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Early management of human factors in lean industrial systems
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Early management of human factors in lean industrial systems Saveta Vukadinovica, Ivan Macuzica, Marko Djapana, , Marko Milosevica,b ⁎
a b
University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering, Sestre Janjic 6, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia Wacker Neuson Kragujevac d.o.o., Milice Miljojkovic 13, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Early management Human factors Lean systems Early Human Resources Management
There is an obvious need to redefine approach to provide and develop human resources necessary for modern industrial systems and to find new models that will meet the demands of Lean philosophy and concepts of safety and ergonomics. The authors are suggesting Early Human Resources Management (EHRM) model, inspired by developed pillar structures of Lean based World Class Manufacturing (WCM) and Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) industrial systems and based on proactive approach referring to human resources. The EHRM model is designed through the integration of Early Management and Human Resources development concepts and uses the Vertical start-up (VSU) principle for a drastic reduction of time needed for reaching the full potential and achieving the desired level of knowledge and competencies of human resources in Lean industrial systems. Practical applications: EHRM contributes to reducing the gap between expected and real performances of human resources at an early stage of their professional careers and enables the effective and efficient transition from academic to industrial environment. At the same time, cooperation, communication and knowledge transfer between industry and universities are upgraded, development of educational curricula is facilitated and build around the applicative knowledge skills, and methods.
1. Introduction Proactive approach to human resources management is one of the most important business strategy elements of industrial systems organized on the Lean principles of manufacturing and business process management. At the same time, providing human resources with the required level of knowledge and competencies, in continuity and in harmony with the planned directions and dynamics of Lean systems development, is a key precondition for achieving competitive advantage on increasingly demanding global market. The success of Lean systems largely depends on the ability of humans to recognize and understand the complex problems faced by modern industrial systems and to possess abilities, knowledge, and skills necessary to define and implement appropriate corrective, preventive and proactive measures (Needy et al., 2002). Additionally, Lean industrial systems, focused on continuous and systematic minimizing losses, are defining the requirement that all humans, upon employment in the company, must be fully integrated and fit to the system set, at maximum speed (Steward, 2011). Starting from the defined premises and keeping in mind all disadvantages of the traditional approach to provide and develop human resources necessary for modern industrial systems functioning, there is
an obvious need to redefine the approach to the human resource management. This is extremely important issue and there is a need to find new models that will meet the demands of Lean philosophy and concepts of safety and ergonomics. Companies, which recognize those needs and imperatives, are forced to replace their previous, passive approach of users of available labor market personnel with active involvement into the human resources development and their adaptation to the specific demands imposed by the dynamic industrial and business environment of the 21st century. Achieving these goals also implies the need to introduce the significant changes in the modalities of cooperation between educational institutions, as the holder of the education process, and the industry, as human resources user, in order to establish a new platform in the human development process. Introducing technology and economic development components into education, every country should be capable to change production styles and implementing new ones (Tamer Hava and Erturgut, 2010). According to the same authors, if the new employees do not change focus and follow new trends and improve itself continuously, they could be faced with unemployment. In contrary, Ustun (2004), cited by Tamer Hava and Erturgut (2010), suggested that educational system should be more flexible and to offer possibility for change. Starting from the analysis of previously developed human resources
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Vukadinovic), [email protected] (I. Macuzic), [email protected] (M. Djapan), [email protected] (M. Milosevic). ⁎
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2018.10.008 Received 20 June 2017; Received in revised form 9 September 2018; Accepted 7 October 2018 0925-7535/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Please cite this article as: Vukadinovic, S., Safety Science, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2018.10.008
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management models (Gruman and Saks, 2011; Lapiņa et al., 2014), and taking into account the dynamics of changes and industry requirements, as well as the basis of Lean philosophy, the authors have redefined the complex base of initial assumptions, developmental directions, and limitations. A new and improved human resources development and management model has been proposed, focusing on the methods, tools, and approaches used in Lean industrial concepts, such as World Class Manufacturing (WCM) and Total Productive Maintenance (TPM). A model, entitled Early Human Resources Management (EHRM) is based on the integration of advanced and accepted industrial methods of resource management and positive elements of existing models of industry-education cooperation into a coherent methodology. This will contribute reducing the gap between the expected and real level of human resources performances at the early stage of their professional career. The main purpose of this paper is to point out the additional possibility to improve significantly the ways Human Factors are treated using the Early Equipment Management and introducing the very Early Management principle in the field of managing Human Factors. The essence of EHRM model is in supporting personal growth and nurturing human resource competencies through adequate training and education. In addition, EHRM model will enable adequate preparation of employees for multidisciplinary problems and challenges facing on a daily basis in modern industrial systems, while also giving a great attention to human factor safety and ergonomics issues. Employees will be monitored, evaluated and reported (after three months) about possible issues in inclusion process within company. This paper is structured as follows: in the following section, the literature concerning human factors and ergonomics in Lean Systems is reviewed and its importance is highlighted. In the third section, other production philosophies (WCM/TPM) are linked with human factors, followed with the fourth section where the principles of Early Management are described. In the fifth section, introduction of the Early Management of Human Factors in Lean Systems is presented. Developed EHRM method is presented and described in detail in the sixth section. Findings and its industry application are discussed and concluding remarks are drawn.
and technological elements that seek to waste reduction (Shah and Ward, 2003). In other words, effective human factor utilization in any agile environment can reduce the workload and enhance the profitability of any organization (Ajay Guru Dev et al., 2016). Therefore, implementation of Lean production combined with human resource practices indicates a significant increase in perceived job autonomy, job satisfaction, and operational performance (Rodríguez et al., 2016). Lean production includes Total Quality Management, Human Resources Management, and people factors, as respect for people and job security (Yang and Yang, 2013). Current perspectives, which consider Lean manufacturing as a socio-technical system, have broadened its focus beyond shop floor tools to reflect a wider management philosophy, which incorporates both technical operational tools and human resource practices. Its technical tools are used to reduce waste in human effort, time to market and manufacturing space. From human resources perspective, Lean manufacturing intends to change the way people work, by giving them more challenging jobs, greater responsibility and an opportunity to work in teams (Cullinane et al., 2014). In every Lean industrial system, the greatest attention is given to people. Without appropriate human factor treatment and the effective management of employees, the full potential benefits of Lean industrial systems cannot be realized. The contributions, which human factors studies can make to industry, are mostly made in two areas, product design and the design and use of manufacturing equipment (Corlett, 1973). 2.1. Human factors and ergonomics Safety is characterized by performance (successful completion of tasks) and efficiency (timeliness) in safety-critical environments (Stowers et al., 2017). Human factors is studying the ways to maximize safety, often jeopardized by poor machine design, lack of training, and operators' misuse of machines. Hence, integration of safety and human factors into the design phase is, therefore, a vital necessity if we wish to translate expected performance into achieved results in industrial systems (Fadier and De la Garza, 2006). The term “ergonomics” is also used to describe the field commonly referred to “human factors” and it studies the human-machine relations. The domain of human factors and ergonomics (HFE) include human capabilities and limitations, human-machine interaction, teamwork, tools, machines, and material design, environmental factors, work and organizational design (Stanton et al., 2004). Human-machine interaction refers to the errors associated with the incomplete interpretation of system input and outputs as well as the flaws or inadequacies in system design that limits the user’s performance (Leaver and Reader, 2016). The focus of human factor is to improve performance and well-being by designing better system and by better integration the human into the system. This is done by fitting the environment to the human, and that way two related system outcomes can be achieved: performance (e.g. productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, quality, innovativeness, flexibility, safety and security, reliability, sustainability) and well-being (e.g. health and safety, satisfaction, pleasure, learning, personal development) (Dul et al., 2012). Therefore, HFE strives to design equipment that optimizes human capabilities and minimize human limitations (Meister, 1999). Work-related injuries can be prevented by providing safety education and training to all employees. Over the past 50 years, the education of human factors specialists has evolved, as well as the application of human factors and ergonomic knowledge to education. Better HFE application to the learning environment could enhance the educational experience for all learners. Knowing and understanding the eventual effect of stress, fatigue, poor communication, inadequate knowledge and skills, etc. on operators helps in comprehension of characteristics associated with side effects and errors. Although educating high-quality HFE specialists will provide high quality HFE applications, Buckle (2011) stated that the research in the field human factors research
2. Human factors in lean systems Lean provides a way to do more with less (less human effort, less equipment, less time, and less space) (Comm and Mathaisel, 2005). Lean manufacturing has become one of the most widely used production philosophies internationally as organizations come under increased pressure to compete on product cost, quality and service (Cullinane et al., 2014). Hence, the ultimate vision of any Lean organization is to provide the best quality, the lowest costs, and the best safety while maintaining the highest morale (Liker, 2004). Lean can also be seen as an integrated socio-technical system whose main objective is to eliminate waste by concurrently reducing or minimizing supplier, customer, and internal variability (Shah and Ward, 2003). Consequently, Lean is dealing with seven types of waste (transport, inventory, motion, waiting, overproduction, over-processing, and defects) and strives to find a way to eliminate them. Waste, as defined by Womack and Jones (1996), is any human activity, which absorbs resources but creates no value. Although the Lean concept is widely accepted as a set of tools, methods, and techniques, the key factors for the success of Lean systems are employees (Liker and Meier, 2007). Developing the culture of continuous improvement is not sufficient without fundamental respect for people (Liker, 2004), and that is why a common proverb in Lean concept is “develop people, and then build products”. In Lean management, people bring the system to life by working, resolving issues, developing and growing together, and accordingly, respects for people and employee engagement are determinations of successful Lean initiatives. Lean production can be observed as an interaction between human 2
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exists in sectors other than higher education institutions. Integration of ergonomics in manufacturing production systems is profitable in the short and long term, as its effects may vary, from human aspects (reduction of discomfort, pain, and fatigue) to system aspects (speed of performance, decreased rejection rates, and good quality of service). Indeed, human factors and ergonomics should be integrated at each stage, and the advantages of ergonomics should encourage the wide range of stakeholders to support it. Feedback relating to disorders, quality defects, and productivity, received by stakeholders at each level, would help them to find solutions and continuous improvement. Incorporating proactive ergonomics such as physical and organizational ergonomics and psychosocial factors into the structure of a company is considered as support for productivity and quality (Zare et al., 2016). Using Lean tools to address ergonomics and safety issues supports the proactive ability to reduce ergonomic and safety risks. Consequently, the combination of Lean, safety and ergonomics principles provide a reduction in occupational risks through the organization and provide increases in both quality and productivity (Morse, 2014).
