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Drawing office management and organization
Chapter 1
Drawing office management and organization Every article used in our day-to-day lives will probably have been produced as a result of solutions to a sequence of operations and considerations, namely: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Conception Design and analysis Manufacture Verification In-service (maintenance) Disposal.
The initial stage will commence when an original marketable idea is seen to have a possible course of development. The concept will probably be viewed from an artistic and a technological perspective. The appearance and visual aspects of a product are very important in creating an acceptable good first impression. The technologist faces the problem of producing a sound, practical, safe design, which complies with the initial specification and can be produced at an economical cost. During every stage of development there are many progress records to be maintained and kept up to date so that reference to the complete history is available to responsible employees and regulatory bodies. For many years various types of drawings, sketches and paintings have been used to convey ideas and information. In the last decade 3D models and rapid prototypes have also become a common way of conveying design intent. However, a good recognizable picture will often remove ambiguity when discussing a project and assist in overcoming a possible language barrier. British Standards are listed in the British Standards Catalogue and the earliest relevant Engineering Standards date back to 1903. Standards were developed to establish suitable dimensions for a range of sizes of metal bars, sheets, nuts, bolts, flanges, etc. following the Industrial Revolution and used by the Engineering Industry. The first British Standard for Engineering Drawing Office Practice published in September 1927 only contained 14 clauses as follows: 1. Sizes of drawings and tracings, and widths of tracing cloth and paper 2. Position of drawing number, date and name 3. Indication of scale 4. Method of projection Manual of Engineering Drawing Copyright Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Types of line and writing Colour of lines Dimension figures Relative importance of dimensions Indication of materials on drawings Various degrees of finish Screw threads Flats and squares Tapers Abbreviations for drawings. There were also five figures illustrating:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Method of projection Types of line Views and sections Screw threads Tapers.
First angle projection was used for the illustrations and the publication was printed on A5 sheets of paper. During the early days of the Industrial Revolution manufacturers simply compared and copied component dimensions to match those used on the prototype. However, with the introduction of quantity production where components were required to be made at different factory sites, measurement by more precise means was essential. Individual manufacturers developed their own standard methods. Clearly, for the benefit of industry in general a National Standard was vital. Later the more comprehensive British Standard of Limits and Fits was introduced. There are two clear aspects, which are necessary to be considered in the specification of component drawings: 1. The drawing shows the dimensions for the component in three planes. Dimensions of the manufactured component need to be verified because some variation of size in each of the three planes (length, breadth, and thickness) will be unavoidable. The designer’s contribution is to provide a Characteristics Specification, which in current jargon is defined as the ‘Design Intent Measurand’. 2. The metrologist produces a ‘Characteristics Evaluation’ which is simply the Measured Value. The drawing office is generally regarded as the heart of any manufacturing organization. Products, components, 1
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ideas, layouts, or schemes which may be presented by a designer in the form of rough freehand sketches, may be developed stage by stage into working drawings and annotated 3D models by the draughtsman. There is generally very little constructive work which can be done by other departments within the firm without an approved drawing of some form being available. The drawing is the universal means of communication. Drawings are made to an accepted standard, and in the United Kingdom, it is BS 8888, containing normative and informative references to international standards. These standards are acknowledged and accepted throughout the world. The contents of the drawing (and annotated 3D models) are themselves, where applicable, in agreement with separate standards relating to materials, dimensions, processes, etc. Larger organizations employ standards engineers who ensure that products conform to British and also international standards where necessary. Good design is often the product of teamwork where detailed consideration is given to the aesthetic, economic, ergonomic and technical aspects of a given problem. It is therefore necessary to impose the appropriate standards at the design stage, since all manufacturing instructions originate from this point. A perfect drawing communicates an exact requirement, or specification, which cannot be misinterpreted and which may form part of a legal contract between supplier and user. Engineering drawings can be produced to a good professional standard if the following points are observed: a. the types of lines used must be of uniform thickness and density; b. eliminate fancy printing, shading and associated artistry; c. include on the drawing only the information which is required to ensure accurate clear communication; d. use only standard symbols and where no other method of specification exist, appropriate abbreviations; e. ensure that the drawing is correctly dimensioned (adequately but not over-dimensioned) with no unnecessary details. Remember that care and consideration given to small details make a big contribution towards perfection, but that perfection itself is no small thing. An accurate, welldelineated engineering drawing can give the draughtsman a responsible considerable pride and job satisfaction. The field of activity of the draughtsman may involve the use, or an appreciation, of the following topics. 1. Company communications Most companies have their own systems which have been developed over a period of time for the following: (a) internal paperwork; (b) numbering of drawings and contracts; (c) coding of parts and assemblies; (d) production planning for component manufacture;
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
(e) quality control and inspection; (f) updating, modification, and reissuing of drawings. Company standards Many drawing offices use their own standard methods which arise from satisfactory past experience of a particular product or process. Also, particular styles may be retained for easy identification, e.g., certain prestige cars can be recognized easily since some individual details, in principle, are common to all models. Standards for dimensioning Interchangeability and quality are controlled by the application of practical limits, fits and geometrical tolerances. Material standards Physical and chemical properties and non-destructive testing methods must be borne in mind. Note must also be taken of preferred sizes, stock sizes, and availability of rod, bar, tube, plate, sheet, nuts, bolts, rivets, etc., and other bought-out items. Draughting standards and codes of practice Drawings must conform to accepted standards, but components are sometimes required which in addition must conform to certain local requirements or specific regulations, for example relating to safety when operating in certain environments or conditions. Assemblies may be required to be flameproof, gastight, waterproof, or resistant to corrosive attack, and detailed specifications from the user may be applicable. Standard parts are sometimes manufactured in quantity by a company, and are used in several different assemblies. The use of standard parts reduces an unnecessary variety of materials and basically similar components. Standards for costs The draughtsman is often required to compare costs where different methods of manufacture are available. A component could possibly be made by forging, by casting, or by fabricating and welding, and a decision as to which method to use must be made. The draughtsman must obviously be well aware of the manufacturing facilities and capacity offered by his own company, the costs involved when different techniques of production are employed, and also an idea of the likely costs when work is sub-contracted to specialist manufacturers, since this alternative often proves an economic proposition. Data sheets Tables of sizes, performance graphs, and conversion charts are of considerable assistance to the design draughtsman.
