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Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters—A survey
000&6981/79/0501-0571
Atmospheric Environment Vol. 13, pp. 571-585. 0 Pergamon Press Ltd. 1979. Printed in Great Britain
sOZ.CWl
REVIEW PAPER EMPIRICAL ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION PARAMETERS-A SURVEY T. A. MCMAHON
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia and DENISON
P. J.
Acres Consulting Services Ltd., 5259 Dorchester Road, Niagara Falls, Ontario, L2E6W1, Canada (First received 19 June 1978 and injhl form 14 November 1978) Abstract - Based on an extensive literature search, the following atmospheric deposition parameters have
been collated and, where possible, generalized values have been noted: deposition velocity of particles, deposition velocity of gases, surface resistance to gaseous deposition, scavenging coefficient of particles, scavenging ratio and scavenging coefficient of gases.
Figure 1 includes more details of Sehmel(l973) and Sehmel and Sutter (1974) results than the information contained in Table 1. Figure 2 is a plot of combined laboratory and field data for a grass surface. From Tables 1 and 2 and Figs 1 and 2 a number of conclusions can be drawn.
INTRODUCHON
In 1974, the writers published inter alia deposition velocities and washout coefficients for gases and particles (McMahon et al., 1976). These summary tables have been referred to by authors on a number of occasions. More recently, we have been involved in an extensive literature review of both wet and dry deposition processes and have prepared more detailed summaries of empirical deposition parameters. AH the collated data are tabulated in Tables l-l 1 and cover published works through to about March 1978.
/
I
I
/o
P’ to 2.2 13.8
SUMMARY
OF EMPIRICAL PARAMATERS
DEPOSITION
---x
73
13.4
Water Smooth Floor
1-
Deposition velocity of particles
Tables 1 and 2 show respectively laboratory and field measurements of deposition velocities of particles where deposition velocity (I+) is defined as
where F = amount of aerosol removed per unit time per unit area, and x(x, y, 0) = average concentration of aerosol. The deposition velocity concept can be applied to a particle or gas, but strictly us should be defined relative to the height above the surface at which the concentration measurement is made. Where the deposition surface is rough or has projections, the numerator in Equation (1) is taken as the amount deposited per unit area of ground plan and not per unit area of actual surface. *.t.
13,5-A
Terminal Settling Velocity u. =o
A
10-s’ 10-Z
10-l
PARTICLE
1
DIAMETER
19
l,,m)
Fig. 1. Laboratory measurement of deposition velocities of particles to a water surface and a smooth floor (extracted from Sehmel, 1973 ; Sehmel and Sutter, 1974).
571
7’. A. M~MAHONand I?. J. DENISON
572 10 X
Laboratory
o
Field
Measurements
Measurements
l-
;;
‘; 2
z
B $ $
-
0.1
s e 0
Terminal
Settling
0.01 -
PARTICLE
DIAMETER
(pm)
Fig. 2. Laboratory and field measurements of deposition velocities of particles to grass (data from Tables 1 and 2).
Figure 2 illustrates the typical deposition velocity-particle diameter relationship. The variability for large diameters (greater than 10 pm) results from various wind speeds and friction velocities used in the experiments. It also shows that the minimum particulate deposition velocity occurs in the range 0.1-l pm. Deposition velocity is approximately a linear function of wind speed and friction velocity. Deposition of particulate matter beneath trees varies significantly with values ranging from 2 to 16 times that measured in adjacent open terrain. Considerable care needs to be exercised in choosing a “typical” deposition velocity. It is a function of many factors and can vary by 2 orders of magnitude. Deposition
velocity
of gases
Chamberlain (1953) defined dry deposition velocity of a gas (Q) by F
vg= X(ZI) --~
(2)
where F = mass flux ofgas, and ~(2,) = concentration of gas at height zI above the deposition surface. Thus the dry deposition flux of gases is considered to be proportional to the ground level concentration (at some reference height). Tables 4-7 set down separately laboratory and field measurements of uI for sulphur dioxide and other gases. It is difficult to summarize the results because of
the many factors affecting the estimates -experimental method, reference height, type of surface, moisture conditions of surface and atmospheric conditions. Nevertheless, the average results tabulated below as ug in ems-’ seem to exhibit a degree of consistency. The values in parentheses indicate the number of separate studies used to obtain average deposition velocity. Laboratory SO1 Alfalfa Sandy soil Clayey soil
1.2 (2) 0.6 (2) 0.8 (2)
Field SO, Grass Alfalfa Wheat Soil Land Forest Water (Fresh) Ocean Snow
1.1 1.6 0.4 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.1 0.5 0.3
Field ozone Diabatic condition Neutral condition
0.6 (6) 1.1 (3)
(14) (2) (3) (4) (4) (5) (6) (2) (2)
Field iodine (as I,, 113’ or elemental I) 1.6 (7) Grass 1.0 (3) Other surfaces In a published summary of discussions during a workshop held in conjunction with the Dubrovnick
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a Table 1. Laboratory m~sur~ents
573
survey
of deposition velocities of particles
Author (date)
Reference height (ml
4 (cm S-r)
Chamberlain and Chadwick (1972)
Grass D = difl usion coefficient 2x10~2~D~2x10~5cmzs~’
up x D2’3 vg= O.O6u, v,=O.l2u,
20-30
0.005 0.003 0.3 2
Clough (1973)
5 20 0.1-28
Sehmel and Sutter (1974)
5 x 10-3-29
0.2-30
l’&@IU’ v* ic d4 0.0035
Craig et ai. (1976)
0.01
Dry Includes wind-tunnel Wet,) and field data
Cereal crops
us to copper also measured. vs found to be a function of wind speed.
Filter paper J
2 x 10-3-10
Klepper and Craig (1975)
>
0.5
Sehmei (1973) Belot and Gauthier (1975)
Commit
Surface
0.1 1 2 5
0.03 0.03 0.1 0.8
Chamberlain (1967)
Moller and Schumann (1970)
Particulate diameter (pm)
l-10
Smooth brass
See Fig, 1
Water
See Fig. 1
Shoots of pine and oak trees
d = particle diameter
u = wind speed
Bean leaves
0.8
Wind-tunnel
Smooth
0.1-l
Deposition rate on pubescent leaves of sunflower was nearly 7 times that of the nonpubescent Leaves of tulip poplar.