human orientated strategy factors (top management commitment and leadership, total employee involvement and training and education) on WCM/TPM implementation. Therefore, organizations need to consider the human aspect of WCM/TPM in tandem with the technical and financial impacts, as it is instrumental to its success (Hooi and Leong, 2017). Both concepts, TPM and WCM, have pillar based organizational structure with 8 technical pillar in TPM (Ranteshwar et al., 2013) and 10 technical pillars in WCM (De Felice et al., 2013). WCM pillars that predominantly treat Human Factors and Ergonomics in WCM concept are Safety, Autonomous Maintenance & Workplace organization, People Development, and in TPM concept are Safety, Health & Environment, Autonomous Maintenance, Training and Education. The Safety pillar (WCM) or Safety, Health & Environment (TPM) prevents safety risks, protects employees from risks and injuries at work (caused by human, situational, or environmental factors) and ensures safe working surroundings, striving to zero unsafe actions and zero unsafe conditions. Pillar activities are focused on eliminating the root causes of unwanted and unplanned event occurred, preventing their reoccurrence and proactive risk reduction of future potential events. Furthermore, there is an emerging consensus that learning OHS skills (versus being taught about safe work techniques) is useful way to prevent work injuries (Laberge et al., 2014). Disrespect of safety principles and standards may bring irrevocable damages and financial and human losses. Thus, safety based on human factors is very high on company's list of priorities, and this pillar plays a very dynamic role in every other pillar on a regular basis. The pillar Autonomous Maintenance & Workplace organization (WCM) or Autonomous Maintenance (TPM) is responsible for designing the workplace in order to attack MUDA - waste (overproduction, stocks, waiting, movement, transportation, finishing, over-processing), MURI unnecessary burden, and MURA - variations, and inconsistency. Autonomous Maintenance provides the basic conditions on a daily basis with the emphasis on operator detecting abnormalities, and performing small maintenance tasks. It eliminates unsafe conditions and unsafe behavior from workplace by integrating safety issues into autonomous maintenance activities. The pillar People Development (WCM) or Training and Education (TPM) consists activities aimed at better utilization and improvement of available human resources, primarily by introducing the principle of Total People Involvement (TPI) and the principle of continuous improvement (Kaizen). Training and educational issues are undoubtedly one of the critical factors to establish successful WCM/TPM implementation, where proper education begins early during initial preparation stage (Blanchard, 1997). Hence, this pillar includes activities raising the level of knowledge and competencies of employees through the implementation of targeted training and education programs, simultaneously striving to upgrade the human resources management and reduce all forms of human errors. People Development pillar and Training and Education pillar concerns with Human Factors and their influence on quality, maintenance, safety, logistics, etc with focus on establishing appropriate and effective training methods, creating the infrastructure for training, and multiplying the learning and knowledge of the other WCM/TPM pillars. Generally, its objective is to achieve the realization of zero breakdowns, zero defects, and zero accidents enhancing the skill level, techniques and knowledge of operators and closing the knowledge gaps.
3. Human factors in WCM/TPM Complex industrial management concepts, globally accepted by the leading multinational companies, forced by the race for survival and growth on demanding and competitive global market to ensure rational and profitable production, are required. Among several recognized concepts at the global level, Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) and World Class Manufacturing (WCM) should be emphasized. Initially, TPM is evolved in the previous decades, to comprehensive industrial concept focused not only on maintenance of equipment but also on achieving of optimal production environment and minimization of defects, down times, stoppages, delays, and accidents. TPM is as a production driven improvement methodology, which optimizes the equipment reliability and ensures efficient management of plant assets using the employee involvement and empowerment, linking manufacturing, maintenance, and engineering functions (Ahuja and Khamba, 2008). TPM aims to increase the availability/effectiveness of existing equipment in a given situation, through the effort of minimizing input (improving and maintaining equipment at optimal level to reduce its life-cycle cost) and the investment in human resources which results in better hardware utilization (Chan et al., 2005). TPM approach optimizes equipment effectiveness, eliminates breakdowns and promotes maintenance autonomy involving total workforce (Hooi and Leong, 2017). Therefore, although its main objectives are improving quality and cutting costs, TPM also includes some HR-oriented practices. In the first mention of the term and concept of World Class Manufacturing (Schonberger, 1986), WCM production management model was proposed. It is based on integration of several previously known tools, methods, and approaches, including TPM. Today WCM represents a comprehensive approach, philosophy and concept of production management based on the integration of advanced approaches and methods for the organization of jobs, quality control, maintenance and logistics. Full implementation of WCM provides a significant increase in productivity, reducing failures and improving product quality through the involvement of all employees and continuous improvement of all key aspects of the production, within set of rigorously defined goals (zero level of downtime, waste, failures, and stock, together with zero accidents and injuries). WCM principles lead the company to increased competitiveness, development of new and improved technology and innovation, increased flexibility, increased communication between management and production employees, and an increase in work quality and workforce empowerment (De Felice et al., 2013). Companies that achieve the most success of WCM are those continuously that focus on and making the most of the potential in people (Bellgran and Säfsten, 2010). Seth and Tripathi (2005) highlighted a positive influence of the
4. Early management in WCM/TPM The philosophy of Early Management (EM) is oriented towards achieving high efficiency already from the design phase. This pillar consists of two parts: Early Equipment Management (EEM) and Early Product Management (EPM) both focused on learning from previous experiences to eliminate potential losses throughout the adequate and timely planning, development and design. EM activities have purpose 3
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Fig. 1. Traditional and vertical start-up.