Figure 1.1 shows the main sources of work flowing into a typical industrial drawing office. The drawing office provides a service to each of these sources of supply, and the work involved can be classified as follows. 1. Engineering The engineering departments are engaged in: (a) current production; (b) development; (c) research;
Chapter | 1 Drawing office management and organization
3
Chief draughtsman
Engineering
Section leaders Service
Manufacturing units
FIGURE 1.1
(d) manufacturing techniques, which may include a study of metallurgy, heat-treatment, strength of materials and manufacturing processes; (e) advanced project planning; (f) field testing of products. 2. Sales This department covers all aspects of marketing existing products and market research for future products. The drawing office may receive work in connection with: (a) general arrangement and outline drawings for prospective customers; (b) illustrations, charts and graphs for technical publications; (c) modifications to production units to suit customers’ particular requirements; (d) application and installation diagrams; (e) feasibility investigations. 3. Service The service department provides a reliable, prompt and efficient after-sales service to the customer. The drawing office receives work associated with (a) maintenance tools and equipment; (b) service kits for overhauls; (c) modifications to production parts resulting from field experience; (d) service manuals. 4. Manufacturing units Briefly, these cover all departments involved in producing the finished end-product. The drawing office must supply charts, drawings, schedules, etc. as follows: a. working drawings of all the company’s products; b. drawings of jigs and fixtures associated with manufacture; c. plant-layout and maintenance drawings; d. modification drawings required to aid production; e. reissued drawings for updated equipment; f. drawings resulting from value analysis and works’ suggestions. Figure 1.2 shows the organization in a typical drawing office. The function of the chief draughtsman is to take overall control of the services provided by the office. The chief draughtsman receives all work coming into the drawing office, which he examines and distributes to the appropriate section leader. The section leader is responsible for a team of
Designers
Technical clerks
Senior draughtsmen
Standards section
Draughtsmen
Checkers
Finished drawings
Sales
Drawing office
Trainees
Drawing office library
Reprographic section
Manufacturing units
Sales
Service
Development
FIGURE 1.2
draughtsmen of various grades. When work is completed, the section leader then passes the drawings to the checking section. The standards section scrutinizes the drawings to ensure that the appropriate standards have been incorporated. All schedules, equipment lists, and routine clerical work are normally performed by technical clerks. Completed work for approval by the chief draughtsman is returned via the section leader. Since drawings may be produced manually, or by electronic methods, suitable storage, retrieval and duplication arrangements are necessary. Systems in common use include: (a) filing by hand into cabinets the original master drawings, in numerical order, for individual components or contracts; (b) microfilming and the production of microfiche; (c) computer storage. The preservation and security of original documents is of paramount importance in industry. It is not normal practice to permit originals to leave the drawing office. A drawing may take a draughtsman several weeks to develop and complete and therefore has considerable value. The reprographic staff will distribute copies which are relatively inexpensive for further planning, production and other uses. A library section will maintain and operate whatever archive arrangements are in operation. A large amount of drawing office work comes from continuous product development and modification so easy access to past designs and rapid information retrieval is essential.
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Feedback
Engineering drawing practices The comments so far refer to drawing offices in general and typical organizational arrangements which are likely to be found within the engineering industry. Good communication by the use of drawings of quality relies on ensuring that they conform to established standards. BS 5070, Parts 1, 3, and 4 dealing with engineering diagram drawing practice, is a companion standard to BS 8888 and caters for the same industries; it provides recommendations on a wide variety of engineering diagrams. Commonly, as a diagram can be called a ‘drawing’ and a drawing can be called a ‘diagram’, it is useful to summarize the difference in the scopes of these standards. BS 8888 covers what are commonly accepted to be drawings that define shape, size and form. BS 5070 Parts 1, 3, and 4 covers diagrams that are normally associated with flow of some sort, and which relate components (usually indicated by symbols) functionally one to another by the use of lines, but do not depict their shape, size or form; neither may they in general indicate actual connections or locations. Therefore, any drawing or diagram, whether produced manually or on computer aided draughting equipment, must conform to established standards and will then be of a satisfactory quality for commercial understanding, use and transmission by electronic and microfilming techniques. All of the examples which follow conform to the appropriate standards.