Wedding et ul. (1976)
5x 10-z
0.11 0.02
Little and Wiffen (1977)
0.2
0.5 0.04 0.3 0.9
Little (1977)
>
2.75
5 >
::: 1.5 0.3 0.8
8.5 I-
International Symposium (September 1977) on Sulfur in the Atmosphere, it was concluded that typical deposition velocities of SO, are as shown in Table 3 (Husar et al., 1978). Surface resistance to gaseous deposition
The reciprocal of gaseous deposition velocity to plants is defined as resistance and is made up of a series of resistances thus 1 -_=r=
I;@) f
rb +
rc
(3)
Short grass > Nettle Beech White Poplar Nettle Beech White Poplar Nettle Beech White Poplar
These data are for whole shoots for wind speeds of 2.5 m s-‘. Data for other wind
speeds and separate plant surfaces are given in reference.
r, = surface or canopy resistance, whose value is
determined by the various sinks at the surface acting in parallel. Values of r, and rb are aerodynamic factors. Surface resistance is therefore defined as 1 -
r, =
r = total resistance, r&j = aerodynamic resistance
at height z determined by the nature of the turbulence above the surface, r, = resistance to transfer in the nearly-viscous air layer (laminar sub-layer) immediately in contact with the plant surface, and
(4)
Sometimes in field measurements rb is not defined and so surface resistance is approximated by
VP
where
- r,(z) - r,.
0 usi
r:=
1 - r,(z).
0 %
Measured estimates of surface resistances r, and r: are given in Table 8. Scavenging coejjkient of particles
Wet deposition which consists of rainout (within cloud scavenging) and washout (below cloud scaveng-
T. A. MCMAHONand P. J. DENIS~N
514
Table 2. Field measurements of deposition velocities of particles
Author (date)
I’m
(ems-‘)
_.. __-
Chamberlain (1953)
2.1 1.1 0.5
Particulate diameter (pm)
03-0.9 0.3-0.9 0.3 -0.9
16 16 16
Surface
u = 3.2 m/s 21= I.lm;s
0.7 1.6
Ocean Land
Chloride over Scandinavia
0.5 (0.2-3.4)
Land
Radioactive particles over Norway
Coniferous forest
SOY<, rag-weed pollen removed from air by forest
Neuberger et al. (1967)
>
Rag-weed 5.6 4.7 3.0 7.1 0.8
White and Turner (1970)
Chamberlain and Chadwick (1972)
=
O.&l0
0.50
cs = o.o6u, t‘*
=
1. Probable overestimation of aerosol income, hence rB. 2. Standard deviation varied between 65 and 95”; of mean ry.
Na K Ca Mg P
Esmen and Corn (1971) I’,
20-30
0.12u*
Filter paper, Millipore filter Glass slide Cereal crops
Dry Includes wind-tunnel and Wet> field data.
Land
ry,estimated for 23 trace elements based on several years of data
Pierson et al (1973) 0.1-0.6 Cawse (1974)
Al
1.3 0.22 (0.45) 0.50 (0.50) 1.1 0.56 (0.45) 0.30 (1.0) 0.29 0.62
Cd Cf Cu Fe Mn Ni ;b V Zn Na, Ca, Mg. K, P. NO,
3.4 7.3 11 61 100 0.74 1.1 0.75 It.7
Abrahamsen et al. (1976) Dovland and Eliassen (1976)
0.16 0.68
Fritschen and Edmonds
0.07 0.46
Prahm et al. (1976)
0.4
Krey and Toonkel (1977)
0.5 0.6
Wesley et ui. (1977)
Extracted from Gatz (L975). Values in parentheses were estimated by Gatz from a relationship between particle size and rq.
AS
Hart and Parent (1974)
Clough (1975)
Comment
_u = 9.2 m/s
Grass
Eriksson (1959) Small (1960)
Reference height (m)
Douglas fir and junipers Grass Grass Grass Dry moss Wet moss
Dry U* = 37cms-’ Dry a* = 87cms-’ Wet a, = 87 cm s-l
Grass
Dry a, = 37cms-’
Grass Dry moss
Dry u* = 37cms.’
Spruce and pines
Deposition beneath trees open terrain
atmospheric Snow aerosol > 3 Douglas fir atmospheric aerosof
Deposition beneath trees --. = 3- 16 open terrain
Atlantic ocean
2
Lead SOi- ; upper bound value
so:.90s,; HASL wet-dry collector
5
0.05-O. 1
Bare soil and grass
u < 2 m s-’ ; Eddy carrel. method.
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a
ing) may be considered process thus :
as an exponential
particles. At first glance these values show little consistency. In Fig. 3, the results obtained by Radke et al. (1977) have been plotted from his Fig. 3. Values in Table 9 which have particle size data available are also superimposed. In the five cases shown by circles the values are a function of rainfall intensity. A common value of 5 mm h-’ was adopted. For the sixth case shown by a cross, the particle size was given as less than 1 pm and so 0.5 pm was adopted. Overall the points show satisfactory agreement with Radke’s data. The figure illustrates the importance of particle size as a major factor in determining wet scavenging coefficients.
decay
x, = x0 e-Q
(6)
where xI = atmospheric concentration of particles at time 6 x0 = atmospheric concentration of particles at time zero, and AP = scavenging coefficient for particles (in units of time- ‘). In Table 9 we have compiled a comprehensive list of field measurements of wet scavenging coefficients of
Scauenging
Table 3. SO1 deposition rates from Husar et al., 1978 Typical vs (cm s-l)
Surface Short grass Medium crop Forest Calcareous soil Acid soil Acid soil Dry snow
0.5 0.7 Uncertain 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.7 0.8 0.7
Water Countryside Cities
575
survey
ratios
The scavenging ratio (or washout ratio) is an alternative expression to scavenging coefficients for wet deposition and is defined as the ratio of the mass of contaminant in precipitation falling through a column of air compared to the mass in the column of air (Chamberlain, 1960).
