- Email: [email protected]
Effect of Fiber Level and Physical Form of Starter on Growth and Development of Dairy Calves Fed No Forage
The Professional Animal Scientist 23 (2007):395–400
Effect of Fiber Level and Physical Form of Starter on Growth and Development of Dairy Calves Fed No Forage J. C. Porter,*1 R. G. Warner,†2 and A. F. Kertz,‡ PAS *Cooperative Extension, University of New Hampshire, Boscawen 03303-2410; †Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853; and ‡ANDHIL LLC, St. Louis, MO 63122-1915
ABSTRACT Purchased dairy calves were raised for 8 wk in unbedded, elevated stalls and given no forage to examine impact of offering no roughage on the growth and development of neonatal calves. High and low fiber starter diets were fed in pellet or coarse mash forms. Calves were fed milk replacer until weaned after 4 wk on trial. Calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 diet groups: low fiber pellet, low fiber coarse mash, high fiber pellet, and high fiber coarse mash. The pelleted feeds had an average particle size of 888 m and the coarse mashes averaged 2,014 m. Diets and water were fed ad libitum throughout the trial. Calves on coarse mash diets gained 0.64 kg/d from wk 4 to 8 and 0.41 kg/d from 0 to 8 wk, which was greater than 0.51 and 0.32 kg/d respective gains of calves on pelleted diets (P < 0.05). Calves on coarse mash diets consumed 60.9 kg starter during the 8-wk period, which was greater (P < 0.05) than 47.6 kg consumed by calves on pelleted starters. Rumination was initiated earlier and diges-
1
Corresponding unh.edu 2 Deceased.
author:
john.porter@
tive upsets were reduced in calves receiving coarse mash diets. Total digestible nutrients and digestibility of DM, ether extract, CP, and nitrogen-free extract were higher (P < 0.05) in low than in high fiber diets with exception of crude fiber. Digestibility was greater (P < 0.05) in coarse mash than pelleted diets with the exception of CP, which was similar. Digestible and ME were also greater in low fiber than high fiber diets and greater in coarse mash than pelleted diets (P < 0.01). There were no symptoms of rumen parakeratosis, and rumen development was improved in calves receiving coarse mash feed. Key words: calves, starter, physical form, fiber level, daily gain
INTRODUCTION Early recommendations emphasized the importance of feeding calves a milk diet supplemented with concentrate and forage until weaned at 3 or 4 mo of age (Hibbs and Pounden, 1948). Subsequent practice was to feed a minimum amount of milk or milk replacer (MR) and to maximize concentrate and forage consumption so that the calf could be abruptly weaned at 3 or 4 wk postpartum (Slack, et al. 1971). This method
reduced labor and feed costs and yet produced a thrifty calf. Fiber affects feed intake (Kang and Leibholz, 1973) and plays a role in the development (Warner, et al. 1959; Stobo, et al. 1966; Huber, 1969) and health of the young ruminant (Gorrill and Nicholson, 1969). Pelleting improves palatability of lower quality feeds and increases intake (Moore, 1964); however, with high quality concentrates, pelleting may lower intake (Tait and Bryant, 1973). The increased rate of passage of finely-ground, pelleted feeds may decrease digestibility (Wilkins, et al. 1972). A pelleted, complete concentrate feed also affects rumen fermentation by reduction of particle size, lowering rumination time involved in digesting feed (Balch, 1971; Welch and Smith, 1971), thus reducing saliva flow, which lowers rumen buffering capacity. The production of acetate decreases and propionate increases (Balch and Rowland, 1957), which can reduce feed intake (Bhattacharya and Warner, 1967), cause bloat (Hironaka, et al. 1973) or rumen parkeratosis (Bull, et al. 1965; Kromann and Meyer, 1972). A complete concentrate in coarse mash form (grain components crushed or crimped, but
396
Porter et al.
Table 1. Daily feeding schedule for milk replacer fed twice daily
Age, d 1 to 5 6 to 8 9 to 11 12 to weaning
Milk replacer, g
Warm water, kg
136 181 227 272
1.36 1.58 1.81 2.27
not finely ground) may be more favorable because of less particle size reduction. The purpose of this experiment was to compare interrelationships of physical form and fiber level on growth and development of neonatal dairy calves on complete concentrate (i.e., calf starter diet) feeds when calves were raised in elevated stalls with no bedding and were given no forage.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Experiment 1 was conducted with 2 replicates of about 16 calves each using a total of 32 Holstein female calves purchased at local auction sales. These were assumed to be about 3 d old and weighed between 36 to 45 kg. Upon arrival, calves were weighed, placed in elevated stalls, and given prophylactic treatment. Calves were started on MR the morning following arrival and were fed twice daily from an open pail, according to the schedule in Table 1. If a calf showed signs of diarrhea, MR solids were reduced and antibiotics were given. In cases of severe dehydration, calves were fed 1.4 kg of an electrolyte solution 2 or 3 times daily. After 2 or 3 d, calf starter diets were randomly assigned to animals. Starter was fed ad libitum, starting at about 230 g daily per calf and increased with intake. Cool water was provided free choice, no forage was fed, and stalls were not bedded. Table 2 lists formulas for calf starter diets offered. Two starters were designed to contain high and low levels of fibrous
Table 2. Ingredient composition of starters fed to calves Ingredient, % Corn and cob meal Cracked corn Crushed oats Beet pulp Brewer’s grains Soybean meal (50%) Molasses Salt Limestone Dicalcium phosphate Pellet binder Trace minerals Vitamin A, IU/kg Vitamin D, IU/kg Antibiotic pre-mix, mg/kg