Drawing practice and the computer (CAD: Computer aided draughting and design) The computer has made a far bigger impact on drawing office practices than just being able to mimic the traditional manual drawing board and tee square technique. However, it depends on drawing office requirements and if only single, small, two dimensional drawings and sketches are occasionally required and storage of originals is not an issue, then a manual drawing system may still be appropriate. CAD can however perform a much more effective role in the design process and many examples of its ability follow – but it will not do the work on its own. The input by the draughtsman needs to follow the same standards applied in the manual method and this fact is often not understood by managers hoping to purchase CAD and obtain immediate answers to design enquiries. The draughtsman needs the same technical appreciation as before plus additional computing skills to use the varied software programs which can be purchased. To introduce CAD, an organization must set out clear objectives which are appropriate to their present and future requirements and Fig. 1.3 includes aspects of policy which could appear in such plans. The following need consideration:
Company application. Design, manufacturing, sales and service Company computer strategy and policy for 5 year term
Organization and methods
Implementation and communication systems for all users
Hardware Software Resources
Performance monitoring and control
FIGURE 1.3 General computer policy relationships.
(a) CAD management roles; (b) creation, training and maintenance of capable CAD operators; (c) CAD awareness of design project team members in addition to their leaders; (d) the flow of work through the system and the selecting of suitable types of project; (e) associated documentation; (f) possible changes to production methods; (g) needs involving the customer and sub-contractor; (h) system needs relating to planning, security and upgrading; (i) CAD library and database (storage of drawings, symbols, etc.) and archive procedures; (j) Configuration management. When introducing or replacing a CAD system it is very important to take time to consider points (f) to (i) as these can have a major impact on through life costs. If you ask yourself the question ‘In 5, 10, or 15+ years time, will I still need to maintain the electronic product information’. If the answer is ‘yes or possibly’ then the following needs careful consideration. The need to consider possible down stream applications such as Computer aided Machining (CAM), Inspection (CAI) and Analysis, i.e., finite element analysis (FEA) and compatibility with existing systems (or the requirement to replace them) being very important. Compatibility with potential customer and subcontractor systems should also be investigated because if this is a controlling requirement then selection of a suitable system could be limited. Longevity of the manufactured products will also play a significant role in system selection. In many areas of industry regulatory or contract requirements require retention of design records for a period of time after the product is withdrawn from service. This period of time, when added to the length of service could be considerable, i.e., in excess of 25 years. As a result, costs associated with hardware and software upgrades and system maintenance need to be considered. In some cases, the costs associated with upgrades can be offset against new
Chapter | 1 Drawing office management and organization
products, but nevertheless, ongoing maintenance of legacy databases can be costly. It is interesting to note that this was a problem that was often not foreseen in the early days of CAD. The rush by industry to move from the drawing board to CAD has in some cases, led to companies changing CAD systems and struggling to maintain legacy drawings without costly redraws. Even today, with some very good CAD file translators on the market, 100% data transfer can’t always be guaranteed without some remedial work. A possible solution for consideration could be maintaining the drawings of a stable product on microfilm or possibly an enduring electronic format such as Adobe Acrobat files (.PDF). Some companies are already future proofing their design information by retaining drawings and models in their native CAD format and also in .PDF format and on microfilm. Configuration control is also equally important to CAD systems as it is to manual systems and extra care needs to be taken to ensure unauthorised access to master files. Many similar aspects will be appropriate in particular applications but good intentions are not sufficient. It is necessary to quantify objectives and provide dates, deadlines, numbers, individual responsibilities and budgets which are achievable if people are to be stretched and given incentive after full consultation. Present lines of communication will probably need to be modified to accommodate CAD, and planning integration is vital. A possible approach here is the appointment of a CAD Director with the ultimate responsibility for CAD technology assisted by a Systems Manager and an Applications Manager. A CAD Director has the task of setting and implementing objectives and needs to be in a position to define binding policy and direct financial resources. He will monitor progress. A Systems Manager has the role of managing the computer hardware, the software and the associated data. Company records and designs are its most valuable asset. All aspects of security are the responsibility of the Systems Manager. Security details are dealt with in the next chapter. The Applications Manager is responsible for day-to-day operations on the CAD system and the steady flow of work through the equipment. He will probably organize training for operators in the necessary computer skills. Both of these managers need to liaise with the design project leaders to provide and maintain a draughting facility which is capable of increasing productivity to a considerable degree. Figure 1.4 shows the probable position of the CAD Director in the management structure. His department will be providers of computer services to all other computer users within the company.
Why introduce BS 8888 and withdraw BS 308? For 73 years, BS 308 was a highly regarded drawing office practice document. Why the change and what was behind the decision to withdraw BS 308 and replace it with BS 8888?