Condition/Comment 0.1 m height 1.0 m height 10.0 m height Wet or dry Dry Wet If wet, behaves like water
w=“p
(7)
I: where W = scavenging ratio, k = concentration of contaminant
Based on London data only
in precipitation
(Pgg-‘)> Table 4. Laboratory measurements of deposition velocities of sulphur dioxide
Author (date)
“8
(ems-‘)
Thomas et al. (1943)
1.0
Spedding (1969)
1.5
height (m)
Surface
1
Alfalfa
Growth chamber (Chamberlain, 1975)
Barley leaves
Results adjusted for field plant morphology
Comment
Hill (1971)
2.8
1
Alfalfa
Chamber (de Wys et al., 1978)
Bromfield (1972)
1.0
1
Mustard
Glasshouse
Spedding (1972)
0.2
Sea water
Calm condition Turbulent condition
Rye-grass
Growth chamber (Chamberlain, 1975)
Soils
r.h. 37-52% r.h. 70-80% Found us to be a function of pH
1.4 Cowling et al. (1973) Payrissat and Beilke (1975)
0.62 0.19-0.55 0.38-0.60
> 1 soil chamber
>
Hill and Chamberlain (1976)
2.8
Vegetation
Judeikis and Stewart (1976)
2.5 2.0 1.8 1.6 0.86 0.66 0.65 0.04
Cement I Ready mix cement Exterior stucco I Cement II Exterior stucco II Clay soil Sand loam soil Asphalt
Judeikis and Wren (1977)
0.9 0.6
Adobe clay soil Sand loam soil
516
T. A. MCMAHON and P. J. DENISON Table 5. Field measurements
velocities
(1939)
0.7~ I.3 1.3
Land
Meetham
(1954)
0.7
London
1.8
(1960) (1964)
Comment
Alfalfa
(1950)
Lee and Gates
dioxide
Surface
(ml
Meetham
Chamberlain
of sulphur
Reference height
Author (date) .._ _~~ Katz and Ledingham
of deposition
Britain fog
(Chamberlain,
Chamberlain,
I973
Land
Britain
1944)
(1939
0.5
Pine forest
de Wys (1978)
Hill (1971)
2.3
Alfalfa
de Wys (1978)
Saito et ul. (1971)
I.!
2
Grass
r‘, found to be function wind speed
Chamberlain
0.83 0.84 i 1.2 0.8
1
Short grass Bare soil
(1973)
Garland
et al. (1973)
Fowler
and Unsworth
Garland
et al. (1974)
Holland
et (11.(1974)
(1974)
1
0.3
I
Wheat
0.55
I
Short grass
c, varies during
night and day
0.7
Rough
0.45
Air -sea interface
de Wys (1978)
Owers
0.7 2.h 3.5 I.6 0.7
0.2 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Grass
Wet and dry similar u = 5.2ms-’ Base of hedge Leeward side of hedge u= 1.8ms-’
0.9 0.5
0.2 Water 0.05 >
Belot et al. (1974)
I
Shepherd
0.8 0.3 >
0.2
2.6 2.2 0.5
2
(1974)
Whelpdale
Martin
and Shaw (1974)
and Barber
0.13 0.44 1.25
Garland
0.55 1.19 0.77 1.1 0.46
Prahm
Anderson
and Hall (1977)
Grass
~u~u~~
Grass Water Snow
For neutral stability-values for other stabilities given in paper.
Upper
Snow Wheat Soybean
1
Garland
i
Soil Water
value
(1978)
Mixed forest
>
2
Atlantic
5 1.1 1.1 2.1 1.8
Corn Dry scrub oak Lawn grass Aspen Wet lodge pole soil
Ocean
2 0.3
Scats pine forest
Garland
(1977)
0.85 0.89 1.19 1.2 0.41\ 0.2 -0.6
Short grass
(1977)
bound
Tracer method Gradient method
Med. grass
(1977)
and Branson
profile method
Short grass
Garland
Garland
method
>
1.X 3.7
et al. (1976)
Gradient
Pine trees
Dovland and Eliassen (1976) Dannevik et al. (1976)
Petit er al. (1976)
grazing
Based on uptake of SO1 to pine and oak shoots
(1975)
(1976)
of
Tracer method Gradient method
I- Grass
Liss and Slater (1974) and Powell (1974)
1973)
1
1
1
de Wys (1978)
J
Gradient method Tracer method Gradient
Med. grass J
Bare calcareous Water Pine trees
’ Tracer soil
Gradient
method method method
At night t’l = 0.05 cm s _ ’
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a
577
survey
Table 5. - continued
0.3-1.5
1
Platt (1978)
2.3
15
Smith and Hunt (1978)
0.8 0.5
Fowler (1978)
Gradient method Stomata open ug = 0.8 cm s-’ Stomata closed us = 0.3 cm SK’
Wheat
Gradient method Land Ocean
Table 6. Laboratory measurements of deposition velocities of gases except sulphur dioxide
Author (date)
“g (cm s-l)
Reference height (m)
Comment
Surface
Gas
u=2ms-’ u=0.4ms-’
Flat plate
Chamberlain (1953)
1.2 0.3
Rich et al. (1970)
0.6
Ozone
Hill and Chamberlain (1971)
0.0 0.1 0.33 0.63 1.67 1.90 2.07 2.83 3.17
co NO CO2 PAN 1
Bean leaves
Vegetation
0, NO2
Cl2 SO2 HF
Included for comparison
,t CO flux to soil varied 0.6-4.7 x 10m6pgcm-’ s-‘. L’*estimated indirectly from data in paper
Inman et al. (1971)
0.0020.05 1.8
Earth’s surface
Bidwell et al. (1972)
0.002
0.0006
Bush bean, . Cucumber Coleus Cabbage Grapefruit Holly fern, Phoenix palm, Tomato Climbing fig
0.23 0.21 0.16 0.073 0.050 0.033 0.032 0.025
Petunia > qsteosperium } Herbaceous Chrysanthemium J Camellia (young) Bougainvillia Ginkgo Woody Quercus Camellia (mature)
0.0009 0.0003 0.0001 0
Thorne and Hanson (1972)
Israel (1974)
1.6
Garland (1977)
1.8 0.84 1.4 0.46 0.55 0.74
Judeikis and Wren (1977)
0.02 0.02 0.3 0.06
1
co
Ozone
HF
Alfalfa and orchard grass Soil _ Sand
Hz0 Hz.5
DMS DMS
Peat , JGrass Adobe Sandy Adobe Sandy
Fumigation expt. 4% water content 27% water content 43% water content 74% water content
1 ) J Ozone
Detached leaves - see comments by Seiler and Giehl (1977)
In presence of SO1 clay soil loam clay soil loam
1‘. A. MCMAHON and P. J. DENISON
518
x = concentration of contaminant in unscavenged air @g me3), p = density of air (E 1200 g me3). The value of W is normally adopted from field observations and Table 10 has been included which lists such observations. Like wet scavenging coefficients, scavenging ratios have been found to be a function of particle size and rainfall intensity. Generally, scavenging ratios decrease with precipitation amount but increase with particle size (Gatz, 1975). Gatz also observed that W increases with distance from the emission source. All these aspects indicate that when using scavenging ratios, localized measurements are desirable.