feedstuffs. One-half of each feed mix was ground and pelleted (averaged 880 m), and the other one-half was kept in a course mash form (averaged 2,014 m). There were 4 dietary groups within each replicate of 16 calves: low fiber pellet, low fiber coarse mash, high fiber pellet, and high fiber coarse mash. Analytical composition of 4 diets and MR are listed in Table 3. The objective was to formulate 4 diets that would meet the requirements of the calf and also be similar in physical form and nutrient composition, but the fiber fraction was greater in pelleted feeds than in respective coarse mash feeds, probably due to heat damage during pelleting (Goering, and Van Soest, 1970). Physical form was quantified using neutral detergent particle distribution as described by Smith and Waldo (1969). Pellet hardness was determined using a Stokes hardness tester (DT Stokes, Bristol, PA). When calves consumed 0.7 kg starter/d for 4 to 5 d, they were abruptly weaned and given only starter and water free choice. This feeding schedule was maintained until the calf was removed from the experiment at the end of 8 wk on test. During this time, BW and feed weigh-backs were recorded once weekly, and a record was kept of fecal
Low fiber
High fiber
— 33.8 35.0 — — 20.7 7.0 1.0 1.0 — 1.5 0.5 8,808 2,202 33
20 — 25.0 16.0 10.0 18.0 7.0 1.0 — 1.0 1.5 0.5 8,808 2,202 33
consistency and health of animal. Detailed charts were kept on each calf. Animals were observed twice each day and the incidences of loose feces were totaled each week and body temperatures were taken. Visual observations of initial rumination of calves on diets were also noted. Two students spent 2 h observing the calves in the middle of the day twice a week during wk 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the second replicate. They recorded number of ruminations, duration of each rumination, and the number and duration of eating times. In Exp. 2, 16 Holstein bull calves were divided into 2 replicates of 8 and were put on a digestion trial carried out from 7 to 8 wk, and were offered the same diet as in Exp. 1. There were a total of 4 calves on each diet. The same feeding and management procedures were used for the bulls as for the heifers in Exp 1. The bulls were raised in a modified elevated calf stall, which was also used during the digestion phase. A rubber collection bag with a plastic liner was harnessed to each calf to collect feces. A large pan was attached to the bottom of an elevated stall that funneled the urine through a hose into a plastic collection jug. Two sample sets of feces were collected daily and frozen; at the end of each period, one set
397
Calf Starter Fiber Level and Physical Form
Table 3. Analysis of starters and milk replacer used in feeding trial replicates (DM basis) Item
Low fiber pellet
Low fiber mash
High fiber pellet
High fiber mash
Milk replacer
89.61 2.86 6.51 22.82 6.89 60.94 72.68 9.76 20.15 2.19 4.565 3.164 2.705
89.50 3.10 5.20 24.51 7.62 59.58 76.30 7.81 16.90 1.73 4.472 3.396 2.881
89.65 2.65 9.71 24.38 7.41 55.87 66.35 14.32 26.91 3.24 4.615 2.986 2.544
87.85 2.44 10.16 20.65 6.47 60.30 72.02 14.39 29.03 2.65 4.616 3.170 2.733
94.8 19.25 — 25.87 8.75 46.15 — — — — 5.237 — —
DM, % Ether extract, % Crude fiber, % CP, % Ash, % NFE,1 % TDN,2 % ADF, % NDF, % ADF-N,3 % GE, kcal/g DE,2 kcal/g ME,2 kcal/g 1
NFE = nitrogen-free extract. Derived from metabolism data. 3 ADF-N expressed as a percent of total feed nitrogen. 2
was composited and analyzed wet for nitrogen and the other set was freezedried and then ground and composited for other nutrient analysis. Urine samples were taken daily and composited and stored frozen. Samples of feed were also taken daily and analyzed for nutrient composition. At the end of 8 wk, one calf from each diet in both replicates was killed and observations were made to evaluate rumen development, and samples were taken of rumen contents for analysis (Porter, 1973). Data were analyzed using ANOVA (Snedecor and Cochran, 1956).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The low-fiber coarse mash starter had 75% more particles > 1,190 m than the respective pelleted feed, and the high-fiber coarse mash starter had 48% more particles >1,190 m than the pelleted form; and both coarse mash starters had fewer small particles under 149 m than the pelleted forms consistent with the objective to vary particle size (Table 4). High fiber pellets had a crushing strength greater than low fiber pellets, which may have been due to increased heat production in the pelleting process of
high fiber feeds (Goering and Van Soest, 1970). Age at weaning varied from 21 to 45 d. Average weaning age and MR consumption were similar among starter groups (Table 5). After weaning, starter consumption increased, which resulted in greater daily gains. Due to early weaning, starter impact was maximized when it was the only feed available, along with water, because there was no bedding available for calves to consume. Although there were numerically greater gains and starter intake on high fiber vs. low fiber during the first 4 wk, these
Table 4. Particle size distribution of calf starter diets (mean ± SEM) Item Particle size (m) >2,380, % 1,190 to 2,379, % 595 to 1,189, % 297 to 594, % 149 to 296, % <149, % Weighted means (m) 1
SEM.
Low fiber pellet
Low fiber mash
High fiber pellet
High fiber mash
3.74 ± 0.621 12.59 ± 0.63 27.56 ± 0.78 28.61 ± 0.56 17.17 ± 0.77 10.32 ± 1.46 740. 56
73.74 ± 1.28 17.11 ± 1.07 5.59 ± 0.48 2.09 ± 0.29 0.96 ± 0.18 0.82 ± 0.11 2,122.87
8.22 ± 0.65 26.21 ± 1.12 27.41 ± 0.23 21.25 ± 0.93 11.54 ± 0.56 5.36 ± 0.07 1,036.20
51.81 ± 0.69 30.93 ± 0.43 11.22 ± 0.49 3.60 ± 0.29 1.37 ± 0.16 1.06 ± 0.10 1,905.78
398
Porter et al.