5
Managing Director
Manufacturing Manager
Chief Engineer
Chief Draughtsman
Finance Manager
CAD Director
Applications Manager
Systems Manager
FIGURE 1.4
A drawing standard From time immemorial, drawings have been the medium used to convey ideas and intentions. Hence the adage that ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’. No need for language, the picture tells it all. In recent years there has, unfortunately, developed another opinion since CAD appeared on the scene, that there is no need for a draughtsman now as the computer does it all. The truth of the matter is that the computer is able to extend the range of work undertaken by the draughtsman and is really a very willing slave, the quality of the product produced from a drawing is solely down to the competence of the designer or draughtsman. The evolution of the Industrial Revolution required the ‘pictures’ to be more detailed. In the premass-production era, manufacture was based on ‘matched fits’, with the assistance of verbal communication. The advent of mass production however, demanded more specific and precise specifications. A national form of draughting presentation was needed to promote a common understanding of the objectives and in September 1927, BS 308 came to fruition, as the recognized National Code of Practice for Engineering Drawing. The initial issue was A5-size and contained only 14 clauses. Dimensioning was covered in four paragraphs and tolerancing in only one. The recommendations were based on just two example drawings. The recommended projection was first angle.
Revisions The life span of BS 308 was 73 years and five revisions were made. The first in December 1943, followed by others in 1953, 1964, 1972, and 1985. The 1972 revision was a major one, with the introduction of three separate parts replacing the single document: The fifth (1985) revision replaced the Imperial standard with a Metric edition. BS 308 was finally withdrawn and replaced by BS 8888 in 2000. The revisions were necessary to keep abreast of technological innovations. As manufactured products became more sophisticated and complex, the progress and development of manufacturing and verification techniques accelerated. Advances in the
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electronics industry ensured more applications in manufacturing with a very high degree of sophistication. Much progress was also made since that single paragraph in the original 1927 version relating to tolerancing, together with the four paragraphs and the two examples covering dimensioning. Geometrical tolerancing was not referred to at all in early versions. The subject gained prominence during the 1960s, especially when it was realized that a symbolic characterization would assist in the understanding of the subject by users and replace the use of lengthy notes relating to geometric controls. This activity was addressed by the major revision in 1972 with the publication of Part 3, devoted entirely to the dimensioning of geometric tolerancing.
*
*
To prepare an applications standard to serve as both a specification for specifying and graphically representing products, and as a route map to the ISO Standards. To withdraw BS 308.
From this positive commitment, BS 8888 was created and published on 15 August 2000. The complete comprehensive title of BS 8888 is: BS 8888. Technical product specification (TPS). Specification.
Basic differences The fundamental differences between BS 308 and BS 8888 are:
The replacement of BS 308 Formerly, the Chief Designer and the drawing office set, and were responsible for, company manufacturing standards and procedures, for other disciples to follow. This practice gradually eroded away because of the advancement of progressive and sophisticated techniques in the manufacturing and verification fields. Increasing commercial pressure for Design for Manufacture and Design for Inspection, created the demand for equal status. During the period separate standards were gradually developed for design, manufacture and measurement. Each discipline utilized similar terms but often with slightly different interpretations despite their apparent commonality. An urgent need to harmonize the meaning of these terms was recognized by ISO. An international meeting in 1989 formed a Joint Harmonization Group. The Danish Standards Association funded a project to bring all design, measurement, and metrology standards together using definitions common to all, but with appendices for each discipline. A full ISO committee (ISO/TC 213) was formed, with the Danish being responsible for the secretariat. The task allocated to this very vibrant committee progressed considerably, with many new international standards being published. A major happening that would affect the future of BS 308 was the UK’s agreement in 1993 with the European Standards Authority (CEN), whereby BSI would withdraw standards relating to technical drawing in favour of the implemented ISO standards covering the same subject. Initially, BSI systematically withdrew various clauses of BS 308 as the relevant ISO Standards were introduced. PD 308 was introduced in June 1996 as a guidance document to assist the transition from BS 308 to the implementation of ISO drawing standards. In 1999, as was the case in 1927, major decisions were deemed necessary, and the following were made: *
To transfer the United Kingdom totally to the ISO Standards base.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
The title: Technical product documentation (TPD) Specification for defining, specifying and graphically representing products. Confirmation of the conventional use of the comma as the decimal marker. BS 308 was a Code of Practice, a guidance document. BS 8888 is essentially an applications specification, providing a route map to over 150 ISO standards. The operative word is ‘specification’. BS 8888 carried forward and contains a significant number of valuable clauses contained in BS 308, which, at present, is not in any ISO documentation. BS 8888 is capable of accommodating significant technical changes, known to be in development, plus the facility to accommodate future additions and changes. With over 150 related ISO standards, BS 8888 has a much broader field of application than its predecessor and its 30 related ISO standards. BS 8888 provides common understanding, and acceptance between the designer and the metrologist of ‘uncertainty’. These are caused by differences between the Design Intent Measurand (Characteristics Specification) and the Measured Value (Characteristics Evaluation) of the actual manufactured part. BS 8888 is a uniform source of reference and will be regularly updated to keep abreast of developments as new international standards are finalized and implemented. It will capture any fundamental changes and will reflect moves towards an integrated system for definition, manufacture and verification. BS 8888 links each standard to the appropriate stage of the design process and lays the foundations for future development.
BS 8888 has been revised every two years, however, this period may be extended to three or five years in the future. BS 8888 is available as a hard copy, and interactive CD with all referenced standards and in the future as a Web Based facility.