operators should receive theoretical and practical training in advance, before start working with new equipment. Nevertheless, starting a new production line with new equipment is definitely not an easy task. Every delay means that revenues can be lost and reputation of manufacturer can be damaged. For that reason, the start-up of a new production line is a key learning moment for organizations (Ball et al., 2011). When new manufacturing equipment is installed, usually it is not possible to produce high volumes instantly (Ball et al., 2011). But, as a solution EEM and EPM pillar endeavors to drastically reduce the time from initial development of a new product/equipment to full production capacity with the implementation of previously mentioned Vertical start-up - VSU principle. The success of a vertical start is measured by relation α/(α + β), where α represents all the problems identified in the development phase of new equipment while β represents all the problems arising during the initial production. The ultimate goal is to eliminate all the potential problems throughout the successful development, design, installation, and commissioning and achieve a vertical start. If the coefficient value exceeds 0.85, the project is considered successful (Fig. 1). Without strict early management, equipment can enter the test operation phase with many hidden defects. The vertical startup is extremely important in EEM and represents the principle of starting a production (new product or existing product on new equipment) with a vertical uplink, meaning fast and efficient installation of equipment for new or existing product, which will immediately start running at full capacity. In essence, it means “doing the right thing from the first”, where all initial expectations from equipment and products in terms of efficiency, quality, waste, safety, capacity, etc. are at the required values after the initial production. As a result, vertical start-up of new equipment/new product meets all defined goals right after the production starts. The similar approach is used for solving competence issues of the new employees.
to achieve, quickly and economically, products that are easy to make and equipment that is easy to maintain and use (Al-Hassan et al., 2000). Those activities are typically performed by the research and development (R&D) or engineering functions within the organization. The operators collect all the operation and equipment conditions data from maintenance, quality, production and engineering, and send feedback to design and development department to decrease R&D period and optimize product and equipment performances. McKone and Weiss (1998) stated that EEM takes into consideration the tradeoffs between equipment attributes encompassing reliability, maintainability, operability, and safety. EEM aims to introduce processes free from losses and defects, resulting in minimal equipment downtime (zero breakdowns), and optimized maintenance costs, while EPM aims to shorten development lead times, so that production start-up is accomplished with zero quality loss (zero defects). Consequently, concept the rightfirst-time startup and problem-free volume production is required. Four main parts of EEM are Quality Assurance, Life Cycle Costs (LCC), Maintenance Prevention (MP) Design and Vertical Startup (VSU). Quality assurance means finding all possible defects affecting the product quality and delaying startup in the initial design phase. It determines whether requirements are met and the production process properly standardized and under control. The life-cycle costs of equipment are the sum of direct, indirect, and other related costs during its period of effectiveness. It is the total of all costs generated during the design, development, production, operation, maintenance, and support processes. LCC of the equipment could be minimized using different methods: Minimum Initial Cost Design, Minimum Running Cost Design, Reduction Design, and Design under Uncertain Circumstances (Gotoh, 1991). Maintenance prevention is set of activities carried out during the planning and commissioning of new equipment, that impart to the equipment high degrees of reliability, maintainability, economy, operability, safety, and flexibility, while considering maintenance information and new technologies (Shirose, 1996). MP design activities are directed at minimizing equipment operational problems, striving to defect-free equipment from the start, and performing design reviews at each stage of the equipment’s life cycle. The fact is that poor design is a major cause of reduced profitability, impaired production efficiency, and low Overall Equipment Effectiveness (Suzuki, 1994). EEM is targeted at a vertical start-up, effective utilization of Maintenance Prevention information and design review, and equipment that is reliable, safe and flexible, with low operation costs and zero defects (Ahmed et al., 2005). Although vertical start-up and minimization of total LCC are often discussed as two main objectives in EEM realization, significant attention is also paid to human factors safety and creation of accident-free environment. EEM includes the establishment of assessment criteria for safety of new products/machines and engineers take great care of new equipment design. They also decide whether and to what extent training is required for safely operating the machines. Therefore,
5. Early management of human factors in lean systems The academic discipline of Human Resources Management (HRM) has grown up around the needs of managers to hire, motivate and develop people with the talents that organizations need. Human resources capabilities are critical for growing and renewing organizations, resulting HRM as an essential function in organizations (Boxall, 2014). The view that people are organization’s most important assets and that their effective development and deployment offers a distinctive and non-imitable competitive advantage has spurred interest in the effective management of human resources. A growing number of studies reporting a positive relationship between human resource practices and corporate performance has enhanced that interest (Guest, 2002). Literature recognizes numerous and various HRM models across the industry. It is crucial that HR managers in each model are aware of the 4
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need for high quality of Human resources, which will be accomplished trough communication with various stakeholder groups, by building partnerships with them and by educating stakeholders (Morse, 2014). As it can be seen from the previous chapter, EM is a very important pillar in WCM/TPM methodology, focused on various activities at the early stage of the new equipment or new product preparation. However, the problem, which also availed as an inspiration for this paper, is that in EM limited “early attention” is given to Human Factors and Ergonomics. In support of this assertion is the fact that after the new equipment installation, significant number (in some cases even majority) of Kaizen programs, that is being implemented is from the field of ergonomics. Kaizen is a tool for continuous improvement, which integrates safety, ergonomics and quality functions to make changes for better (Marras and Karwowski, 2006) and covers all the needs of those involved in a production process. Kaizen initiatives are seen as a natural fit and complementary with ergonomics initiatives, so improved ergonomics and working conditions were achieved by the employees when involved in these initiatives (Vieira et al., 2012). Kaizen allows handson implementation through a team effort of engineers and operators in constant pursuit of perfection. Overall, the Kaizen encourages communication and employee involvement and as a result, the new processes are both more efficient and less frustrating for employees (Morse, 2014). Another proof of insufficient attention gained to Human Factors during the new equipment installation is that majority of safety issues are related to ergonomic problems. Applying ergonomic principles, regarding safety leads to increased efficiency of humans and industrial systems. Besides, managing risks by recognizing ergonomic issues reduces or eliminates many of the hassles and blocks to productivity (Morse, 2014). Using Lean without ergonomics causes less effectiveness because there is a missing link found in neglecting of human factors; on the contrary, integrating ergonomics with Lean causes better capability of humans to perform their tasks in a safe manner. Still, the question whether working conditions under Lean manufacturing are damaging or beneficial for employee health and well-being has been a hotly debated topic for many years (Cullinane et al., 2014). Yet to this day, there is no consensus on how Lean principles affect the workplace ergonomics and safety of workers since most authors found both positive (advantages) and negative (disadvantages) impacts (Arezes et al., 2015). To reduce those negative effects in Lean companies, the authors believe that considerably greater attention should be paid to Human Factors and Ergonomics in early phases (through preventive and proactive actions), using tools and principles of EM. Despite the fact that human resources, without any doubt, represent one of the key element in every industrial system, so far there has been no attempt to use the concept and idea of EM in this business segment. That is the reason why EHRM model impersonates an original human resources management model, firmly grounded on existing scientific knowledge and industrial practice. The aforementioned EHRM model is based on proactive approach referring to human resources, as opposed to other models based on treating human factor issues reactively. Developed pillar structures of Lean industrial systems, has served as potential source and inspiration for developing the improved human resource management model. The focus of activities geared towards the human resources management is concentrated in the People Development pillar (WCM) and/or the Education & Training pillar (TPM). The aim of these activities is to better exploit and improve the available human resources by introducing the principle of total employees’ involvement and the principle of continuous improvement (Kaizen). These are all assumptions and preconditions crucial for progression and implementation of EHRM model.