Table 5. Growth and performance of neonatal calves on feeding trials Fiber Item Number of calves Initial BW, kg ADG, kg 0 to 4 wk 5 to 8 wk 0 to 8 wk Milk replacer intake, kg Starter intake, kg 0 to 4 wk 5 to 8 wk 0 to 8 wk Age at weaning, d Feces score
Form
Low fiber High fiber (LF) (HF)
Pellet (P)
Mash (M) 16 38.74
15 38.99
17 39.66
16 39.91
0.15 0.52 0.34 9.71
0.16 0.62 0.39 9.78
0.14 0.51a 0.32a 10.04
8.75 41.91 50.44 27.07 —
10.20 47.87 58.07 28.12 —
8.72 38.87a 47.59a 28.06 —
0.18 0.64b 0.41b 9.45
Diet1 LFP
LFM
HFP
HFM
8 7 8 9 39.41 ± 1.42 38.57 ± 1.52 40.41 ± 1.42 38.90 ± 1.34 0.14 0.46 0.30 9.52
± ± ± ±
0.06 0.05 0.04 1.13
0.16 0.59 0.38 9.91
± ± ± ±
0.06 0.13 0.06 0.56 0.04 0.34 1.20 10.56
± ± ± ±
0.06 0.05 0.04 1.13
0.19 0.69 0.44 8.99
± ± ± ±
0.05 0.05 0.04 1.07
10.23 8.14 ± 1.36 9.36 ± 1.46 9.29 ± 1.36 11.11 ± 1.29 50.91b 38.25 ± 4.62 45.57 ± 4.94 39.49 ± 4.62 56.25 ± 4.35 60.93b 46.39 ± 5.51 54.49 ± 5.89 48.78 ± 5.51 67.36 ± 5.19 27.13 27.0 ± 2.02 27.1 ± 2.16 29.1 ± 2.02 27.1 ± 1.90 6.57b 5.88b 1.78a — 4.25ab
Mean ± SEM. Means with differing superscripts within form of starters differ (P < 0.05).
1
a,b
differences were greater for coarse mash vs. pellet and significant (P < 0.05) for both daily gain and starter intake during the last 4 wk after weaning. The ADG and starter intake from 4 to 8 wk and 0 to 8 wk were greater (P < 0.05) for calves fed coarse mash starters. Feed efficiency did not differ (P > 0.01) because of fiber or form effects.
There were no significant differences (not shown) in medications and body temperature. But by diet, loose feces were the lowest (P < 0.05) for high fiber coarse mash, followed by low fiber pellet, high fiber pellet, and low fiber coarse mash, respectively: 1.78, 4.25, 5.88, and 6.57 incidences. Fecal observations were made twice daily and number of observa-
Table 6. Rumination monitoring, incidence of calves bloating, and feed efficiency of heifer calves and rumen characteristics of bull calves killed at 8 wk of age Fiber Item No. heifer calves Week first ruminating % of time ruminating No. calves bloating Starter/kg gain, 5 to 8 wk No. bull calves Rumen pH Papillae length, cm Muscle/mucosa, % Acetate to propionate ratio Butyric acid, molar %
Form
Low fiber
High fiber
Pellet
Mash
15 5.1 15.0 2 2.95 4 4.95 2.9 41.0 1.28 11.9
17 4.6 14.8 2 2.73 4 5.50 3.5 47.6 1.38 13.6
16 6.0a 8.7a 3 2.89 4 5.03 2.9 35.8 1.30 12.2
16 3.7b 21.0b 1 2.82 4 5.43 3.5 52.8 1.35 13.2
Means with differing superscripts within form of starter differ (P < 0.01).
a,b
tions of semisolid or semiloose were recorded per week and averaged for the calves in the replicate. Rumen function was measured with the week that the calf was first observed ruminating, and the percentage of time ruminating was greatest (P < 0.01) for mash vs. pellet (Table 6). Feed efficiency was slightly better numerically (i.e., less starter/kg gain) for high fiber vs. low fiber and for mash vs. pellet. Data for the 2 bull calves killed per diet also showed a similar pattern among diets. Greater ratio of acetate to propionate of the VFA in the rumen is associated with more normal rumen fermentation and was noted numerically for high vs. low fiber and for coarse mash vs. pellet diets. Both high fiber vs. low fiber and coarse mash vs. pellet were associated with a numerically greater rumen concentration of butyric acid — the VFA most associated with rumen papillae development and rumen function in young calves (Warner et al., 1959). In Exp. 2, apparent digestibilities from the bull calves during wk 7 and 8 were greater for DM, nitrogen free extract, TDN, DE, and ME (P < 0.01) when comparing low vs. higher fiber
Calf Starter Fiber Level and Physical Form
dairy cows receiving a variety of diets. Br. J. Nutr. 11:288.
Table 7. Apparent digestibilities of calf starter diets in bull calves Fiber % digestibility DM Ether extract Crude fiber CP NFE1 TDN ADF NDF DE ME
Low fiber a
76.5 75.4a 26.6a 79.7c 81.9a 74.5a 33.8 46.1 75.6a 64.3a
Bhattacharya, A. N., and R. G. Warner. 1967. Rumen pH as a factor for controlling feed intake in ruminants. J. Dairy Sci. 50:1116.
