aurantium

Citrus limon

Lemon

Alpha-pinene, limonene, linalool

Limonene, beta-pinene, gamma-terpinene Anethole, fenchon, methyl chavicol

Lavandula spp.

Linalyl acetate, borneol, camphor, geraniol

Salvia officinalis

Thujone, cineol, camphor, borneol

Thymus vulgaris

thymol, carvacrol, borneol, cymen

Salvia sclarea

Linalyl acetate, sclareol, linalool, nerol, pinene, thujone, borneol

Corianderb

Coriandrum sativum

Alpha-linalool, geraniol, geranyl-acetate

Anethum graveolens

D-carvone, D-limonene,

Dill

b

Pimpinella anisum

Anise

phellandrene

Methylcavicol, anisaldehyde, aniscetone

Angelica

Angelica archangelica

Alpha-pinene, alpha-phellandrene, camphene

Lovage

Levisticum officinale

n-butylidene phtalide, alpha-terpineol, carvacrol, eugenol

Carawayb

Carum carvy

Pepermint

Mentha piperita

Menthol, menthone, pinene, menthyl acetate

Spearmint

Mentha spicata

L-carvone

Camomile

b

Tarragon a

Matricaria recutita Artemisia dracunculus

D-carvone,

Uses of aromatic plants

Clary sagea

limonene, dihydrocarvone

Chamazulene, alpha-bisabolol, pharnesene, bisabolol oxide Methyl chavicol, anethole, camphene, ocimene, sabinene, anisol

Cultivated in the temperate regions, too. Cultivated in the Mediterranean, too.

b

109

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6. Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

Present status and conservation initiatives Many initiatives have been taken from researchers, scholars and scientists all over the world for the conservation efforts of plants, and a decent number of conferences have been organized for the discussion and deliberation on the same. Research institutes dedicated to aromatic and medicinal plants have been doing breakthrough research to unravel the active ingredients present in plants. Every year new species of plants are being discovered but at the same times, many plant species were lost due to extinction. Rapid urbanization, industrialization and the growing pollution are contributing to deforestation and habitat loss along with making the natural habitats of the plants no more sustainable by causing change in the chemical profile of the soil and water. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC), with its 16 plant conservation targets which was originally adopted by the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 2002 and has targets set to be achieved by 2020. With the GSPC reaching the end of its second phase in 2020, it is important to consider how plant conservation can enhance its visibility and generate support in the future. The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and associated Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were developed to succeed the Millennium Development Goals and were adopted in 2015 by the international community through the United Nations. It is projected that the SDGs will provide concrete shape to the actions taken by the governments in the future. The SDG framework delivers a supportive point of reference to show the fundamental importance of plants for the planet, and the achievement of the GSPC targets up to and beyond 2020 and can play a valuable and sometimes a central role in helping the achievement of several SDGs. In an up to date review about Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI, 2019) it has been reported how and where plant conservation actions contribute to the achievement of the SDGs. While the closest linkages are with SDG15 e Life on Land e there are also clear linkages with goals to end poverty and hunger and to ensure good health (SDGs 1, 2 and 3), as well as those focusing on clean water, renewable energy, sustainable cities, responsible consumption and climate action (SDGs 6, 7, 11, 12 and 13). The above data are shown in Fig. 6.5.

FIGURE 6.5

Number of CITES listed species of plants in each country (World’s Plants Report, 2017).

Conclusion and way forward

111

Trade in rare species of plants shows no signs of abating and cites plant trade into the EU in 2014 was worth US$ 286 million, with 2320 plant taxa imported. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is known as the Washington Convention due to an international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade does not threaten the survival of plants and animals that are traded. Every 3 years, there is a meeting conducted between 183 countries (or Parties to the Convention) to add, delete or amend species listings on the CITES Appendices. CITES regulates the trade in endangered plant species under three Appendices, and species must meet certain biological and trade criteria in order to be listed. As a result of CoP17, an additional 304 species have been added to the over 31,517 plant species currently listed on the CITES Appendices. In EU member states, these new CITES listings are legally enshrined by a new EU regulation, and there are similar laws in other countries (World’s Plants Report, 2017). However, it must be noticed that there is a need, along with international efforts, the local governments to take further concerted efforts for protection and conservation of aromatic plants. It should be also founded a digital repository of all such information which can be accessed by researchers all over the world in order collaborative research projects could be developed to advance research on the topic. Aboriginal and tribal population in many parts of world have better access to information about locally and wildly available aromatic and medicinal plants and they tapping their traditional knowledge can be of great help in documenting these plants as well. However, they are in need to be assisted to develop such foundations or projects to carry of efforts of both preservation and development of the sector of aromatic and medicinal plants. Moreover, the intellectual property rights benefit can be helpful for these communities to economically uplift them.