Table 7. Field measurements
Author (date) Chamberlain Regener
(1955)
(1957)
(cm’! _ ’ )
Kroening
0.2
Chamberlain and Chadwick (1966)
1.4
Bunch (1968)
1.0
Galbally
0.4 1.4 1.4
Kelley and McTaggartCowan (1968)
Galbally
(1969)
0.95 0. I
Galbally
(197 I )
1.2 0.2
Turner
et al. (1973)
Vogt el al. (1973) Israel (1974) Wilbrandt Heinemann
(1975) et al. (1976)
>
>
where ,Y,= atmospheric concentration of gas at time r. x0 = atmospheric concentration of gas at time zero, and A, = scavenging coefficient for gas (in units of time-‘).
velocities
of gases except sulphur
Grass Diabatic condition Neutral condition
Ozone
Ozone 1131
Ground
1’31
Irrigated
surface
Vegetation grasses Diabatic condition Neutral condition
Ozone Ozone
1
Juniper bush Sand or dry grass Snow Fresh water Ocean Distilled water
Ozone
Neutral condition Diabatic condition Bare fine sandy loam
1,
Grass
3.1
HF
Alfalfa and orchard grass
I.1
Ozone
0.8 1.2
Iodene vapour
1
1.5
0.13
Elemental 5 >5
Assume ozone density 4Opgm-’
Diabatic Unstable
>
0.59
1
Ozone
Ozone
0.012
dioxide
Comment
Surface
Ozone
0.025
Brice et 01. (1977)
18)
Ground Leaves Field
0.5
Vogt et nl. (1976)
van Dop et al. (1977)
%*= j(,,e Q
Gas
2 0.6 0.16 0.07 0.04 0.02
Aldaz (1969)
Like particulate scavenging, wet deposition of gases may be considered as an exponential decay process and we define a gaseous scavenging coefficient as follows :
*13*
0.35 0.7 1.8 0.7 2.8
(1968)
Reference height (m)
2.5
Chamberlain (1960)
and Ney (1962)
of deposition
Scavenging coefficient of gases
of
condition condition
Mass balance
Unstable
(see van Dop,
1977)
Grass Clover I
Grass
NzO
Ground
Ozone
Dry grass
surface z/L = - 0.3 (ratio of height observation to Obukhov length scale)
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a Compared with the other empirical parameters examined, few laboratory or field estimates of A, have been measured. Values are tabulated in Table 11. Chamberlain (1953) has carried out a theoreticalstudy of gaseous scavenging and for SO2 found that
survey
579
A6 = 10 x 10-s _I‘=3
where J = rainfall intensity in mm h- ‘. This equation gives estimates of A8 for SO2 midway between the laboratory and field estimates given in Table 11.
4 0
3 0
Rsdke et al (1977) Burtsev et al f19701 Hicks (1976) Dana (lS70) Psterson a Crawford (1995)
I 0.01
I
I
0.1
i
10
1
EQUIVALENT PARTICLE DIAMETER
(ymf
Fig. 3. Relationship between rain scavenging rates and particle size.
Table 8. Experimental estimates of surface resistance to gaseous deposition Author (date) Gaastra (1963)
Spedding (1969)
Unswotth er al. (1972)
Chamberlain (1973)
Resistance @cm-1)
1
r; = 33-175 r; = 1.6-6.3 r, = 2.8
> so2
ra = 6-7 rr = 11-17
>
r, = 0.1-4 average 1
>
Garland et al. (1973)
6 = 0.71 r; = 0.95
Fowler and Unsworth (1974)
ri = 3.9 r; = 0.41
Garland et nl. (1974)
r, 52
Owers and Powell (1974)
r; =
0.75 ri = 0.01 r: = 0.73 r, = 0.8 r, = 3.0
Garland (1976)
r, = 0.56 r, = 0.41 r, = 0.88 r, = 0.06 r, = 0.4 r%= > ~0.5 rt = 0.46 r. = 0.21
Plant
Comment Stomata closed Stomata open r,,, = mesophyll resistance Stomata closed
CO* Barley beans
Fully watered Dry Younger beans had smaller resistances
so2
Bean plants
soz
Grass
so2
Grass
so,
Wheat
so2
Grass
so2
Grass
u=26ms-‘rh650/:, u= 5:2ms-’ rh 77% a = 1.8ns-’ rh 80%
> so2 ,
Grass
Summer Winter
) >
1.5
Shepherd (1974)
Unsworth and Fowler (1976)
Gas
r: = 35-40 ,‘,=3 r, = 6
>
(9)
Dry Wet
Short grass Med. grass
SGZ
Soil Water
so,
Wheat
i
Dry Wet
580
I’. A. MCMAHON and P. J. DENISON
Table 8. - continued
Garland
(1977)
Garland
rs = 0.34 r, = 0.66 r, = 0.45 rs = 0.01 rs = 0.56 rr > 0.5
and Branson
Short grass
(1977)
(3,
et al. (1959) (1963)
Banerji
and Chatterjee
Makhon’ko
(1964)
Shirvaikar
and Dmitrieva
Makhon’ko
(1967)
Wolf and Dana Bakulin
et al. (1970)
Burtsev
et al. (1970)
Dana Perkins
(1970)
Graedel
(1975)
Graedel
Radke
and Franey
et al. (1977)
>
(1977)
Washout
Radon
Rainout
Fission
Rainout Washout
products
Atmospheric Fission
dust
products
Atmospheric
dust
Rainout
Makhon’ko
(1967)
Makhon’ko
(1967)
Rainout Rainout
plus washout
Snow; Knutson and Stockham (1977)
0.5
“‘Pb; washout thunderstorm
from
Washout Rainout
13 x lo-s5
7.5, 3
Uranin and rhodamine particles respectively
16 x 1O-5 Jo8
Atmospheric
aerosol
Rainout Based on Engelmann’s data (1965)
5 Atmospheric
aerosol
Includes
rainout
Suggest A proportional to rainfall intensity 0.7 x 10 -5
Atmospheric
A SnuW= 25m-5OA,,i,
0.441
19 18 28 43 65 92
x x x x x x
1o-5 10m5 10m5 1o-5 1O-5 10-s
aerosol
Includes
rainout
See Slinn (1976) Rainout Condensation
0.3 -0.5 0.5-0.7 0.7-0.9 0.9-1.5 1.553
(1967)
Rainout
>
r0.2 r0.2
50 x lo-’
Hicks (1976)
of particles