Form High fiber b
71.1 67.9b 36.0b 76.0d 77.1b 69.2b 38.3 45.4 70.5b 60.4b
Pellet
Mash
a
b
71.3 69.4c 23.7a 77.5 77.4a 69.5a 28.8a 39.7a 70.6a 60.2a
76.3 73.9d 38.9b 78.2 81.6b 74.2b 43.2b 51.9b 75.4b 64.5b
Means with differing superscripts within fiber level or form of starter differ (P < 0.01). c,d Means with differing superscripts with form of starter differ (P < 0.05). 1 NFE = nitrogen-free extract. a,b
and comparing coarse mash vs. pellet. Apparent digestibilities of ADF and NDF were greater (P < 0.01) for calves fed coarse mash vs. pellet (Table 7). Digestibility of ether extract was greater for calves fed low vs. high fiber diets (P < 0.01) and for calves fed for coarse mash vs. pellet (P < 0.05). Thus, lower fiber concentratetype diets may be more digestible in young calves, but a more favorable rumen environment due to particle size may be just as beneficial, or more so, for fiber and energy digestibility and metabolizability in starter diets. This study supports findings of Miller et al. (1969), who fed a simple starter consisting of ground corn grain, soybean meal, and supplements to calves and obtained results equal to complex starters. They also found that increasing the fiber level slightly increased consumption. This study also showed that pelleting did not increase intake of high quality feeds and depressed intake of an allconcentrate diet, as calves consumed more mash than pelleted starters. Similar results were found using pelleted starters differing in carbohydrate composition (Suarez et al., 2006).
IMPLICATIONS This study showed generally that fiber level and physical form of a calf
399
starter are important in growth and development of the young calf. Specifically, calves can be successfully raised on a complete concentrate diet to 8 wk of age on elevated stalls with no bedding or forage offered and suffer no significant depression in growth or development of physiological abnormalities. Greater intakes and daily gains can be achieved with a coarse mash compared with a pelleted starter. Form or particle size distribution, or both, of the starter is more important than fiber level in preventing bloat and parakeratosis and initiating rumination. Early consumption of a high-fiber, coarse mash feed aids in reducing the incidence of neonatal diarrhea. Low fiber feed was higher in digestible nutrients than high fiber feed, and digestibility was higher in coarse mash form than pelleted form. Thus, a complete concentrate in coarse mash form (grain components crushed or crimped, but not finely ground) may be preferred.
LITERATURE CITED Balch, C. C. 1971. Proposal to use time spent chewing as an index of the extent to which diets for ruminants possess the physical property of fibrousness characteristic of roughages. Br. J. Nutr. 26:383. Balch, D. A., and S. J. Rowland. 1957. Volatile fatty acids and lactic acid in the rumen of
Bull, L. S., L. J. Bush, J. D. Friend, B. Harris, and E. W. Jones. 1965. Incidence of ruminal parakeratosis in calves fed different rations and its relation to volatile fatty acid absorption. J. Dairy Sci. 48:1459. Goering, H. K., and P. J. Van Soest. 1970. Forage Fiber Analysis (Apparatus, Reagents, Procedures, and Some Applications). Agric. Handbook No. 379, ARS-USDA, Washington, DC. Gorrill, A. D. L., and J. W. G. Nicholson. 1969. Effect of added bulk on growth, nutrient utilization, digestive system, and diarrhea in calves fed milk replacer. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 49:305. Hibbs, J. W., and W. D. Pounden. 1948. The influence of the ration and early rumen development on the changes in the plasma carotenoids, vitamin A and ascorbic acid of young dairy calves. J. Dairy Sci. 31:1055. Hironaka, R., J. E. Miltimore, J. M. McArthur, D. R. McGregor, and E. S. Smith. 1973. Influence of particle size of concentrate on rumen conditions associated with feedlot bloat. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 53:75. Huber, J. T. 1969. Symposium: Calf nutrition and development. Development of the digestive and metabolic apparatus of the calf. J. Dairy Sci. 52:1303. Kang, H. S., and J. Leibholz. 1973. The roughage requirement of the early-weaned calf. Anim. Prod. 16:195. Kromann, R. P., and J. H. Meyer. 1972. Rumen metabolism in sheep as influenced by interactions among the ration’s energy content, physical form, and buffers. J. Anim. Sci. 34:813. Miller, W. J., Y. G. Martin, and P. R. Fowler. 1969. Effects of addition of fiber to simplified and to complex starters fed to young calves. J. Dairy Sci. 52:677. Moore, L. A. 1964. Symposium on forage utilization: Nutritive value of forage as affected by physical form. Part I. General principles involved with ruminants and effect of feeding pelleted or wafered forage to dairy cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 23:230. Porter, J. C. 1973. The effect of fiber level and physical form of the concentrate on the growth and development of dairy calves fed no forage. Master’s Thesis, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY. Slack, S. T., R. G. Warner, and W. W. Irish. 1971. Economical rearing of dairy herd replacements. Anim. Sci. Mimeograph Series, No. 12. Dept. Anim. Sci., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY. Smith, L. W., and D. R. Waldo. 1969. Method of sizing forage cell wall particles. J. Dairy Sci. 52:2051. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1956. Statistical Methods. 5th ed. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames.
400
Stobo, I. J. F., J. H. B. Roy, and H. Gaston. 1966. Rumen development of the calf. 1. Effect of diets containing different proportion of concentrate to hay on rumen development. Br. J. Nutr. 20:171. Suarez, B. J., C. G. Van Reenen, G. Beldman, J. van Delen, J. Dykstra, and W. J. J. Gerrits. 2006. Effects of supplementing concentrates differing in carbohydrates composition in veal calf diets: 1. Animal performance and rumen
Porter et al.
fermentation characteristics. J. Dairy Sci. 89:4365. Tait, R. M., and R. G. Bryant. 1973. Influence of energy source and physical form of all-concentrate rations on early weaned lambs. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 53:89. Warner, R. G., H. N. Harrison, and E. G. Sander. 1959. The effect of various dietary fac-
tors on the development of the rumen. p 91 in Proc. Cornell Nutr. Conf., Ithaca, NY. Welch, J. G., and A. M. Smith. 1971. Physical stimulus of rumination activity. J. Anim. Sci. 33:1118. Wilkins, R. J., C. R. Lonsdale, R. M. Tetlow, and T. J. Forrest. 1972. The voluntary intake and digestibility by cattle and sheep of dried grass wafers containing particles of different size. Anim. Prod. 14:177.