Drawing office management and organization Every article used in our day-to-day lives will probably have been produced as a result of solutions to a sequence of operations and considerations, namely: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Conception Design and analysis Manufacture Verification In-service (maintenance) Disposal.
The initial stage will commence when an original marketable idea is seen to have a possible course of development. The concept will probably be viewed from an artistic and a technological perspective. The appearance and visual aspects of a product are very important in creating an acceptable good first impression. The technologist faces the problem of producing a sound, practical, safe design, which complies with the initial specification and can be produced at an economical cost. During every stage of development there are many progress records to be maintained and kept up to date so that reference to the complete history is available to responsible employees and regulatory bodies. For many years various types of drawings, sketches and paintings have been used to convey ideas and information. In the last decade 3D models and rapid prototypes have also become a common way of conveying design intent. However, a good recognizable picture will often remove ambiguity when discussing a project and assist in overcoming a possible language barrier. British Standards are listed in the British Standards Catalogue and the earliest relevant Engineering Standards date back to 1903. Standards were developed to establish suitable dimensions for a range of sizes of metal bars, sheets, nuts, bolts, flanges, etc. following the Industrial Revolution and used by the Engineering Industry. The first British Standard for Engineering Drawing Office Practice published in September 1927 only contained 14 clauses as follows: 1. Sizes of drawings and tracings, and widths of tracing cloth and paper 2. Position of drawing number, date and name 3. Indication of scale 4. Method of projection Manual of Engineering Drawing Copyright Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Types of line and writing Colour of lines Dimension figures Relative importance of dimensions Indication of materials on drawings Various degrees of finish Screw threads Flats and squares Tapers Abbreviations for drawings. There were also five figures illustrating:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Method of projection Types of line Views and sections Screw threads Tapers.
First angle projection was used for the illustrations and the publication was printed on A5 sheets of paper. During the early days of the Industrial Revolution manufacturers simply compared and copied component dimensions to match those used on the prototype. However, with the introduction of quantity production where components were required to be made at different factory sites, measurement by more precise means was essential. Individual manufacturers developed their own standard methods. Clearly, for the benefit of industry in general a National Standard was vital. Later the more comprehensive British Standard of Limits and Fits was introduced. There are two clear aspects, which are necessary to be considered in the specification of component drawings: 1. The drawing shows the dimensions for the component in three planes. Dimensions of the manufactured component need to be verified because some variation of size in each of the three planes (length, breadth, and thickness) will be unavoidable. The designer’s contribution is to provide a Characteristics Specification, which in current jargon is defined as the ‘Design Intent Measurand’. 2. The metrologist produces a ‘Characteristics Evaluation’ which is simply the Measured Value. The drawing office is generally regarded as the heart of any manufacturing organization. Products, components, 1
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ideas, layouts, or schemes which may be presented by a designer in the form of rough freehand sketches, may be developed stage by stage into working drawings and annotated 3D models by the draughtsman. There is generally very little constructive work which can be done by other departments within the firm without an approved drawing of some form being available. The drawing is the universal means of communication. Drawings are made to an accepted standard, and in the United Kingdom, it is BS 8888, containing normative and informative references to international standards. These standards are acknowledged and accepted throughout the world. The contents of the drawing (and annotated 3D models) are themselves, where applicable, in agreement with separate standards relating to materials, dimensions, processes, etc. Larger organizations employ standards engineers who ensure that products conform to British and also international standards where necessary. Good design is often the product of teamwork where detailed consideration is given to the aesthetic, economic, ergonomic and technical aspects of a given problem. It is therefore necessary to impose the appropriate standards at the design stage, since all manufacturing instructions originate from this point. A perfect drawing communicates an exact requirement, or specification, which cannot be misinterpreted and which may form part of a legal contract between supplier and user. Engineering drawings can be produced to a good professional standard if the following points are observed: a. the types of lines used must be of uniform thickness and density; b. eliminate fancy printing, shading and associated artistry; c. include on the drawing only the information which is required to ensure accurate clear communication; d. use only standard symbols and where no other method of specification exist, appropriate abbreviations; e. ensure that the drawing is correctly dimensioned (adequately but not over-dimensioned) with no unnecessary details. Remember that care and consideration given to small details make a big contribution towards perfection, but that perfection itself is no small thing. An accurate, welldelineated engineering drawing can give the draughtsman a responsible considerable pride and job satisfaction. The field of activity of the draughtsman may involve the use, or an appreciation, of the following topics. 1. Company communications Most companies have their own systems which have been developed over a period of time for the following: (a) internal paperwork; (b) numbering of drawings and contracts; (c) coding of parts and assemblies; (d) production planning for component manufacture;
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
(e) quality control and inspection; (f) updating, modification, and reissuing of drawings. Company standards Many drawing offices use their own standard methods which arise from satisfactory past experience of a particular product or process. Also, particular styles may be retained for easy identification, e.g., certain prestige cars can be recognized easily since some individual details, in principle, are common to all models. Standards for dimensioning Interchangeability and quality are controlled by the application of practical limits, fits and geometrical tolerances. Material standards Physical and chemical properties and non-destructive testing methods must be borne in mind. Note must also be taken of preferred sizes, stock sizes, and availability of rod, bar, tube, plate, sheet, nuts, bolts, rivets, etc., and other bought-out items. Draughting standards and codes of practice Drawings must conform to accepted standards, but components are sometimes required which in addition must conform to certain local requirements or specific regulations, for example relating to safety when operating in certain environments or conditions. Assemblies may be required to be flameproof, gastight, waterproof, or resistant to corrosive attack, and detailed specifications from the user may be applicable. Standard parts are sometimes manufactured in quantity by a company, and are used in several different assemblies. The use of standard parts reduces an unnecessary variety of materials and basically similar components. Standards for costs The draughtsman is often required to compare costs where different methods of manufacture are available. A component could possibly be made by forging, by casting, or by fabricating and welding, and a decision as to which method to use must be made. The draughtsman must obviously be well aware of the manufacturing facilities and capacity offered by his own company, the costs involved when different techniques of production are employed, and also an idea of the likely costs when work is sub-contracted to specialist manufacturers, since this alternative often proves an economic proposition. Data sheets Tables of sizes, performance graphs, and conversion charts are of considerable assistance to the design draughtsman.