Makhon’ko
(1972)
(1974)
and Franey
Day Night
15 x 1o-55” 5 20 x 1o-55o5
0.4 x 10-s
Esmen (1972)
Acres-ESC
20 x 1o-5
300 x 1o-5
and Crawford
Rodhe and Grandell
0.4 x 1o-5
method
Comment
3 x 1o-5
et al. (1970)
Peterson
Dissolved inorganic contaminent
7 x 1o-5
(1970)
Gradient >
Particulate size (pm) ~_____~
4 x 1o-.5 22 x 1o-5 4 x 1o-5
0.5 x 1o-5J
(1969)
coefficients
__--
SO.,, NH., Cl, NO,
7 x 1os5
et al. (1960)
Makhon’ko (1966)
of scavenging
~_____
2 x 1o-5 2 x 1o-5
2 x 1o-5 Ql x 1o-5 >
(1964)
Bare talc. soil Fresh water Scats pine Pine forest
Author (date)
Georgii
>
SO,
Table 9. Field measurements
Kalkstein
Gradient method 1 Radioactive method
Med. grass
Snow
See Fig. 3
nuclei
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a
581
survey
Table 10. Field observations of washout ratios Author* (date)
-
Ratio (Mass basis)
B
4000 470 1100
Small (1960)
1.0
10
>
Peirson and Cambray (1965)
600-800
r37cs
475-2100
B Pollen
I
Annual means Jan 1963-June 1964 rain 0.15-3.6 mm h-r
Perkins et al. (1970)
Gatz (1972)
Peirson et al. (1973) Gatz (1975)
Prahm et al. (1976) Gatz (1977)
Krey and Toonkel (1977)
Surface area
Snow
lOt-2700
Crawford (1968) Health and Safety Laboratory (1970)
Air near ground
J
190 19
Georgii and Beilke (1966)
(1969)
Snow (equiv. water mm day-‘)
October 1956 September 1959 Average (3 yr)
B
Pelletier et al. (1965)
1lOO--9200
_t
Air concentration at 1200 m
l3’Cs ‘48Co 14*Ba g5Zr 131J
Gatz (1966)
Rain (mm day-‘) > ,
>
560 520 480 500 420
Pierson and Keane (1962)
Van de W~thu~en
1.0 10 0.15
230 130 430
(1960)
Comment
Precipitation 0.1
1250 710 400 1100 620 290
Hinzpeter (1958)
Champlain
Contaminant
B =
gooop-0.59
P = mm rainfall per 3 months
160-18ooO 1500-5500
751 951 169 1212 698 671 380-2900
3%
Cu Fe Pb WI
Mn Zn 23 elements
ram 0.1-8.0 mm h-’
I
Sampled rain days
:: 125 76 325 110
Al As Cd Cr cu Fe Ni Pb Ti V
4000 24000
S Na
Includes both wet and dry deposition
457 548 352 370 253 179 76
M8 K Ca Mn Fe Zn Pb
Metromex, 1971-72 Scavenging ratios vary with particle size-see also Gatz. 1975.
97op-0.1’ 14OOP_1.1
“Sr Pb
P = monthly precipitation (cm)
375 110 125 150
* Many references extracted from Englemann (1971).
582
‘I A. MTMAHON and P. J. D~NISO~
Table
11. Laboratory
Author (date)
and field measurements
of scavenging
A, (s-1)
(1967)
of yase,
Gar
Laboratory results Beilke (1970 Field data Makhon’ko
coefficients
SO, (J = rainfall NO, 6x10
5
mm h- I)
SO,
Hales rt ul. (1970)
2 X IO_ 5 0.4 X lo- i
SO, Small scale experiment SO, Large scale experiment lower value of AB attributed to desorption of SO, from water drops.
Dana
1.3 X lo-’
SO>
rt ul. (1975)
Acknowledgrmenr The senior author wishes to thank Acres Consulting Services Ltd. for the opportunity to become involved in this project which was undertaken while he was on study leave from the Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Australia.
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583
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584
P. A. M~MAHON and P. J. DFNISON
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survey
585
Wilb~ndt P. J. (1975) ~timrn~g der spezifschen Ozonzerstorungsrate uber Bus&steppe und des Ozonflusses in diese Obertlache mit Hilfe von Ozon- und Temeraturprofilmessungen an einem 120 m Mast in Tsumeb (S.W.A.) Mtt. Max Pluck-institut Aeronomie. Vol. 54. Springer, Berlin. Wolf M. A. and Dana M. T. (1969) Experimental studies on precipitation scavenging. Battelle - North West Annual Report. USAEC Report BNWL-1051 (Pt. t) pp. 18825.
Atmospheric Environment Vol. 13, pp. 571-585. 0 Pergamon Press Ltd. 1979. Printed in Great Britain
sOZ.CWl
REVIEW PAPER EMPIRICAL ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION PARAMETERS-A SURVEY T. A. MCMAHON
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia and DENISON
P. J.
Acres Consulting Services Ltd., 5259 Dorchester Road, Niagara Falls, Ontario, L2E6W1, Canada (First received 19 June 1978 and injhl form 14 November 1978) Abstract - Based on an extensive literature search, the following atmospheric deposition parameters have
been collated and, where possible, generalized values have been noted: deposition velocity of particles, deposition velocity of gases, surface resistance to gaseous deposition, scavenging coefficient of particles, scavenging ratio and scavenging coefficient of gases.
Figure 1 includes more details of Sehmel(l973) and Sehmel and Sutter (1974) results than the information contained in Table 1. Figure 2 is a plot of combined laboratory and field data for a grass surface. From Tables 1 and 2 and Figs 1 and 2 a number of conclusions can be drawn.