Effect of Fiber Level and Physical Form of Starter on Growth and Development of Dairy Calves Fed No Forage J. C. Porter,*1 R. G. Warner,†2 and A. F. Kertz,‡ PAS *Cooperative Extension, University of New Hampshire, Boscawen 03303-2410; †Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853; and ‡ANDHIL LLC, St. Louis, MO 63122-1915
ABSTRACT Purchased dairy calves were raised for 8 wk in unbedded, elevated stalls and given no forage to examine impact of offering no roughage on the growth and development of neonatal calves. High and low fiber starter diets were fed in pellet or coarse mash forms. Calves were fed milk replacer until weaned after 4 wk on trial. Calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 diet groups: low fiber pellet, low fiber coarse mash, high fiber pellet, and high fiber coarse mash. The pelleted feeds had an average particle size of 888 m and the coarse mashes averaged 2,014 m. Diets and water were fed ad libitum throughout the trial. Calves on coarse mash diets gained 0.64 kg/d from wk 4 to 8 and 0.41 kg/d from 0 to 8 wk, which was greater than 0.51 and 0.32 kg/d respective gains of calves on pelleted diets (P < 0.05). Calves on coarse mash diets consumed 60.9 kg starter during the 8-wk period, which was greater (P < 0.05) than 47.6 kg consumed by calves on pelleted starters. Rumination was initiated earlier and diges-
1
Corresponding unh.edu 2 Deceased.
author:
john.porter@
tive upsets were reduced in calves receiving coarse mash diets. Total digestible nutrients and digestibility of DM, ether extract, CP, and nitrogen-free extract were higher (P < 0.05) in low than in high fiber diets with exception of crude fiber. Digestibility was greater (P < 0.05) in coarse mash than pelleted diets with the exception of CP, which was similar. Digestible and ME were also greater in low fiber than high fiber diets and greater in coarse mash than pelleted diets (P < 0.01). There were no symptoms of rumen parakeratosis, and rumen development was improved in calves receiving coarse mash feed. Key words: calves, starter, physical form, fiber level, daily gain
INTRODUCTION Early recommendations emphasized the importance of feeding calves a milk diet supplemented with concentrate and forage until weaned at 3 or 4 mo of age (Hibbs and Pounden, 1948). Subsequent practice was to feed a minimum amount of milk or milk replacer (MR) and to maximize concentrate and forage consumption so that the calf could be abruptly weaned at 3 or 4 wk postpartum (Slack, et al. 1971). This method
reduced labor and feed costs and yet produced a thrifty calf. Fiber affects feed intake (Kang and Leibholz, 1973) and plays a role in the development (Warner, et al. 1959; Stobo, et al. 1966; Huber, 1969) and health of the young ruminant (Gorrill and Nicholson, 1969). Pelleting improves palatability of lower quality feeds and increases intake (Moore, 1964); however, with high quality concentrates, pelleting may lower intake (Tait and Bryant, 1973). The increased rate of passage of finely-ground, pelleted feeds may decrease digestibility (Wilkins, et al. 1972). A pelleted, complete concentrate feed also affects rumen fermentation by reduction of particle size, lowering rumination time involved in digesting feed (Balch, 1971; Welch and Smith, 1971), thus reducing saliva flow, which lowers rumen buffering capacity. The production of acetate decreases and propionate increases (Balch and Rowland, 1957), which can reduce feed intake (Bhattacharya and Warner, 1967), cause bloat (Hironaka, et al. 1973) or rumen parkeratosis (Bull, et al. 1965; Kromann and Meyer, 1972). A complete concentrate in coarse mash form (grain components crushed or crimped, but
396
Porter et al.
Table 1. Daily feeding schedule for milk replacer fed twice daily
Age, d 1 to 5 6 to 8 9 to 11 12 to weaning
Milk replacer, g
Warm water, kg
136 181 227 272
1.36 1.58 1.81 2.27
not finely ground) may be more favorable because of less particle size reduction. The purpose of this experiment was to compare interrelationships of physical form and fiber level on growth and development of neonatal dairy calves on complete concentrate (i.e., calf starter diet) feeds when calves were raised in elevated stalls with no bedding and were given no forage.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Experiment 1 was conducted with 2 replicates of about 16 calves each using a total of 32 Holstein female calves purchased at local auction sales. These were assumed to be about 3 d old and weighed between 36 to 45 kg. Upon arrival, calves were weighed, placed in elevated stalls, and given prophylactic treatment. Calves were started on MR the morning following arrival and were fed twice daily from an open pail, according to the schedule in Table 1. If a calf showed signs of diarrhea, MR solids were reduced and antibiotics were given. In cases of severe dehydration, calves were fed 1.4 kg of an electrolyte solution 2 or 3 times daily. After 2 or 3 d, calf starter diets were randomly assigned to animals. Starter was fed ad libitum, starting at about 230 g daily per calf and increased with intake. Cool water was provided free choice, no forage was fed, and stalls were not bedded. Table 2 lists formulas for calf starter diets offered. Two starters were designed to contain high and low levels of fibrous
Table 2. Ingredient composition of starters fed to calves Ingredient, % Corn and cob meal Cracked corn Crushed oats Beet pulp Brewer’s grains Soybean meal (50%) Molasses Salt Limestone Dicalcium phosphate Pellet binder Trace minerals Vitamin A, IU/kg Vitamin D, IU/kg Antibiotic pre-mix, mg/kg