Figure 1.1 shows the main sources of work flowing into a typical industrial drawing office. The drawing office provides a service to each of these sources of supply, and the work involved can be classified as follows. 1. Engineering The engineering departments are engaged in: (a) current production; (b) development; (c) research;
Chapter | 1 Drawing office management and organization
3
Chief draughtsman
Engineering
Section leaders Service
Manufacturing units
FIGURE 1.1
(d) manufacturing techniques, which may include a study of metallurgy, heat-treatment, strength of materials and manufacturing processes; (e) advanced project planning; (f) field testing of products. 2. Sales This department covers all aspects of marketing existing products and market research for future products. The drawing office may receive work in connection with: (a) general arrangement and outline drawings for prospective customers; (b) illustrations, charts and graphs for technical publications; (c) modifications to production units to suit customers’ particular requirements; (d) application and installation diagrams; (e) feasibility investigations. 3. Service The service department provides a reliable, prompt and efficient after-sales service to the customer. The drawing office receives work associated with (a) maintenance tools and equipment; (b) service kits for overhauls; (c) modifications to production parts resulting from field experience; (d) service manuals. 4. Manufacturing units Briefly, these cover all departments involved in producing the finished end-product. The drawing office must supply charts, drawings, schedules, etc. as follows: a. working drawings of all the company’s products; b. drawings of jigs and fixtures associated with manufacture; c. plant-layout and maintenance drawings; d. modification drawings required to aid production; e. reissued drawings for updated equipment; f. drawings resulting from value analysis and works’ suggestions. Figure 1.2 shows the organization in a typical drawing office. The function of the chief draughtsman is to take overall control of the services provided by the office. The chief draughtsman receives all work coming into the drawing office, which he examines and distributes to the appropriate section leader. The section leader is responsible for a team of
Designers
Technical clerks
Senior draughtsmen
Standards section
Draughtsmen
Checkers
Finished drawings
Sales
Drawing office
Trainees
Drawing office library
Reprographic section
Manufacturing units
Sales
Service
Development
FIGURE 1.2
draughtsmen of various grades. When work is completed, the section leader then passes the drawings to the checking section. The standards section scrutinizes the drawings to ensure that the appropriate standards have been incorporated. All schedules, equipment lists, and routine clerical work are normally performed by technical clerks. Completed work for approval by the chief draughtsman is returned via the section leader. Since drawings may be produced manually, or by electronic methods, suitable storage, retrieval and duplication arrangements are necessary. Systems in common use include: (a) filing by hand into cabinets the original master drawings, in numerical order, for individual components or contracts; (b) microfilming and the production of microfiche; (c) computer storage. The preservation and security of original documents is of paramount importance in industry. It is not normal practice to permit originals to leave the drawing office. A drawing may take a draughtsman several weeks to develop and complete and therefore has considerable value. The reprographic staff will distribute copies which are relatively inexpensive for further planning, production and other uses. A library section will maintain and operate whatever archive arrangements are in operation. A large amount of drawing office work comes from continuous product development and modification so easy access to past designs and rapid information retrieval is essential.
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Manual of Engineering Drawing
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Engineering drawing practices The comments so far refer to drawing offices in general and typical organizational arrangements which are likely to be found within the engineering industry. Good communication by the use of drawings of quality relies on ensuring that they conform to established standards. BS 5070, Parts 1, 3, and 4 dealing with engineering diagram drawing practice, is a companion standard to BS 8888 and caters for the same industries; it provides recommendations on a wide variety of engineering diagrams. Commonly, as a diagram can be called a ‘drawing’ and a drawing can be called a ‘diagram’, it is useful to summarize the difference in the scopes of these standards. BS 8888 covers what are commonly accepted to be drawings that define shape, size and form. BS 5070 Parts 1, 3, and 4 covers diagrams that are normally associated with flow of some sort, and which relate components (usually indicated by symbols) functionally one to another by the use of lines, but do not depict their shape, size or form; neither may they in general indicate actual connections or locations. Therefore, any drawing or diagram, whether produced manually or on computer aided draughting equipment, must conform to established standards and will then be of a satisfactory quality for commercial understanding, use and transmission by electronic and microfilming techniques. All of the examples which follow conform to the appropriate standards.