INTRODUCHON
In 1974, the writers published inter alia deposition velocities and washout coefficients for gases and particles (McMahon et al., 1976). These summary tables have been referred to by authors on a number of occasions. More recently, we have been involved in an extensive literature review of both wet and dry deposition processes and have prepared more detailed summaries of empirical deposition parameters. AH the collated data are tabulated in Tables l-l 1 and cover published works through to about March 1978.
/
I
I
/o
P’ to 2.2 13.8
SUMMARY
OF EMPIRICAL PARAMATERS
DEPOSITION
---x
73
13.4
Water Smooth Floor
1-
Deposition velocity of particles
Tables 1 and 2 show respectively laboratory and field measurements of deposition velocities of particles where deposition velocity (I+) is defined as
where F = amount of aerosol removed per unit time per unit area, and x(x, y, 0) = average concentration of aerosol. The deposition velocity concept can be applied to a particle or gas, but strictly us should be defined relative to the height above the surface at which the concentration measurement is made. Where the deposition surface is rough or has projections, the numerator in Equation (1) is taken as the amount deposited per unit area of ground plan and not per unit area of actual surface. *.t.
13,5-A
Terminal Settling Velocity u. =o
A
10-s’ 10-Z
10-l
PARTICLE
1
DIAMETER
19
l,,m)
Fig. 1. Laboratory measurement of deposition velocities of particles to a water surface and a smooth floor (extracted from Sehmel, 1973 ; Sehmel and Sutter, 1974).
571
7’. A. M~MAHONand I?. J. DENISON
572 10 X
Laboratory
o
Field
Measurements
Measurements
l-
;;
‘; 2
z
B $ $
-
0.1
s e 0
Terminal
Settling
0.01 -
PARTICLE
DIAMETER
(pm)
Fig. 2. Laboratory and field measurements of deposition velocities of particles to grass (data from Tables 1 and 2).
Figure 2 illustrates the typical deposition velocity-particle diameter relationship. The variability for large diameters (greater than 10 pm) results from various wind speeds and friction velocities used in the experiments. It also shows that the minimum particulate deposition velocity occurs in the range 0.1-l pm. Deposition velocity is approximately a linear function of wind speed and friction velocity. Deposition of particulate matter beneath trees varies significantly with values ranging from 2 to 16 times that measured in adjacent open terrain. Considerable care needs to be exercised in choosing a “typical” deposition velocity. It is a function of many factors and can vary by 2 orders of magnitude. Deposition
velocity
of gases
Chamberlain (1953) defined dry deposition velocity of a gas (Q) by F
vg= X(ZI) --~
(2)
where F = mass flux ofgas, and ~(2,) = concentration of gas at height zI above the deposition surface. Thus the dry deposition flux of gases is considered to be proportional to the ground level concentration (at some reference height). Tables 4-7 set down separately laboratory and field measurements of uI for sulphur dioxide and other gases. It is difficult to summarize the results because of
the many factors affecting the estimates -experimental method, reference height, type of surface, moisture conditions of surface and atmospheric conditions. Nevertheless, the average results tabulated below as ug in ems-’ seem to exhibit a degree of consistency. The values in parentheses indicate the number of separate studies used to obtain average deposition velocity. Laboratory SO1 Alfalfa Sandy soil Clayey soil
1.2 (2) 0.6 (2) 0.8 (2)
Field SO, Grass Alfalfa Wheat Soil Land Forest Water (Fresh) Ocean Snow
1.1 1.6 0.4 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.1 0.5 0.3
Field ozone Diabatic condition Neutral condition
0.6 (6) 1.1 (3)
(14) (2) (3) (4) (4) (5) (6) (2) (2)
Field iodine (as I,, 113’ or elemental I) 1.6 (7) Grass 1.0 (3) Other surfaces In a published summary of discussions during a workshop held in conjunction with the Dubrovnick
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a Table 1. Laboratory m~sur~ents
573
survey
of deposition velocities of particles
Author (date)
Reference height (ml
4 (cm S-r)
Chamberlain and Chadwick (1972)
Grass D = difl usion coefficient 2x10~2~D~2x10~5cmzs~’
up x D2’3 vg= O.O6u, v,=O.l2u,
20-30
0.005 0.003 0.3 2
Clough (1973)
5 20 0.1-28
Sehmel and Sutter (1974)
5 x 10-3-29
0.2-30
l’&@IU’ v* ic d4 0.0035
Craig et ai. (1976)
0.01
Dry Includes wind-tunnel Wet,) and field data
Cereal crops
us to copper also measured. vs found to be a function of wind speed.
Filter paper J
2 x 10-3-10
Klepper and Craig (1975)
>
0.5
Sehmei (1973) Belot and Gauthier (1975)
Commit
Surface
0.1 1 2 5
0.03 0.03 0.1 0.8
Chamberlain (1967)
Moller and Schumann (1970)
Particulate diameter (pm)
l-10
Smooth brass
See Fig, 1
Water
See Fig. 1
Shoots of pine and oak trees
d = particle diameter
u = wind speed
Bean leaves
0.8
Wind-tunnel
Smooth
0.1-l
Deposition rate on pubescent leaves of sunflower was nearly 7 times that of the nonpubescent Leaves of tulip poplar.
Wedding et ul. (1976)
5x 10-z
0.11 0.02
Little and Wiffen (1977)
0.2
0.5 0.04 0.3 0.9
Little (1977)
>
2.75
5 >
::: 1.5 0.3 0.8
8.5 I-
International Symposium (September 1977) on Sulfur in the Atmosphere, it was concluded that typical deposition velocities of SO, are as shown in Table 3 (Husar et al., 1978). Surface resistance to gaseous deposition
The reciprocal of gaseous deposition velocity to plants is defined as resistance and is made up of a series of resistances thus 1 -_=r=
I;@) f
rb +
rc
(3)
Short grass > Nettle Beech White Poplar Nettle Beech White Poplar Nettle Beech White Poplar
These data are for whole shoots for wind speeds of 2.5 m s-‘. Data for other wind
speeds and separate plant surfaces are given in reference.
r, = surface or canopy resistance, whose value is
determined by the various sinks at the surface acting in parallel. Values of r, and rb are aerodynamic factors. Surface resistance is therefore defined as 1 -
r, =
r = total resistance, r&j = aerodynamic resistance
at height z determined by the nature of the turbulence above the surface, r, = resistance to transfer in the nearly-viscous air layer (laminar sub-layer) immediately in contact with the plant surface, and
(4)
Sometimes in field measurements rb is not defined and so surface resistance is approximated by
VP
where
- r,(z) - r,.