feedstuffs. One-half of each feed mix was ground and pelleted (averaged 880 m), and the other one-half was kept in a course mash form (averaged 2,014 m). There were 4 dietary groups within each replicate of 16 calves: low fiber pellet, low fiber coarse mash, high fiber pellet, and high fiber coarse mash. Analytical composition of 4 diets and MR are listed in Table 3. The objective was to formulate 4 diets that would meet the requirements of the calf and also be similar in physical form and nutrient composition, but the fiber fraction was greater in pelleted feeds than in respective coarse mash feeds, probably due to heat damage during pelleting (Goering, and Van Soest, 1970). Physical form was quantified using neutral detergent particle distribution as described by Smith and Waldo (1969). Pellet hardness was determined using a Stokes hardness tester (DT Stokes, Bristol, PA). When calves consumed 0.7 kg starter/d for 4 to 5 d, they were abruptly weaned and given only starter and water free choice. This feeding schedule was maintained until the calf was removed from the experiment at the end of 8 wk on test. During this time, BW and feed weigh-backs were recorded once weekly, and a record was kept of fecal
Low fiber
High fiber
— 33.8 35.0 — — 20.7 7.0 1.0 1.0 — 1.5 0.5 8,808 2,202 33
20 — 25.0 16.0 10.0 18.0 7.0 1.0 — 1.0 1.5 0.5 8,808 2,202 33
consistency and health of animal. Detailed charts were kept on each calf. Animals were observed twice each day and the incidences of loose feces were totaled each week and body temperatures were taken. Visual observations of initial rumination of calves on diets were also noted. Two students spent 2 h observing the calves in the middle of the day twice a week during wk 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the second replicate. They recorded number of ruminations, duration of each rumination, and the number and duration of eating times. In Exp. 2, 16 Holstein bull calves were divided into 2 replicates of 8 and were put on a digestion trial carried out from 7 to 8 wk, and were offered the same diet as in Exp. 1. There were a total of 4 calves on each diet. The same feeding and management procedures were used for the bulls as for the heifers in Exp 1. The bulls were raised in a modified elevated calf stall, which was also used during the digestion phase. A rubber collection bag with a plastic liner was harnessed to each calf to collect feces. A large pan was attached to the bottom of an elevated stall that funneled the urine through a hose into a plastic collection jug. Two sample sets of feces were collected daily and frozen; at the end of each period, one set
397
Calf Starter Fiber Level and Physical Form
Table 3. Analysis of starters and milk replacer used in feeding trial replicates (DM basis) Item
Low fiber pellet
Low fiber mash
High fiber pellet
High fiber mash
Milk replacer
89.61 2.86 6.51 22.82 6.89 60.94 72.68 9.76 20.15 2.19 4.565 3.164 2.705
89.50 3.10 5.20 24.51 7.62 59.58 76.30 7.81 16.90 1.73 4.472 3.396 2.881
89.65 2.65 9.71 24.38 7.41 55.87 66.35 14.32 26.91 3.24 4.615 2.986 2.544
87.85 2.44 10.16 20.65 6.47 60.30 72.02 14.39 29.03 2.65 4.616 3.170 2.733
94.8 19.25 — 25.87 8.75 46.15 — — — — 5.237 — —
DM, % Ether extract, % Crude fiber, % CP, % Ash, % NFE,1 % TDN,2 % ADF, % NDF, % ADF-N,3 % GE, kcal/g DE,2 kcal/g ME,2 kcal/g 1
NFE = nitrogen-free extract. Derived from metabolism data. 3 ADF-N expressed as a percent of total feed nitrogen. 2
was composited and analyzed wet for nitrogen and the other set was freezedried and then ground and composited for other nutrient analysis. Urine samples were taken daily and composited and stored frozen. Samples of feed were also taken daily and analyzed for nutrient composition. At the end of 8 wk, one calf from each diet in both replicates was killed and observations were made to evaluate rumen development, and samples were taken of rumen contents for analysis (Porter, 1973). Data were analyzed using ANOVA (Snedecor and Cochran, 1956).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The low-fiber coarse mash starter had 75% more particles > 1,190 m than the respective pelleted feed, and the high-fiber coarse mash starter had 48% more particles >1,190 m than the pelleted form; and both coarse mash starters had fewer small particles under 149 m than the pelleted forms consistent with the objective to vary particle size (Table 4). High fiber pellets had a crushing strength greater than low fiber pellets, which may have been due to increased heat production in the pelleting process of
high fiber feeds (Goering and Van Soest, 1970). Age at weaning varied from 21 to 45 d. Average weaning age and MR consumption were similar among starter groups (Table 5). After weaning, starter consumption increased, which resulted in greater daily gains. Due to early weaning, starter impact was maximized when it was the only feed available, along with water, because there was no bedding available for calves to consume. Although there were numerically greater gains and starter intake on high fiber vs. low fiber during the first 4 wk, these
Table 4. Particle size distribution of calf starter diets (mean ± SEM) Item Particle size (m) >2,380, % 1,190 to 2,379, % 595 to 1,189, % 297 to 594, % 149 to 296, % <149, % Weighted means (m) 1
SEM.
Low fiber pellet
Low fiber mash
High fiber pellet
High fiber mash
3.74 ± 0.621 12.59 ± 0.63 27.56 ± 0.78 28.61 ± 0.56 17.17 ± 0.77 10.32 ± 1.46 740. 56
73.74 ± 1.28 17.11 ± 1.07 5.59 ± 0.48 2.09 ± 0.29 0.96 ± 0.18 0.82 ± 0.11 2,122.87
8.22 ± 0.65 26.21 ± 1.12 27.41 ± 0.23 21.25 ± 0.93 11.54 ± 0.56 5.36 ± 0.07 1,036.20
51.81 ± 0.69 30.93 ± 0.43 11.22 ± 0.49 3.60 ± 0.29 1.37 ± 0.16 1.06 ± 0.10 1,905.78
398
Porter et al.