Conclusion and way forward The development of tools to understand nature in a better way provided by scientists has given human race an opportunity to understand the hidden treasure in the natural resources. The ancient knowledge of Ayurveda with modern research has provided the right tool to enlighten the beneficial properties of the phytoconstituents to this world by scientific processing and efficacy evaluation of different herbs. The aggressive and extensive trade of aromatic plants in the world has become a prime threat to the survival of aromatic plants. The excessive dependence on wild harvest and very less organized cultivation of aromatic plants have become a prime threat to the survival of aromatic herbs. For effective conservation and management of aromatic plants, there is a need for proper identification and exploring biogeographic distribution. We can also use the scientific tools like global positioning system (GPS) mapping in order to accurately study the loss of endangered species and incidences of plant invasion. This investigation will provide a plan that is necessary for creation of successful strategies for the protection of important aromatic plants, which are on risk of extinction. Active contribution of all the stake holders and use of modern technological intervention can effectively manage the aromatic plant resources in the world. Aromatic plants have

112

6. Distribution of aromatic plants in the world and their properties

been identified since ancient time and have been in use for the benefits of humankind. Since last 500 years taxonomists, botanists, and various scientists have attempted to arrive at standard classification for aromatic plants. Aromatic plants have been classified along with medicinal plants due to their similar nature, property and usage. However, due to lack of coordination and international initiatives for a common/standard classification of aromatic plants as well as due to the vast geographical diversity of the natural habitats of aromatic plants, it has not been possible to arrive at up to date distribution pattern of aromatic plants. It is necessary that information related to aromatic plants, represented by many different concepts that is scattered among many information resources presenting end users with an indomitable task of obtaining comprehensive information to be aggregated in a new global base. A holistic scientific approach is required to taxonomically document the aromatic plants from all over the world growing domestically as well as in the wild and make a repository of active ingredients with detailed phytochemical and genomic analysis. Aromatic plants may have some unexplored medicinal properties which may be of great use to the humankind in near future and to tap the potential of aromatic plants we need a coordinated approach and interdisciplinary research initiatives. In conclusion. aromatic plants are known to possess distinctive and mostly pleasant aroma and have been used since ancient times for the variety of purposes such as in medicines and perfumery and used as decoctions, powder and other forms. Aromatic plants possess odorous volatile substances, which occur as an essential oil, gum exudate, balsam and oleoresin in one or more parts of the plant, namely in root, wood, bark, stem, foliage, flower or fruit. Many of them are exclusively used for medicinal purposes in aromatherapy as well as in various systems of medicine. They have been even mentioned in ancient texts. The term essential oil is concomitant to fragrance or perfumes because these fragrances are only oily in nature and they represent the essence of the active constituents of the plants. They are called volatile or ethereal oils as they evaporated when exposed to air at ordinary temperature. Essential oils are highly concentrated, low volume, high-value products. As such, they have high trade value that has been tremendously increased in the current century. Aromatic plants have been classified along with medicinal plants as MAP. Most of the aromatic plants have been growing in wild and only a limited knowledge of the aromatic plants which have been domesticated is available till now. The taxonomic and geographical classification of aromatic plants needs more impetus. Strategic policy interventions are required along with the scientific coordination of researchers across the world for the conservation efforts of aromatic plants. The last two decades have seen a substantial increase in the use of aromatic herbs and essential oils and aromatherapy has been promoted as a natural therapy system. The antimicrobial effects of several essential oils and oil compounds against enteropathogenic organisms were proven in recent investigations. In addition, the antioxidative activity of aromatic plants and essential oil compounds contributes to the stability and cosmetics and has resulted in improved shelf life and quality of products, due to reduced oxidation. Nonetheless, the overall efficacy of essential oils and aromatic herbs, especially their nonnutritive value with impact on the health status and benefit of animals and humans, is encouraging further research and development in this field.

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