Fig. 2. The focus of early management.
should have two segments and two focuses (Fig. 2). The first one is existing EEM, which has to include Human Factor and Ergonomics as equally important preconditions during the design and installation of new equipment. The second is non-existing, but equally important and newly proposed EHRM model. Proposed EHRM model is intended to enhance the current level of knowledge, skills and expertise of human resources throughout active involvement of Lean companies in the process of human resources development. Besides the standard knowledge and skills, human resources working in Lean companies are expected to possess a whole range of additional, sophisticated and complex skills and competencies, while simultaneously insisting on the flexibility and ability to work in different environments and diverse jobs. To achieve previously stated, it is necessary to intensify cooperation between industry and educational institutions regarding human resources training and education. Application of Early Management principle implies that companies should be actively involved in the process of education and shape their future employees. Resulted Vertical Start Up would significantly reduce time to achieve projected and desired level of human knowledge and competencies. Thus, EHRM contributes to reducing the gap between expected and real performances of human resources at an early stage of their professional careers and enables the effective and efficient transition from academic to industrial environment. At the same time, cooperation, communication and knowledge transfer between industry and universities are upgraded, development of educational curricula is facilitated and build around the applicative knowledge skills, and methods. In WCM/TPM concept, procedure for introduction and development of each pillar is usually presented in form of seven steps program. It includes phases of corrective, preventive and proactive activities. Based on such approach EHRM seven steps introduction and development model is proposed (Fig. 3). The first three steps represent corrective actions aimed at reducing the identified knowledge and skills’ gap for selected candidates included in EHRM program. Preventive activities are grouped into the next two steps aimed at improving company resources used in the EHRM process, through introduction of coaching program and learning factories concept. The sixth and seventh steps are proactive activities focused in two directions, the integration of the EHRM principles into other WCM/TPM Systems pilots as well as the establishment of a strategic partnership in education between the company and academia. STEP 1. HR selection and analysis of existing level of knowledge and skills. Initial step is dedicated to selection process of prospective candidates for introduction in EHRM program. Selection process include profiling of candidates in order to ensure foreseeing of positions within company where they could achieve their maximum and provide greatest contribution. Survey and analysis on average level of newly selected personal knowledge and skills is performed and compared with previously defined, desirable level based on company
6. Early human resources management model Development of EHRM model starts with the fact that EM concept 5
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Fig. 3. Seven steps of Early Human Resources Management.
existing needs. This should include general and special knowledge, job related skills, soft skills, additional capabilities and expertise, etc. Data on desirable knowledge and skills level should be collected from all other WCM/TPM pillars depending on demands for particular positions within company structure. Critical gaps should be identified and described based on this analysis. STEP 2. Preparation and realization of training programs for overcoming of identified gaps. Overcoming of identified knowledge gaps should be performed through additional, intensive training programs prepared and performed by company staff or by external experts. Those training programs should move focus from theoretical to practical approach with attempt to push trainees to complete, upgrade and refresh part of their, previously gained, theoretical knowledge to its practical application in real industrial environment. Realization of previously prepared training programs should be organized within company or external training service providers (schools and academic institutions should be included). STEP 3. Involvement of selected HR in realization of practical supervised projects. Third step aims to ensure that selected candidates, after pursuing a targeted, intensive training, as soon as possible involve themselves in the realization of specific tasks through participation in teams for the implementation of selected practical projects in the area they are trained for. Candidates have an industrial supervisor while working on those practical tasks. Successful completion of projects and presentation of achieved results represents a final step in formal education and, at the same time, an intensive program of industrial training and preparation for future workplace demands. STEP 4. Establishing of industrial coaching program. Support of industrial supervisors in early stage of professional career is a principle that can provide a faster and more successful transition from academia to a real workplace, professional environment. This kind of industrial couching program, in the early phase of career, provides guidance and direct knowledge and skills transfer from industrial experts and experience workers to newly employed candidates. STEP 5. Introduction of Learning Factories concept. Additional improvement of training/learning environment on company level should be enabled through establishing of so called Learning Factories concept. Learning Factories could have numerous of different forms from training corners and workshops to fully developed and integrated training infrastructure with all main features of real industrial systems. Such infrastructure ensure practical training realization in realistic industrial environment within company without influence or interruption on main production process. STEP 6. Integration of EHRM principles in other WCM/TPM pillars. Having in mind importance of human resources on
performance level of all WCM/TPM pillars and all processes in general in this step appropriate activities should be performed to ensure introduction of EHRM principles. This should include permanent work on updating of data for desired knowledge and skills levels for each pillar including general and specific ones. Additionally, training programs should be constantly improved and upgraded based on achieved results on previously finished groups of trainees and their results in practice after employment. STEP 7. Introduction of company - academia partnership in curriculum preparation and realization. In this final step, company should initiate activities oriented to direct participation in definition of teaching curriculums in schools and academic institution. Based on established partnership, improved teaching programs for potential future employees, should be adopted to follow company needs and expectations in future and their dynamic changes. In addition, experts from companies should be actively engage in the realization of education process in schools and academia, especially in its practical parts. It is very important that first three steps should be performed on EHRM principle which means that selected candidates attend EHRM program in final phases of their regular education. Initially realized pilot EHRM programs showed that realization of first three EHRM steps should last at least six to nine months (one month for first, two to three months for second and at least four months for third step). Having in mind regular academia curricula this should be performed during and after last semester of candidates study program. Results of candidates work in realization of practical project (Step 3 of EHRM) represent base for preparation of their final academia thesis. To summarize, proposed EHRM model is mandatory framework to modern Lean industrial systems to abandon their current passive approach and, furthermore to foster cooperation with educational institutions, to actively engage in the process of providing, developing and integrating human resources with appropriate and required level of knowledge and competencies. 7. Conclusion The main purpose of this paper was to point out at the additional possibility to improve the ways Human Factors are treated in Lean industrial systems using the EM principle in managing Human Resources. Therefore, the authors have introduced the model and idea of Early Human Resources Management (EHRM model), which is designed through the integration of concepts of Early Management and Human Resources development (concentrated in the pillar of People Development in WCM and pillar Education and Training in TPM). An 6
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innovative approach to the problem of providing, developing and integrating human resources into Lean industrial systems and designing a new, improved model is based on the application of fundamental principles of Lean manufacturing philosophy. Principles and ideas of Lean were used as a platform for improving training and education process in order to achieve a rational and optimal system, deprived of all forms of losses, dissipation and irrational engagement of human work. The proposed EHRM model is a necessary for modern Lean (WCM/ TPM) industrial systems to leave their current passive approach and, by intensifying cooperation with educational institutions, actively engage in the process of providing, developing and integrating human resources of the required level of knowledge and competencies. EHRM model is using the Vertical start-up (VSU) principle to enable drastic reduction of time from initial development of human resources at the educational institutions until reaching their full potential and achieving the desired level of competencies before actual employment in Lean industrial systems. Thus, Lean companies will conduct EM of human resources throughout active participation in the process of human factor training and education at educational institutions and empower their effective and efficient transition from academic to industrial environment. New employees will start operating at full capacity and no additional training will be needed upon arrival in the company. That way, the current and urgent problem of inadequate preparation and mismatch between the knowledge, skills, and competencies required by the industry and those possessed by human resources right after graduation will be solved. Another crucial advantage of the EHRM model is that great attention is paid to the problems of human factor safety and ergonomics in Lean industrial systems in early phases (through preventive and proactive actions), which leads to greater efficiency and productivity of those systems and improved operational performances.