Table 5. Growth and performance of neonatal calves on feeding trials Fiber Item Number of calves Initial BW, kg ADG, kg 0 to 4 wk 5 to 8 wk 0 to 8 wk Milk replacer intake, kg Starter intake, kg 0 to 4 wk 5 to 8 wk 0 to 8 wk Age at weaning, d Feces score
Form
Low fiber High fiber (LF) (HF)
Pellet (P)
Mash (M) 16 38.74
15 38.99
17 39.66
16 39.91
0.15 0.52 0.34 9.71
0.16 0.62 0.39 9.78
0.14 0.51a 0.32a 10.04
8.75 41.91 50.44 27.07 —
10.20 47.87 58.07 28.12 —
8.72 38.87a 47.59a 28.06 —
0.18 0.64b 0.41b 9.45
Diet1 LFP
LFM
HFP
HFM
8 7 8 9 39.41 ± 1.42 38.57 ± 1.52 40.41 ± 1.42 38.90 ± 1.34 0.14 0.46 0.30 9.52
± ± ± ±
0.06 0.05 0.04 1.13
0.16 0.59 0.38 9.91
± ± ± ±
0.06 0.13 0.06 0.56 0.04 0.34 1.20 10.56
± ± ± ±
0.06 0.05 0.04 1.13
0.19 0.69 0.44 8.99
± ± ± ±
0.05 0.05 0.04 1.07
10.23 8.14 ± 1.36 9.36 ± 1.46 9.29 ± 1.36 11.11 ± 1.29 50.91b 38.25 ± 4.62 45.57 ± 4.94 39.49 ± 4.62 56.25 ± 4.35 60.93b 46.39 ± 5.51 54.49 ± 5.89 48.78 ± 5.51 67.36 ± 5.19 27.13 27.0 ± 2.02 27.1 ± 2.16 29.1 ± 2.02 27.1 ± 1.90 6.57b 5.88b 1.78a — 4.25ab
Mean ± SEM. Means with differing superscripts within form of starters differ (P < 0.05).
1
a,b
differences were greater for coarse mash vs. pellet and significant (P < 0.05) for both daily gain and starter intake during the last 4 wk after weaning. The ADG and starter intake from 4 to 8 wk and 0 to 8 wk were greater (P < 0.05) for calves fed coarse mash starters. Feed efficiency did not differ (P > 0.01) because of fiber or form effects.
There were no significant differences (not shown) in medications and body temperature. But by diet, loose feces were the lowest (P < 0.05) for high fiber coarse mash, followed by low fiber pellet, high fiber pellet, and low fiber coarse mash, respectively: 1.78, 4.25, 5.88, and 6.57 incidences. Fecal observations were made twice daily and number of observa-
Table 6. Rumination monitoring, incidence of calves bloating, and feed efficiency of heifer calves and rumen characteristics of bull calves killed at 8 wk of age Fiber Item No. heifer calves Week first ruminating % of time ruminating No. calves bloating Starter/kg gain, 5 to 8 wk No. bull calves Rumen pH Papillae length, cm Muscle/mucosa, % Acetate to propionate ratio Butyric acid, molar %
Form
Low fiber
High fiber
Pellet
Mash
15 5.1 15.0 2 2.95 4 4.95 2.9 41.0 1.28 11.9
17 4.6 14.8 2 2.73 4 5.50 3.5 47.6 1.38 13.6
16 6.0a 8.7a 3 2.89 4 5.03 2.9 35.8 1.30 12.2
16 3.7b 21.0b 1 2.82 4 5.43 3.5 52.8 1.35 13.2
Means with differing superscripts within form of starter differ (P < 0.01).
a,b
tions of semisolid or semiloose were recorded per week and averaged for the calves in the replicate. Rumen function was measured with the week that the calf was first observed ruminating, and the percentage of time ruminating was greatest (P < 0.01) for mash vs. pellet (Table 6). Feed efficiency was slightly better numerically (i.e., less starter/kg gain) for high fiber vs. low fiber and for mash vs. pellet. Data for the 2 bull calves killed per diet also showed a similar pattern among diets. Greater ratio of acetate to propionate of the VFA in the rumen is associated with more normal rumen fermentation and was noted numerically for high vs. low fiber and for coarse mash vs. pellet diets. Both high fiber vs. low fiber and coarse mash vs. pellet were associated with a numerically greater rumen concentration of butyric acid — the VFA most associated with rumen papillae development and rumen function in young calves (Warner et al., 1959). In Exp. 2, apparent digestibilities from the bull calves during wk 7 and 8 were greater for DM, nitrogen free extract, TDN, DE, and ME (P < 0.01) when comparing low vs. higher fiber
Calf Starter Fiber Level and Physical Form
dairy cows receiving a variety of diets. Br. J. Nutr. 11:288.
Table 7. Apparent digestibilities of calf starter diets in bull calves Fiber % digestibility DM Ether extract Crude fiber CP NFE1 TDN ADF NDF DE ME
Low fiber a
76.5 75.4a 26.6a 79.7c 81.9a 74.5a 33.8 46.1 75.6a 64.3a
Bhattacharya, A. N., and R. G. Warner. 1967. Rumen pH as a factor for controlling feed intake in ruminants. J. Dairy Sci. 50:1116.