0 usi
r:=
1 - r,(z).
0 %
Measured estimates of surface resistances r, and r: are given in Table 8. Scavenging coejjkient of particles
Wet deposition which consists of rainout (within cloud scavenging) and washout (below cloud scaveng-
T. A. MCMAHONand P. J. DENIS~N
514
Table 2. Field measurements of deposition velocities of particles
Author (date)
I’m
(ems-‘)
_.. __-
Chamberlain (1953)
2.1 1.1 0.5
Particulate diameter (pm)
03-0.9 0.3-0.9 0.3 -0.9
16 16 16
Surface
u = 3.2 m/s 21= I.lm;s
0.7 1.6
Ocean Land
Chloride over Scandinavia
0.5 (0.2-3.4)
Land
Radioactive particles over Norway
Coniferous forest
SOY<, rag-weed pollen removed from air by forest
Neuberger et al. (1967)
>
Rag-weed 5.6 4.7 3.0 7.1 0.8
White and Turner (1970)
Chamberlain and Chadwick (1972)
=
O.&l0
0.50
cs = o.o6u, t‘*
=
1. Probable overestimation of aerosol income, hence rB. 2. Standard deviation varied between 65 and 95”; of mean ry.
Na K Ca Mg P
Esmen and Corn (1971) I’,
20-30
0.12u*
Filter paper, Millipore filter Glass slide Cereal crops
Dry Includes wind-tunnel and Wet> field data.
Land
ry,estimated for 23 trace elements based on several years of data
Pierson et al (1973) 0.1-0.6 Cawse (1974)
Al
1.3 0.22 (0.45) 0.50 (0.50) 1.1 0.56 (0.45) 0.30 (1.0) 0.29 0.62
Cd Cf Cu Fe Mn Ni ;b V Zn Na, Ca, Mg. K, P. NO,
3.4 7.3 11 61 100 0.74 1.1 0.75 It.7
Abrahamsen et al. (1976) Dovland and Eliassen (1976)
0.16 0.68
Fritschen and Edmonds
0.07 0.46
Prahm et al. (1976)
0.4
Krey and Toonkel (1977)
0.5 0.6
Wesley et ui. (1977)
Extracted from Gatz (L975). Values in parentheses were estimated by Gatz from a relationship between particle size and rq.
AS
Hart and Parent (1974)
Clough (1975)
Comment
_u = 9.2 m/s
Grass
Eriksson (1959) Small (1960)
Reference height (m)
Douglas fir and junipers Grass Grass Grass Dry moss Wet moss
Dry U* = 37cms-’ Dry a* = 87cms-’ Wet a, = 87 cm s-l
Grass
Dry a, = 37cms-’
Grass Dry moss
Dry u* = 37cms.’
Spruce and pines
Deposition beneath trees open terrain
atmospheric Snow aerosol > 3 Douglas fir atmospheric aerosof
Deposition beneath trees --. = 3- 16 open terrain
Atlantic ocean
2
Lead SOi- ; upper bound value
so:.90s,; HASL wet-dry collector
5
0.05-O. 1
Bare soil and grass
u < 2 m s-’ ; Eddy carrel. method.
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a
ing) may be considered process thus :
as an exponential
particles. At first glance these values show little consistency. In Fig. 3, the results obtained by Radke et al. (1977) have been plotted from his Fig. 3. Values in Table 9 which have particle size data available are also superimposed. In the five cases shown by circles the values are a function of rainfall intensity. A common value of 5 mm h-’ was adopted. For the sixth case shown by a cross, the particle size was given as less than 1 pm and so 0.5 pm was adopted. Overall the points show satisfactory agreement with Radke’s data. The figure illustrates the importance of particle size as a major factor in determining wet scavenging coefficients.
decay
x, = x0 e-Q
(6)
where xI = atmospheric concentration of particles at time 6 x0 = atmospheric concentration of particles at time zero, and AP = scavenging coefficient for particles (in units of time- ‘). In Table 9 we have compiled a comprehensive list of field measurements of wet scavenging coefficients of
Scauenging
Table 3. SO1 deposition rates from Husar et al., 1978 Typical vs (cm s-l)
Surface Short grass Medium crop Forest Calcareous soil Acid soil Acid soil Dry snow
0.5 0.7 Uncertain 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.7 0.8 0.7
Water Countryside Cities
575
survey
ratios
The scavenging ratio (or washout ratio) is an alternative expression to scavenging coefficients for wet deposition and is defined as the ratio of the mass of contaminant in precipitation falling through a column of air compared to the mass in the column of air (Chamberlain, 1960).
Condition/Comment 0.1 m height 1.0 m height 10.0 m height Wet or dry Dry Wet If wet, behaves like water
w=“p
(7)
I: where W = scavenging ratio, k = concentration of contaminant
Based on London data only
in precipitation
(Pgg-‘)> Table 4. Laboratory measurements of deposition velocities of sulphur dioxide
Author (date)
“8
(ems-‘)
Thomas et al. (1943)
1.0
Spedding (1969)
1.5
height (m)
Surface
1
Alfalfa
Growth chamber (Chamberlain, 1975)
Barley leaves
Results adjusted for field plant morphology
Comment
Hill (1971)
2.8
1
Alfalfa
Chamber (de Wys et al., 1978)
Bromfield (1972)
1.0
1
Mustard
Glasshouse
Spedding (1972)
0.2
Sea water
Calm condition Turbulent condition
Rye-grass
Growth chamber (Chamberlain, 1975)
Soils
r.h. 37-52% r.h. 70-80% Found us to be a function of pH
1.4 Cowling et al. (1973) Payrissat and Beilke (1975)
0.62 0.19-0.55 0.38-0.60
> 1 soil chamber
>
Hill and Chamberlain (1976)
2.8
Vegetation
Judeikis and Stewart (1976)
2.5 2.0 1.8 1.6 0.86 0.66 0.65 0.04
Cement I Ready mix cement Exterior stucco I Cement II Exterior stucco II Clay soil Sand loam soil Asphalt
Judeikis and Wren (1977)
0.9 0.6
Adobe clay soil Sand loam soil
516
T. A. MCMAHON and P. J. DENISON Table 5. Field measurements
velocities
(1939)
0.7~ I.3 1.3
Land
Meetham
(1954)
0.7
London
1.8
(1960) (1964)
Comment
Alfalfa
(1950)
Lee and Gates
dioxide
Surface
(ml
Meetham
Chamberlain
of sulphur
Reference height
Author (date) .._ _~~ Katz and Ledingham
of deposition
Britain fog
(Chamberlain,
Chamberlain,
I973
Land
Britain
1944)
(1939
0.5
Pine forest
de Wys (1978)
Hill (1971)
2.3
Alfalfa
de Wys (1978)
Saito et ul. (1971)
I.!