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Toyota Talent. McGraw-Hill, New York. Marras, W.S., Karwowski, W. (Eds.), 2006. Interventions, Controls, and Applications in Occupational Ergonomics. The Occupational Ergonomics Handbook, second edition. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, Florida. McKone, K.E., Weiss, E.N., 1998. TPM: planned and autonomous maintenance: bridging the gap between practice and research. Prod. Oper. Manage. 7, 335–351. Meister, D., 1999. The History of Human Factors and Ergonomics. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Morse, A., 2014. Evaluating the Impact of Lean on Employee Ergonomics, Safety, and Job Satisfaction in Manufacturing, Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of the Louisiana. State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College. Needy, K.L., Norman, B.A., Bidanda, B., Ariyawongrat, P., Tharmmaphornphilas, W., Warner, R.C., 2002. Assessing human capital: a lean manufacturing example. Eng. Manage. J. 14, 35–39. Ranteshwar, S., Ashish, M.G., Dhaval, B.S., Sanjay, D., 2013. 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8. Funding This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. References Ahmed, S., Hassan, M., Taha, Z., 2005. TPM can go beyond maintenance: except from a case implementation. J. Qual. Maintenance Eng. 11, 19–42. Ahuja, I.P.S., Khamba, J.S., 2008. Strategies and success factors for overcoming challenges in TPM implementation in Indian manufacturing industry. J. Qual. Maintenance Eng. 14, 123–147. Ajay Guru Dev, C., Senthil Kumar, V.S., Rajesh, G., 2016. Effective human utilization in an original equipment manufacturing (OEM) industry by the implementation of agile manufacturing: A POLCA approach. Hum. Factors Ergon. Manuf. Serv. Ind. 27, 79–86. Al-Hassan, K., Chan, J.F.L., Metcalfe, A.V., 2000. The role of total productive maintenance in business excellence. Total Qual. Manage. 11, 596–601. Arezes, P.M., Dinis-Carvalho, J., Alves, A.C., 2015. Workplace ergonomics in Lean production environments: A literature review. Work 52, 57–70. Ball, P.D., Roberts, S., Natalicchio, A., Scorzafave, C., 2011. Modelling production rampup of engineering products. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part B: J. Eng. Manuf. 225, 959–971. Bellgran, M., Säfsten, K., 2010. Production Development: Design and Operation of Production Systems. Springer Science & Business Media, London. Blanchard, B.S., 1997. An enhanced approach for implementing total productive maintenance in the manufacturing environment. J. Qual. Maintenance Eng. 3, 69–80. Boxall, P., 2014. The future of employment relations from the perspective of human resource management. J. Ind. Relations 56, 578–593. Buckle, P., 2011. The perfect is the enemy of the good - ergonomics research and practice. Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors Annual Lecture 2010. Ergonomics 54, 1–11. Chan, F.T.S., Lau, H.C.W., Ip, R.W.L., Chan, H.K., Kong, S., 2005. Implementation of total productive maintenance: A case study. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 95, 71–94. Comm, C.L., Mathaisel, D.F., 2005. A case study in applying lean sustainability concepts to universities. Int. J. Sustain. High. Educ. 6, 134–146. Corlett, E.N., 1973. Human factors in the design of manufacturing systems. Hum. Factors 15, 105–110.
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Safety Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/safety
Early management of human factors in lean industrial systems Saveta Vukadinovica, Ivan Macuzica, Marko Djapana, , Marko Milosevica,b ⁎
a b
University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering, Sestre Janjic 6, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia Wacker Neuson Kragujevac d.o.o., Milice Miljojkovic 13, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Early management Human factors Lean systems Early Human Resources Management
There is an obvious need to redefine approach to provide and develop human resources necessary for modern industrial systems and to find new models that will meet the demands of Lean philosophy and concepts of safety and ergonomics. The authors are suggesting Early Human Resources Management (EHRM) model, inspired by developed pillar structures of Lean based World Class Manufacturing (WCM) and Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) industrial systems and based on proactive approach referring to human resources. The EHRM model is designed through the integration of Early Management and Human Resources development concepts and uses the Vertical start-up (VSU) principle for a drastic reduction of time needed for reaching the full potential and achieving the desired level of knowledge and competencies of human resources in Lean industrial systems. Practical applications: EHRM contributes to reducing the gap between expected and real performances of human resources at an early stage of their professional careers and enables the effective and efficient transition from academic to industrial environment. At the same time, cooperation, communication and knowledge transfer between industry and universities are upgraded, development of educational curricula is facilitated and build around the applicative knowledge skills, and methods.
1. Introduction Proactive approach to human resources management is one of the most important business strategy elements of industrial systems organized on the Lean principles of manufacturing and business process management. At the same time, providing human resources with the required level of knowledge and competencies, in continuity and in harmony with the planned directions and dynamics of Lean systems development, is a key precondition for achieving competitive advantage on increasingly demanding global market. The success of Lean systems largely depends on the ability of humans to recognize and understand the complex problems faced by modern industrial systems and to possess abilities, knowledge, and skills necessary to define and implement appropriate corrective, preventive and proactive measures (Needy et al., 2002). Additionally, Lean industrial systems, focused on continuous and systematic minimizing losses, are defining the requirement that all humans, upon employment in the company, must be fully integrated and fit to the system set, at maximum speed (Steward, 2011). Starting from the defined premises and keeping in mind all disadvantages of the traditional approach to provide and develop human resources necessary for modern industrial systems functioning, there is
an obvious need to redefine the approach to the human resource management. This is extremely important issue and there is a need to find new models that will meet the demands of Lean philosophy and concepts of safety and ergonomics. Companies, which recognize those needs and imperatives, are forced to replace their previous, passive approach of users of available labor market personnel with active involvement into the human resources development and their adaptation to the specific demands imposed by the dynamic industrial and business environment of the 21st century. Achieving these goals also implies the need to introduce the significant changes in the modalities of cooperation between educational institutions, as the holder of the education process, and the industry, as human resources user, in order to establish a new platform in the human development process. Introducing technology and economic development components into education, every country should be capable to change production styles and implementing new ones (Tamer Hava and Erturgut, 2010). According to the same authors, if the new employees do not change focus and follow new trends and improve itself continuously, they could be faced with unemployment. In contrary, Ustun (2004), cited by Tamer Hava and Erturgut (2010), suggested that educational system should be more flexible and to offer possibility for change. Starting from the analysis of previously developed human resources
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Vukadinovic), [email protected] (I. Macuzic), [email protected] (M. Djapan), [email protected] (M. Milosevic). ⁎
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2018.10.008 Received 20 June 2017; Received in revised form 9 September 2018; Accepted 7 October 2018 0925-7535/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Please cite this article as: Vukadinovic, S., Safety Science, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2018.10.008
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management models (Gruman and Saks, 2011; Lapiņa et al., 2014), and taking into account the dynamics of changes and industry requirements, as well as the basis of Lean philosophy, the authors have redefined the complex base of initial assumptions, developmental directions, and limitations. A new and improved human resources development and management model has been proposed, focusing on the methods, tools, and approaches used in Lean industrial concepts, such as World Class Manufacturing (WCM) and Total Productive Maintenance (TPM). A model, entitled Early Human Resources Management (EHRM) is based on the integration of advanced and accepted industrial methods of resource management and positive elements of existing models of industry-education cooperation into a coherent methodology. This will contribute reducing the gap between the expected and real level of human resources performances at the early stage of their professional career. The main purpose of this paper is to point out the additional possibility to improve significantly the ways Human Factors are treated using the Early Equipment Management and introducing the very Early Management principle in the field of managing Human Factors. The essence of EHRM model is in supporting personal growth and nurturing human resource competencies through adequate training and education. In addition, EHRM model will enable adequate preparation of employees for multidisciplinary problems and challenges facing on a daily basis in modern industrial systems, while also giving a great attention to human factor safety and ergonomics issues. Employees will be monitored, evaluated and reported (after three months) about possible issues in inclusion process within company. This paper is structured as follows: in the following section, the literature concerning human factors and ergonomics in Lean Systems is reviewed and its importance is highlighted. In the third section, other production philosophies (WCM/TPM) are linked with human factors, followed with the fourth section where the principles of Early Management are described. In the fifth section, introduction of the Early Management of Human Factors in Lean Systems is presented. Developed EHRM method is presented and described in detail in the sixth section. Findings and its industry application are discussed and concluding remarks are drawn.