Form High fiber b
71.1 67.9b 36.0b 76.0d 77.1b 69.2b 38.3 45.4 70.5b 60.4b
Pellet
Mash
a
b
71.3 69.4c 23.7a 77.5 77.4a 69.5a 28.8a 39.7a 70.6a 60.2a
76.3 73.9d 38.9b 78.2 81.6b 74.2b 43.2b 51.9b 75.4b 64.5b
Means with differing superscripts within fiber level or form of starter differ (P < 0.01). c,d Means with differing superscripts with form of starter differ (P < 0.05). 1 NFE = nitrogen-free extract. a,b
and comparing coarse mash vs. pellet. Apparent digestibilities of ADF and NDF were greater (P < 0.01) for calves fed coarse mash vs. pellet (Table 7). Digestibility of ether extract was greater for calves fed low vs. high fiber diets (P < 0.01) and for calves fed for coarse mash vs. pellet (P < 0.05). Thus, lower fiber concentratetype diets may be more digestible in young calves, but a more favorable rumen environment due to particle size may be just as beneficial, or more so, for fiber and energy digestibility and metabolizability in starter diets. This study supports findings of Miller et al. (1969), who fed a simple starter consisting of ground corn grain, soybean meal, and supplements to calves and obtained results equal to complex starters. They also found that increasing the fiber level slightly increased consumption. This study also showed that pelleting did not increase intake of high quality feeds and depressed intake of an allconcentrate diet, as calves consumed more mash than pelleted starters. Similar results were found using pelleted starters differing in carbohydrate composition (Suarez et al., 2006).
IMPLICATIONS This study showed generally that fiber level and physical form of a calf
399
starter are important in growth and development of the young calf. Specifically, calves can be successfully raised on a complete concentrate diet to 8 wk of age on elevated stalls with no bedding or forage offered and suffer no significant depression in growth or development of physiological abnormalities. Greater intakes and daily gains can be achieved with a coarse mash compared with a pelleted starter. Form or particle size distribution, or both, of the starter is more important than fiber level in preventing bloat and parakeratosis and initiating rumination. Early consumption of a high-fiber, coarse mash feed aids in reducing the incidence of neonatal diarrhea. Low fiber feed was higher in digestible nutrients than high fiber feed, and digestibility was higher in coarse mash form than pelleted form. Thus, a complete concentrate in coarse mash form (grain components crushed or crimped, but not finely ground) may be preferred.
LITERATURE CITED Balch, C. C. 1971. Proposal to use time spent chewing as an index of the extent to which diets for ruminants possess the physical property of fibrousness characteristic of roughages. Br. J. Nutr. 26:383. Balch, D. A., and S. J. Rowland. 1957. Volatile fatty acids and lactic acid in the rumen of
Bull, L. S., L. J. Bush, J. D. Friend, B. Harris, and E. W. Jones. 1965. Incidence of ruminal parakeratosis in calves fed different rations and its relation to volatile fatty acid absorption. J. Dairy Sci. 48:1459. Goering, H. K., and P. J. Van Soest. 1970. Forage Fiber Analysis (Apparatus, Reagents, Procedures, and Some Applications). Agric. Handbook No. 379, ARS-USDA, Washington, DC. Gorrill, A. D. L., and J. W. G. Nicholson. 1969. Effect of added bulk on growth, nutrient utilization, digestive system, and diarrhea in calves fed milk replacer. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 49:305. Hibbs, J. W., and W. D. Pounden. 1948. The influence of the ration and early rumen development on the changes in the plasma carotenoids, vitamin A and ascorbic acid of young dairy calves. J. Dairy Sci. 31:1055. Hironaka, R., J. E. Miltimore, J. M. McArthur, D. R. McGregor, and E. S. Smith. 1973. Influence of particle size of concentrate on rumen conditions associated with feedlot bloat. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 53:75. Huber, J. T. 1969. Symposium: Calf nutrition and development. Development of the digestive and metabolic apparatus of the calf. J. Dairy Sci. 52:1303. Kang, H. S., and J. Leibholz. 1973. The roughage requirement of the early-weaned calf. Anim. Prod. 16:195. Kromann, R. P., and J. H. Meyer. 1972. Rumen metabolism in sheep as influenced by interactions among the ration’s energy content, physical form, and buffers. J. Anim. Sci. 34:813. Miller, W. J., Y. G. Martin, and P. R. Fowler. 1969. Effects of addition of fiber to simplified and to complex starters fed to young calves. J. Dairy Sci. 52:677. Moore, L. A. 1964. Symposium on forage utilization: Nutritive value of forage as affected by physical form. Part I. General principles involved with ruminants and effect of feeding pelleted or wafered forage to dairy cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 23:230. Porter, J. C. 1973. The effect of fiber level and physical form of the concentrate on the growth and development of dairy calves fed no forage. Master’s Thesis, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY. Slack, S. T., R. G. Warner, and W. W. Irish. 1971. Economical rearing of dairy herd replacements. Anim. Sci. Mimeograph Series, No. 12. Dept. Anim. Sci., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY. Smith, L. W., and D. R. Waldo. 1969. Method of sizing forage cell wall particles. J. Dairy Sci. 52:2051. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1956. Statistical Methods. 5th ed. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames.
400
Stobo, I. J. F., J. H. B. Roy, and H. Gaston. 1966. Rumen development of the calf. 1. Effect of diets containing different proportion of concentrate to hay on rumen development. Br. J. Nutr. 20:171. Suarez, B. J., C. G. Van Reenen, G. Beldman, J. van Delen, J. Dykstra, and W. J. J. Gerrits. 2006. Effects of supplementing concentrates differing in carbohydrates composition in veal calf diets: 1. Animal performance and rumen
Porter et al.
fermentation characteristics. J. Dairy Sci. 89:4365. Tait, R. M., and R. G. Bryant. 1973. Influence of energy source and physical form of all-concentrate rations on early weaned lambs. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 53:89. Warner, R. G., H. N. Harrison, and E. G. Sander. 1959. The effect of various dietary fac-
tors on the development of the rumen. p 91 in Proc. Cornell Nutr. Conf., Ithaca, NY. Welch, J. G., and A. M. Smith. 1971. Physical stimulus of rumination activity. J. Anim. Sci. 33:1118. Wilkins, R. J., C. R. Lonsdale, R. M. Tetlow, and T. J. Forrest. 1972. The voluntary intake and digestibility by cattle and sheep of dried grass wafers containing particles of different size. Anim. Prod. 14:177.