Drawing practice and the computer (CAD: Computer aided draughting and design) The computer has made a far bigger impact on drawing office practices than just being able to mimic the traditional manual drawing board and tee square technique. However, it depends on drawing office requirements and if only single, small, two dimensional drawings and sketches are occasionally required and storage of originals is not an issue, then a manual drawing system may still be appropriate. CAD can however perform a much more effective role in the design process and many examples of its ability follow – but it will not do the work on its own. The input by the draughtsman needs to follow the same standards applied in the manual method and this fact is often not understood by managers hoping to purchase CAD and obtain immediate answers to design enquiries. The draughtsman needs the same technical appreciation as before plus additional computing skills to use the varied software programs which can be purchased. To introduce CAD, an organization must set out clear objectives which are appropriate to their present and future requirements and Fig. 1.3 includes aspects of policy which could appear in such plans. The following need consideration:
Company application. Design, manufacturing, sales and service Company computer strategy and policy for 5 year term
Organization and methods
Implementation and communication systems for all users
Hardware Software Resources
Performance monitoring and control
FIGURE 1.3 General computer policy relationships.
(a) CAD management roles; (b) creation, training and maintenance of capable CAD operators; (c) CAD awareness of design project team members in addition to their leaders; (d) the flow of work through the system and the selecting of suitable types of project; (e) associated documentation; (f) possible changes to production methods; (g) needs involving the customer and sub-contractor; (h) system needs relating to planning, security and upgrading; (i) CAD library and database (storage of drawings, symbols, etc.) and archive procedures; (j) Configuration management. When introducing or replacing a CAD system it is very important to take time to consider points (f) to (i) as these can have a major impact on through life costs. If you ask yourself the question ‘In 5, 10, or 15+ years time, will I still need to maintain the electronic product information’. If the answer is ‘yes or possibly’ then the following needs careful consideration. The need to consider possible down stream applications such as Computer aided Machining (CAM), Inspection (CAI) and Analysis, i.e., finite element analysis (FEA) and compatibility with existing systems (or the requirement to replace them) being very important. Compatibility with potential customer and subcontractor systems should also be investigated because if this is a controlling requirement then selection of a suitable system could be limited. Longevity of the manufactured products will also play a significant role in system selection. In many areas of industry regulatory or contract requirements require retention of design records for a period of time after the product is withdrawn from service. This period of time, when added to the length of service could be considerable, i.e., in excess of 25 years. As a result, costs associated with hardware and software upgrades and system maintenance need to be considered. In some cases, the costs associated with upgrades can be offset against new
Chapter | 1 Drawing office management and organization
products, but nevertheless, ongoing maintenance of legacy databases can be costly. It is interesting to note that this was a problem that was often not foreseen in the early days of CAD. The rush by industry to move from the drawing board to CAD has in some cases, led to companies changing CAD systems and struggling to maintain legacy drawings without costly redraws. Even today, with some very good CAD file translators on the market, 100% data transfer can’t always be guaranteed without some remedial work. A possible solution for consideration could be maintaining the drawings of a stable product on microfilm or possibly an enduring electronic format such as Adobe Acrobat files (.PDF). Some companies are already future proofing their design information by retaining drawings and models in their native CAD format and also in .PDF format and on microfilm. Configuration control is also equally important to CAD systems as it is to manual systems and extra care needs to be taken to ensure unauthorised access to master files. Many similar aspects will be appropriate in particular applications but good intentions are not sufficient. It is necessary to quantify objectives and provide dates, deadlines, numbers, individual responsibilities and budgets which are achievable if people are to be stretched and given incentive after full consultation. Present lines of communication will probably need to be modified to accommodate CAD, and planning integration is vital. A possible approach here is the appointment of a CAD Director with the ultimate responsibility for CAD technology assisted by a Systems Manager and an Applications Manager. A CAD Director has the task of setting and implementing objectives and needs to be in a position to define binding policy and direct financial resources. He will monitor progress. A Systems Manager has the role of managing the computer hardware, the software and the associated data. Company records and designs are its most valuable asset. All aspects of security are the responsibility of the Systems Manager. Security details are dealt with in the next chapter. The Applications Manager is responsible for day-to-day operations on the CAD system and the steady flow of work through the equipment. He will probably organize training for operators in the necessary computer skills. Both of these managers need to liaise with the design project leaders to provide and maintain a draughting facility which is capable of increasing productivity to a considerable degree. Figure 1.4 shows the probable position of the CAD Director in the management structure. His department will be providers of computer services to all other computer users within the company.
Why introduce BS 8888 and withdraw BS 308? For 73 years, BS 308 was a highly regarded drawing office practice document. Why the change and what was behind the decision to withdraw BS 308 and replace it with BS 8888?