and technological elements that seek to waste reduction (Shah and Ward, 2003). In other words, effective human factor utilization in any agile environment can reduce the workload and enhance the profitability of any organization (Ajay Guru Dev et al., 2016). Therefore, implementation of Lean production combined with human resource practices indicates a significant increase in perceived job autonomy, job satisfaction, and operational performance (Rodríguez et al., 2016). Lean production includes Total Quality Management, Human Resources Management, and people factors, as respect for people and job security (Yang and Yang, 2013). Current perspectives, which consider Lean manufacturing as a socio-technical system, have broadened its focus beyond shop floor tools to reflect a wider management philosophy, which incorporates both technical operational tools and human resource practices. Its technical tools are used to reduce waste in human effort, time to market and manufacturing space. From human resources perspective, Lean manufacturing intends to change the way people work, by giving them more challenging jobs, greater responsibility and an opportunity to work in teams (Cullinane et al., 2014). In every Lean industrial system, the greatest attention is given to people. Without appropriate human factor treatment and the effective management of employees, the full potential benefits of Lean industrial systems cannot be realized. The contributions, which human factors studies can make to industry, are mostly made in two areas, product design and the design and use of manufacturing equipment (Corlett, 1973). 2.1. Human factors and ergonomics Safety is characterized by performance (successful completion of tasks) and efficiency (timeliness) in safety-critical environments (Stowers et al., 2017). Human factors is studying the ways to maximize safety, often jeopardized by poor machine design, lack of training, and operators' misuse of machines. Hence, integration of safety and human factors into the design phase is, therefore, a vital necessity if we wish to translate expected performance into achieved results in industrial systems (Fadier and De la Garza, 2006). The term “ergonomics” is also used to describe the field commonly referred to “human factors” and it studies the human-machine relations. The domain of human factors and ergonomics (HFE) include human capabilities and limitations, human-machine interaction, teamwork, tools, machines, and material design, environmental factors, work and organizational design (Stanton et al., 2004). Human-machine interaction refers to the errors associated with the incomplete interpretation of system input and outputs as well as the flaws or inadequacies in system design that limits the user’s performance (Leaver and Reader, 2016). The focus of human factor is to improve performance and well-being by designing better system and by better integration the human into the system. This is done by fitting the environment to the human, and that way two related system outcomes can be achieved: performance (e.g. productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, quality, innovativeness, flexibility, safety and security, reliability, sustainability) and well-being (e.g. health and safety, satisfaction, pleasure, learning, personal development) (Dul et al., 2012). Therefore, HFE strives to design equipment that optimizes human capabilities and minimize human limitations (Meister, 1999). Work-related injuries can be prevented by providing safety education and training to all employees. Over the past 50 years, the education of human factors specialists has evolved, as well as the application of human factors and ergonomic knowledge to education. Better HFE application to the learning environment could enhance the educational experience for all learners. Knowing and understanding the eventual effect of stress, fatigue, poor communication, inadequate knowledge and skills, etc. on operators helps in comprehension of characteristics associated with side effects and errors. Although educating high-quality HFE specialists will provide high quality HFE applications, Buckle (2011) stated that the research in the field human factors research
2. Human factors in lean systems Lean provides a way to do more with less (less human effort, less equipment, less time, and less space) (Comm and Mathaisel, 2005). Lean manufacturing has become one of the most widely used production philosophies internationally as organizations come under increased pressure to compete on product cost, quality and service (Cullinane et al., 2014). Hence, the ultimate vision of any Lean organization is to provide the best quality, the lowest costs, and the best safety while maintaining the highest morale (Liker, 2004). Lean can also be seen as an integrated socio-technical system whose main objective is to eliminate waste by concurrently reducing or minimizing supplier, customer, and internal variability (Shah and Ward, 2003). Consequently, Lean is dealing with seven types of waste (transport, inventory, motion, waiting, overproduction, over-processing, and defects) and strives to find a way to eliminate them. Waste, as defined by Womack and Jones (1996), is any human activity, which absorbs resources but creates no value. Although the Lean concept is widely accepted as a set of tools, methods, and techniques, the key factors for the success of Lean systems are employees (Liker and Meier, 2007). Developing the culture of continuous improvement is not sufficient without fundamental respect for people (Liker, 2004), and that is why a common proverb in Lean concept is “develop people, and then build products”. In Lean management, people bring the system to life by working, resolving issues, developing and growing together, and accordingly, respects for people and employee engagement are determinations of successful Lean initiatives. Lean production can be observed as an interaction between human 2
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exists in sectors other than higher education institutions. Integration of ergonomics in manufacturing production systems is profitable in the short and long term, as its effects may vary, from human aspects (reduction of discomfort, pain, and fatigue) to system aspects (speed of performance, decreased rejection rates, and good quality of service). Indeed, human factors and ergonomics should be integrated at each stage, and the advantages of ergonomics should encourage the wide range of stakeholders to support it. Feedback relating to disorders, quality defects, and productivity, received by stakeholders at each level, would help them to find solutions and continuous improvement. Incorporating proactive ergonomics such as physical and organizational ergonomics and psychosocial factors into the structure of a company is considered as support for productivity and quality (Zare et al., 2016). Using Lean tools to address ergonomics and safety issues supports the proactive ability to reduce ergonomic and safety risks. Consequently, the combination of Lean, safety and ergonomics principles provide a reduction in occupational risks through the organization and provide increases in both quality and productivity (Morse, 2014).
human orientated strategy factors (top management commitment and leadership, total employee involvement and training and education) on WCM/TPM implementation. Therefore, organizations need to consider the human aspect of WCM/TPM in tandem with the technical and financial impacts, as it is instrumental to its success (Hooi and Leong, 2017). Both concepts, TPM and WCM, have pillar based organizational structure with 8 technical pillar in TPM (Ranteshwar et al., 2013) and 10 technical pillars in WCM (De Felice et al., 2013). WCM pillars that predominantly treat Human Factors and Ergonomics in WCM concept are Safety, Autonomous Maintenance & Workplace organization, People Development, and in TPM concept are Safety, Health & Environment, Autonomous Maintenance, Training and Education. The Safety pillar (WCM) or Safety, Health & Environment (TPM) prevents safety risks, protects employees from risks and injuries at work (caused by human, situational, or environmental factors) and ensures safe working surroundings, striving to zero unsafe actions and zero unsafe conditions. Pillar activities are focused on eliminating the root causes of unwanted and unplanned event occurred, preventing their reoccurrence and proactive risk reduction of future potential events. Furthermore, there is an emerging consensus that learning OHS skills (versus being taught about safe work techniques) is useful way to prevent work injuries (Laberge et al., 2014). Disrespect of safety principles and standards may bring irrevocable damages and financial and human losses. Thus, safety based on human factors is very high on company's list of priorities, and this pillar plays a very dynamic role in every other pillar on a regular basis. The pillar Autonomous Maintenance & Workplace organization (WCM) or Autonomous Maintenance (TPM) is responsible for designing the workplace in order to attack MUDA - waste (overproduction, stocks, waiting, movement, transportation, finishing, over-processing), MURI unnecessary burden, and MURA - variations, and inconsistency. Autonomous Maintenance provides the basic conditions on a daily basis with the emphasis on operator detecting abnormalities, and performing small maintenance tasks. It eliminates unsafe conditions and unsafe behavior from workplace by integrating safety issues into autonomous maintenance activities. The pillar People Development (WCM) or Training and Education (TPM) consists activities aimed at better utilization and improvement of available human resources, primarily by introducing the principle of Total People Involvement (TPI) and the principle of continuous improvement (Kaizen). Training and educational issues are undoubtedly one of the critical factors to establish successful WCM/TPM implementation, where proper education begins early during initial preparation stage (Blanchard, 1997). Hence, this pillar includes activities raising the level of knowledge and competencies of employees through the implementation of targeted training and education programs, simultaneously striving to upgrade the human resources management and reduce all forms of human errors. People Development pillar and Training and Education pillar concerns with Human Factors and their influence on quality, maintenance, safety, logistics, etc with focus on establishing appropriate and effective training methods, creating the infrastructure for training, and multiplying the learning and knowledge of the other WCM/TPM pillars. Generally, its objective is to achieve the realization of zero breakdowns, zero defects, and zero accidents enhancing the skill level, techniques and knowledge of operators and closing the knowledge gaps.
3. Human factors in WCM/TPM Complex industrial management concepts, globally accepted by the leading multinational companies, forced by the race for survival and growth on demanding and competitive global market to ensure rational and profitable production, are required. Among several recognized concepts at the global level, Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) and World Class Manufacturing (WCM) should be emphasized. Initially, TPM is evolved in the previous decades, to comprehensive industrial concept focused not only on maintenance of equipment but also on achieving of optimal production environment and minimization of defects, down times, stoppages, delays, and accidents. TPM is as a production driven improvement methodology, which optimizes the equipment reliability and ensures efficient management of plant assets using the employee involvement and empowerment, linking manufacturing, maintenance, and engineering functions (Ahuja and Khamba, 2008). TPM aims to increase the availability/effectiveness of existing equipment in a given situation, through the effort of minimizing input (improving and maintaining equipment at optimal level to reduce its life-cycle cost) and the investment in human resources which results in better hardware utilization (Chan et al., 2005). TPM approach optimizes equipment effectiveness, eliminates breakdowns and promotes maintenance autonomy involving total workforce (Hooi and Leong, 2017). Therefore, although its main objectives are improving quality and cutting costs, TPM also includes some HR-oriented practices. In the first mention of the term and concept of World Class Manufacturing (Schonberger, 1986), WCM production management model was proposed. It is based on integration of several previously known tools, methods, and approaches, including TPM. Today WCM represents a comprehensive approach, philosophy and concept of production management based on the integration of advanced approaches and methods for the organization of jobs, quality control, maintenance and logistics. Full implementation of WCM provides a significant increase in productivity, reducing failures and improving product quality through the involvement of all employees and continuous improvement of all key aspects of the production, within set of rigorously defined goals (zero level of downtime, waste, failures, and stock, together with zero accidents and injuries). WCM principles lead the company to increased competitiveness, development of new and improved technology and innovation, increased flexibility, increased communication between management and production employees, and an increase in work quality and workforce empowerment (De Felice et al., 2013). Companies that achieve the most success of WCM are those continuously that focus on and making the most of the potential in people (Bellgran and Säfsten, 2010). Seth and Tripathi (2005) highlighted a positive influence of the
4. Early management in WCM/TPM The philosophy of Early Management (EM) is oriented towards achieving high efficiency already from the design phase. This pillar consists of two parts: Early Equipment Management (EEM) and Early Product Management (EPM) both focused on learning from previous experiences to eliminate potential losses throughout the adequate and timely planning, development and design. EM activities have purpose 3
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Fig. 1. Traditional and vertical start-up.
operators should receive theoretical and practical training in advance, before start working with new equipment. Nevertheless, starting a new production line with new equipment is definitely not an easy task. Every delay means that revenues can be lost and reputation of manufacturer can be damaged. For that reason, the start-up of a new production line is a key learning moment for organizations (Ball et al., 2011). When new manufacturing equipment is installed, usually it is not possible to produce high volumes instantly (Ball et al., 2011). But, as a solution EEM and EPM pillar endeavors to drastically reduce the time from initial development of a new product/equipment to full production capacity with the implementation of previously mentioned Vertical start-up - VSU principle. The success of a vertical start is measured by relation α/(α + β), where α represents all the problems identified in the development phase of new equipment while β represents all the problems arising during the initial production. The ultimate goal is to eliminate all the potential problems throughout the successful development, design, installation, and commissioning and achieve a vertical start. If the coefficient value exceeds 0.85, the project is considered successful (Fig. 1). Without strict early management, equipment can enter the test operation phase with many hidden defects. The vertical startup is extremely important in EEM and represents the principle of starting a production (new product or existing product on new equipment) with a vertical uplink, meaning fast and efficient installation of equipment for new or existing product, which will immediately start running at full capacity. In essence, it means “doing the right thing from the first”, where all initial expectations from equipment and products in terms of efficiency, quality, waste, safety, capacity, etc. are at the required values after the initial production. As a result, vertical start-up of new equipment/new product meets all defined goals right after the production starts. The similar approach is used for solving competence issues of the new employees.
to achieve, quickly and economically, products that are easy to make and equipment that is easy to maintain and use (Al-Hassan et al., 2000). Those activities are typically performed by the research and development (R&D) or engineering functions within the organization. The operators collect all the operation and equipment conditions data from maintenance, quality, production and engineering, and send feedback to design and development department to decrease R&D period and optimize product and equipment performances. McKone and Weiss (1998) stated that EEM takes into consideration the tradeoffs between equipment attributes encompassing reliability, maintainability, operability, and safety. EEM aims to introduce processes free from losses and defects, resulting in minimal equipment downtime (zero breakdowns), and optimized maintenance costs, while EPM aims to shorten development lead times, so that production start-up is accomplished with zero quality loss (zero defects). Consequently, concept the rightfirst-time startup and problem-free volume production is required. Four main parts of EEM are Quality Assurance, Life Cycle Costs (LCC), Maintenance Prevention (MP) Design and Vertical Startup (VSU). Quality assurance means finding all possible defects affecting the product quality and delaying startup in the initial design phase. It determines whether requirements are met and the production process properly standardized and under control. The life-cycle costs of equipment are the sum of direct, indirect, and other related costs during its period of effectiveness. It is the total of all costs generated during the design, development, production, operation, maintenance, and support processes. LCC of the equipment could be minimized using different methods: Minimum Initial Cost Design, Minimum Running Cost Design, Reduction Design, and Design under Uncertain Circumstances (Gotoh, 1991). Maintenance prevention is set of activities carried out during the planning and commissioning of new equipment, that impart to the equipment high degrees of reliability, maintainability, economy, operability, safety, and flexibility, while considering maintenance information and new technologies (Shirose, 1996). MP design activities are directed at minimizing equipment operational problems, striving to defect-free equipment from the start, and performing design reviews at each stage of the equipment’s life cycle. The fact is that poor design is a major cause of reduced profitability, impaired production efficiency, and low Overall Equipment Effectiveness (Suzuki, 1994). EEM is targeted at a vertical start-up, effective utilization of Maintenance Prevention information and design review, and equipment that is reliable, safe and flexible, with low operation costs and zero defects (Ahmed et al., 2005). Although vertical start-up and minimization of total LCC are often discussed as two main objectives in EEM realization, significant attention is also paid to human factors safety and creation of accident-free environment. EEM includes the establishment of assessment criteria for safety of new products/machines and engineers take great care of new equipment design. They also decide whether and to what extent training is required for safely operating the machines. Therefore,
5. Early management of human factors in lean systems The academic discipline of Human Resources Management (HRM) has grown up around the needs of managers to hire, motivate and develop people with the talents that organizations need. Human resources capabilities are critical for growing and renewing organizations, resulting HRM as an essential function in organizations (Boxall, 2014). The view that people are organization’s most important assets and that their effective development and deployment offers a distinctive and non-imitable competitive advantage has spurred interest in the effective management of human resources. A growing number of studies reporting a positive relationship between human resource practices and corporate performance has enhanced that interest (Guest, 2002). Literature recognizes numerous and various HRM models across the industry. It is crucial that HR managers in each model are aware of the 4
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need for high quality of Human resources, which will be accomplished trough communication with various stakeholder groups, by building partnerships with them and by educating stakeholders (Morse, 2014). As it can be seen from the previous chapter, EM is a very important pillar in WCM/TPM methodology, focused on various activities at the early stage of the new equipment or new product preparation. However, the problem, which also availed as an inspiration for this paper, is that in EM limited “early attention” is given to Human Factors and Ergonomics. In support of this assertion is the fact that after the new equipment installation, significant number (in some cases even majority) of Kaizen programs, that is being implemented is from the field of ergonomics. Kaizen is a tool for continuous improvement, which integrates safety, ergonomics and quality functions to make changes for better (Marras and Karwowski, 2006) and covers all the needs of those involved in a production process. Kaizen initiatives are seen as a natural fit and complementary with ergonomics initiatives, so improved ergonomics and working conditions were achieved by the employees when involved in these initiatives (Vieira et al., 2012). Kaizen allows handson implementation through a team effort of engineers and operators in constant pursuit of perfection. Overall, the Kaizen encourages communication and employee involvement and as a result, the new processes are both more efficient and less frustrating for employees (Morse, 2014). Another proof of insufficient attention gained to Human Factors during the new equipment installation is that majority of safety issues are related to ergonomic problems. Applying ergonomic principles, regarding safety leads to increased efficiency of humans and industrial systems. Besides, managing risks by recognizing ergonomic issues reduces or eliminates many of the hassles and blocks to productivity (Morse, 2014). Using Lean without ergonomics causes less effectiveness because there is a missing link found in neglecting of human factors; on the contrary, integrating ergonomics with Lean causes better capability of humans to perform their tasks in a safe manner. Still, the question whether working conditions under Lean manufacturing are damaging or beneficial for employee health and well-being has been a hotly debated topic for many years (Cullinane et al., 2014). Yet to this day, there is no consensus on how Lean principles affect the workplace ergonomics and safety of workers since most authors found both positive (advantages) and negative (disadvantages) impacts (Arezes et al., 2015). To reduce those negative effects in Lean companies, the authors believe that considerably greater attention should be paid to Human Factors and Ergonomics in early phases (through preventive and proactive actions), using tools and principles of EM. Despite the fact that human resources, without any doubt, represent one of the key element in every industrial system, so far there has been no attempt to use the concept and idea of EM in this business segment. That is the reason why EHRM model impersonates an original human resources management model, firmly grounded on existing scientific knowledge and industrial practice. The aforementioned EHRM model is based on proactive approach referring to human resources, as opposed to other models based on treating human factor issues reactively. Developed pillar structures of Lean industrial systems, has served as potential source and inspiration for developing the improved human resource management model. The focus of activities geared towards the human resources management is concentrated in the People Development pillar (WCM) and/or the Education & Training pillar (TPM). The aim of these activities is to better exploit and improve the available human resources by introducing the principle of total employees’ involvement and the principle of continuous improvement (Kaizen). These are all assumptions and preconditions crucial for progression and implementation of EHRM model.