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Managing Director
Manufacturing Manager
Chief Engineer
Chief Draughtsman
Finance Manager
CAD Director
Applications Manager
Systems Manager
FIGURE 1.4
A drawing standard From time immemorial, drawings have been the medium used to convey ideas and intentions. Hence the adage that ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’. No need for language, the picture tells it all. In recent years there has, unfortunately, developed another opinion since CAD appeared on the scene, that there is no need for a draughtsman now as the computer does it all. The truth of the matter is that the computer is able to extend the range of work undertaken by the draughtsman and is really a very willing slave, the quality of the product produced from a drawing is solely down to the competence of the designer or draughtsman. The evolution of the Industrial Revolution required the ‘pictures’ to be more detailed. In the premass-production era, manufacture was based on ‘matched fits’, with the assistance of verbal communication. The advent of mass production however, demanded more specific and precise specifications. A national form of draughting presentation was needed to promote a common understanding of the objectives and in September 1927, BS 308 came to fruition, as the recognized National Code of Practice for Engineering Drawing. The initial issue was A5-size and contained only 14 clauses. Dimensioning was covered in four paragraphs and tolerancing in only one. The recommendations were based on just two example drawings. The recommended projection was first angle.
Revisions The life span of BS 308 was 73 years and five revisions were made. The first in December 1943, followed by others in 1953, 1964, 1972, and 1985. The 1972 revision was a major one, with the introduction of three separate parts replacing the single document: The fifth (1985) revision replaced the Imperial standard with a Metric edition. BS 308 was finally withdrawn and replaced by BS 8888 in 2000. The revisions were necessary to keep abreast of technological innovations. As manufactured products became more sophisticated and complex, the progress and development of manufacturing and verification techniques accelerated. Advances in the
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Manual of Engineering Drawing
electronics industry ensured more applications in manufacturing with a very high degree of sophistication. Much progress was also made since that single paragraph in the original 1927 version relating to tolerancing, together with the four paragraphs and the two examples covering dimensioning. Geometrical tolerancing was not referred to at all in early versions. The subject gained prominence during the 1960s, especially when it was realized that a symbolic characterization would assist in the understanding of the subject by users and replace the use of lengthy notes relating to geometric controls. This activity was addressed by the major revision in 1972 with the publication of Part 3, devoted entirely to the dimensioning of geometric tolerancing.
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To prepare an applications standard to serve as both a specification for specifying and graphically representing products, and as a route map to the ISO Standards. To withdraw BS 308.
From this positive commitment, BS 8888 was created and published on 15 August 2000. The complete comprehensive title of BS 8888 is: BS 8888. Technical product specification (TPS). Specification.
Basic differences The fundamental differences between BS 308 and BS 8888 are:
The replacement of BS 308 Formerly, the Chief Designer and the drawing office set, and were responsible for, company manufacturing standards and procedures, for other disciples to follow. This practice gradually eroded away because of the advancement of progressive and sophisticated techniques in the manufacturing and verification fields. Increasing commercial pressure for Design for Manufacture and Design for Inspection, created the demand for equal status. During the period separate standards were gradually developed for design, manufacture and measurement. Each discipline utilized similar terms but often with slightly different interpretations despite their apparent commonality. An urgent need to harmonize the meaning of these terms was recognized by ISO. An international meeting in 1989 formed a Joint Harmonization Group. The Danish Standards Association funded a project to bring all design, measurement, and metrology standards together using definitions common to all, but with appendices for each discipline. A full ISO committee (ISO/TC 213) was formed, with the Danish being responsible for the secretariat. The task allocated to this very vibrant committee progressed considerably, with many new international standards being published. A major happening that would affect the future of BS 308 was the UK’s agreement in 1993 with the European Standards Authority (CEN), whereby BSI would withdraw standards relating to technical drawing in favour of the implemented ISO standards covering the same subject. Initially, BSI systematically withdrew various clauses of BS 308 as the relevant ISO Standards were introduced. PD 308 was introduced in June 1996 as a guidance document to assist the transition from BS 308 to the implementation of ISO drawing standards. In 1999, as was the case in 1927, major decisions were deemed necessary, and the following were made: *
To transfer the United Kingdom totally to the ISO Standards base.
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The title: Technical product documentation (TPD) Specification for defining, specifying and graphically representing products. Confirmation of the conventional use of the comma as the decimal marker. BS 308 was a Code of Practice, a guidance document. BS 8888 is essentially an applications specification, providing a route map to over 150 ISO standards. The operative word is ‘specification’. BS 8888 carried forward and contains a significant number of valuable clauses contained in BS 308, which, at present, is not in any ISO documentation. BS 8888 is capable of accommodating significant technical changes, known to be in development, plus the facility to accommodate future additions and changes. With over 150 related ISO standards, BS 8888 has a much broader field of application than its predecessor and its 30 related ISO standards. BS 8888 provides common understanding, and acceptance between the designer and the metrologist of ‘uncertainty’. These are caused by differences between the Design Intent Measurand (Characteristics Specification) and the Measured Value (Characteristics Evaluation) of the actual manufactured part. BS 8888 is a uniform source of reference and will be regularly updated to keep abreast of developments as new international standards are finalized and implemented. It will capture any fundamental changes and will reflect moves towards an integrated system for definition, manufacture and verification. BS 8888 links each standard to the appropriate stage of the design process and lays the foundations for future development.
BS 8888 has been revised every two years, however, this period may be extended to three or five years in the future. BS 8888 is available as a hard copy, and interactive CD with all referenced standards and in the future as a Web Based facility.