Fig. 2. The focus of early management.
should have two segments and two focuses (Fig. 2). The first one is existing EEM, which has to include Human Factor and Ergonomics as equally important preconditions during the design and installation of new equipment. The second is non-existing, but equally important and newly proposed EHRM model. Proposed EHRM model is intended to enhance the current level of knowledge, skills and expertise of human resources throughout active involvement of Lean companies in the process of human resources development. Besides the standard knowledge and skills, human resources working in Lean companies are expected to possess a whole range of additional, sophisticated and complex skills and competencies, while simultaneously insisting on the flexibility and ability to work in different environments and diverse jobs. To achieve previously stated, it is necessary to intensify cooperation between industry and educational institutions regarding human resources training and education. Application of Early Management principle implies that companies should be actively involved in the process of education and shape their future employees. Resulted Vertical Start Up would significantly reduce time to achieve projected and desired level of human knowledge and competencies. Thus, EHRM contributes to reducing the gap between expected and real performances of human resources at an early stage of their professional careers and enables the effective and efficient transition from academic to industrial environment. At the same time, cooperation, communication and knowledge transfer between industry and universities are upgraded, development of educational curricula is facilitated and build around the applicative knowledge skills, and methods. In WCM/TPM concept, procedure for introduction and development of each pillar is usually presented in form of seven steps program. It includes phases of corrective, preventive and proactive activities. Based on such approach EHRM seven steps introduction and development model is proposed (Fig. 3). The first three steps represent corrective actions aimed at reducing the identified knowledge and skills’ gap for selected candidates included in EHRM program. Preventive activities are grouped into the next two steps aimed at improving company resources used in the EHRM process, through introduction of coaching program and learning factories concept. The sixth and seventh steps are proactive activities focused in two directions, the integration of the EHRM principles into other WCM/TPM Systems pilots as well as the establishment of a strategic partnership in education between the company and academia. STEP 1. HR selection and analysis of existing level of knowledge and skills. Initial step is dedicated to selection process of prospective candidates for introduction in EHRM program. Selection process include profiling of candidates in order to ensure foreseeing of positions within company where they could achieve their maximum and provide greatest contribution. Survey and analysis on average level of newly selected personal knowledge and skills is performed and compared with previously defined, desirable level based on company
6. Early human resources management model Development of EHRM model starts with the fact that EM concept 5
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Fig. 3. Seven steps of Early Human Resources Management.
existing needs. This should include general and special knowledge, job related skills, soft skills, additional capabilities and expertise, etc. Data on desirable knowledge and skills level should be collected from all other WCM/TPM pillars depending on demands for particular positions within company structure. Critical gaps should be identified and described based on this analysis. STEP 2. Preparation and realization of training programs for overcoming of identified gaps. Overcoming of identified knowledge gaps should be performed through additional, intensive training programs prepared and performed by company staff or by external experts. Those training programs should move focus from theoretical to practical approach with attempt to push trainees to complete, upgrade and refresh part of their, previously gained, theoretical knowledge to its practical application in real industrial environment. Realization of previously prepared training programs should be organized within company or external training service providers (schools and academic institutions should be included). STEP 3. Involvement of selected HR in realization of practical supervised projects. Third step aims to ensure that selected candidates, after pursuing a targeted, intensive training, as soon as possible involve themselves in the realization of specific tasks through participation in teams for the implementation of selected practical projects in the area they are trained for. Candidates have an industrial supervisor while working on those practical tasks. Successful completion of projects and presentation of achieved results represents a final step in formal education and, at the same time, an intensive program of industrial training and preparation for future workplace demands. STEP 4. Establishing of industrial coaching program. Support of industrial supervisors in early stage of professional career is a principle that can provide a faster and more successful transition from academia to a real workplace, professional environment. This kind of industrial couching program, in the early phase of career, provides guidance and direct knowledge and skills transfer from industrial experts and experience workers to newly employed candidates. STEP 5. Introduction of Learning Factories concept. Additional improvement of training/learning environment on company level should be enabled through establishing of so called Learning Factories concept. Learning Factories could have numerous of different forms from training corners and workshops to fully developed and integrated training infrastructure with all main features of real industrial systems. Such infrastructure ensure practical training realization in realistic industrial environment within company without influence or interruption on main production process. STEP 6. Integration of EHRM principles in other WCM/TPM pillars. Having in mind importance of human resources on
performance level of all WCM/TPM pillars and all processes in general in this step appropriate activities should be performed to ensure introduction of EHRM principles. This should include permanent work on updating of data for desired knowledge and skills levels for each pillar including general and specific ones. Additionally, training programs should be constantly improved and upgraded based on achieved results on previously finished groups of trainees and their results in practice after employment. STEP 7. Introduction of company - academia partnership in curriculum preparation and realization. In this final step, company should initiate activities oriented to direct participation in definition of teaching curriculums in schools and academic institution. Based on established partnership, improved teaching programs for potential future employees, should be adopted to follow company needs and expectations in future and their dynamic changes. In addition, experts from companies should be actively engage in the realization of education process in schools and academia, especially in its practical parts. It is very important that first three steps should be performed on EHRM principle which means that selected candidates attend EHRM program in final phases of their regular education. Initially realized pilot EHRM programs showed that realization of first three EHRM steps should last at least six to nine months (one month for first, two to three months for second and at least four months for third step). Having in mind regular academia curricula this should be performed during and after last semester of candidates study program. Results of candidates work in realization of practical project (Step 3 of EHRM) represent base for preparation of their final academia thesis. To summarize, proposed EHRM model is mandatory framework to modern Lean industrial systems to abandon their current passive approach and, furthermore to foster cooperation with educational institutions, to actively engage in the process of providing, developing and integrating human resources with appropriate and required level of knowledge and competencies. 7. Conclusion The main purpose of this paper was to point out at the additional possibility to improve the ways Human Factors are treated in Lean industrial systems using the EM principle in managing Human Resources. Therefore, the authors have introduced the model and idea of Early Human Resources Management (EHRM model), which is designed through the integration of concepts of Early Management and Human Resources development (concentrated in the pillar of People Development in WCM and pillar Education and Training in TPM). An 6
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innovative approach to the problem of providing, developing and integrating human resources into Lean industrial systems and designing a new, improved model is based on the application of fundamental principles of Lean manufacturing philosophy. Principles and ideas of Lean were used as a platform for improving training and education process in order to achieve a rational and optimal system, deprived of all forms of losses, dissipation and irrational engagement of human work. The proposed EHRM model is a necessary for modern Lean (WCM/ TPM) industrial systems to leave their current passive approach and, by intensifying cooperation with educational institutions, actively engage in the process of providing, developing and integrating human resources of the required level of knowledge and competencies. EHRM model is using the Vertical start-up (VSU) principle to enable drastic reduction of time from initial development of human resources at the educational institutions until reaching their full potential and achieving the desired level of competencies before actual employment in Lean industrial systems. Thus, Lean companies will conduct EM of human resources throughout active participation in the process of human factor training and education at educational institutions and empower their effective and efficient transition from academic to industrial environment. New employees will start operating at full capacity and no additional training will be needed upon arrival in the company. That way, the current and urgent problem of inadequate preparation and mismatch between the knowledge, skills, and competencies required by the industry and those possessed by human resources right after graduation will be solved. Another crucial advantage of the EHRM model is that great attention is paid to the problems of human factor safety and ergonomics in Lean industrial systems in early phases (through preventive and proactive actions), which leads to greater efficiency and productivity of those systems and improved operational performances.
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