2
Grass
r‘, found to be function wind speed
Chamberlain
0.83 0.84 i 1.2 0.8
1
Short grass Bare soil
(1973)
Garland
et al. (1973)
Fowler
and Unsworth
Garland
et al. (1974)
Holland
et (11.(1974)
(1974)
1
0.3
I
Wheat
0.55
I
Short grass
c, varies during
night and day
0.7
Rough
0.45
Air -sea interface
de Wys (1978)
Owers
0.7 2.h 3.5 I.6 0.7
0.2 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Grass
Wet and dry similar u = 5.2ms-’ Base of hedge Leeward side of hedge u= 1.8ms-’
0.9 0.5
0.2 Water 0.05 >
Belot et al. (1974)
I
Shepherd
0.8 0.3 >
0.2
2.6 2.2 0.5
2
(1974)
Whelpdale
Martin
and Shaw (1974)
and Barber
0.13 0.44 1.25
Garland
0.55 1.19 0.77 1.1 0.46
Prahm
Anderson
and Hall (1977)
Grass
~u~u~~
Grass Water Snow
For neutral stability-values for other stabilities given in paper.
Upper
Snow Wheat Soybean
1
Garland
i
Soil Water
value
(1978)
Mixed forest
>
2
Atlantic
5 1.1 1.1 2.1 1.8
Corn Dry scrub oak Lawn grass Aspen Wet lodge pole soil
Ocean
2 0.3
Scats pine forest
Garland
(1977)
0.85 0.89 1.19 1.2 0.41\ 0.2 -0.6
Short grass
(1977)
bound
Tracer method Gradient method
Med. grass
(1977)
and Branson
profile method
Short grass
Garland
Garland
method
>
1.X 3.7
et al. (1976)
Gradient
Pine trees
Dovland and Eliassen (1976) Dannevik et al. (1976)
Petit er al. (1976)
grazing
Based on uptake of SO1 to pine and oak shoots
(1975)
(1976)
of
Tracer method Gradient method
I- Grass
Liss and Slater (1974) and Powell (1974)
1973)
1
1
1
de Wys (1978)
J
Gradient method Tracer method Gradient
Med. grass J
Bare calcareous Water Pine trees
’ Tracer soil
Gradient
method method method
At night t’l = 0.05 cm s _ ’
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a
577
survey
Table 5. - continued
0.3-1.5
1
Platt (1978)
2.3
15
Smith and Hunt (1978)
0.8 0.5
Fowler (1978)
Gradient method Stomata open ug = 0.8 cm s-’ Stomata closed us = 0.3 cm SK’
Wheat
Gradient method Land Ocean
Table 6. Laboratory measurements of deposition velocities of gases except sulphur dioxide
Author (date)
“g (cm s-l)
Reference height (m)
Comment
Surface
Gas
u=2ms-’ u=0.4ms-’
Flat plate
Chamberlain (1953)
1.2 0.3
Rich et al. (1970)
0.6
Ozone
Hill and Chamberlain (1971)
0.0 0.1 0.33 0.63 1.67 1.90 2.07 2.83 3.17
co NO CO2 PAN 1
Bean leaves
Vegetation
0, NO2
Cl2 SO2 HF
Included for comparison
,t CO flux to soil varied 0.6-4.7 x 10m6pgcm-’ s-‘. L’*estimated indirectly from data in paper
Inman et al. (1971)
0.0020.05 1.8
Earth’s surface
Bidwell et al. (1972)
0.002
0.0006
Bush bean, . Cucumber Coleus Cabbage Grapefruit Holly fern, Phoenix palm, Tomato Climbing fig
0.23 0.21 0.16 0.073 0.050 0.033 0.032 0.025
Petunia > qsteosperium } Herbaceous Chrysanthemium J Camellia (young) Bougainvillia Ginkgo Woody Quercus Camellia (mature)
0.0009 0.0003 0.0001 0
Thorne and Hanson (1972)
Israel (1974)
1.6
Garland (1977)
1.8 0.84 1.4 0.46 0.55 0.74
Judeikis and Wren (1977)
0.02 0.02 0.3 0.06
1
co
Ozone
HF
Alfalfa and orchard grass Soil _ Sand
Hz0 Hz.5
DMS DMS
Peat , JGrass Adobe Sandy Adobe Sandy
Fumigation expt. 4% water content 27% water content 43% water content 74% water content
1 ) J Ozone
Detached leaves - see comments by Seiler and Giehl (1977)
In presence of SO1 clay soil loam clay soil loam
1‘. A. MCMAHON and P. J. DENISON
518
x = concentration of contaminant in unscavenged air @g me3), p = density of air (E 1200 g me3). The value of W is normally adopted from field observations and Table 10 has been included which lists such observations. Like wet scavenging coefficients, scavenging ratios have been found to be a function of particle size and rainfall intensity. Generally, scavenging ratios decrease with precipitation amount but increase with particle size (Gatz, 1975). Gatz also observed that W increases with distance from the emission source. All these aspects indicate that when using scavenging ratios, localized measurements are desirable.
Table 7. Field measurements
Author (date) Chamberlain Regener
(1955)
(1957)
(cm’! _ ’ )
Kroening
0.2
Chamberlain and Chadwick (1966)
1.4
Bunch (1968)
1.0
Galbally
0.4 1.4 1.4
Kelley and McTaggartCowan (1968)
Galbally
(1969)
0.95 0. I
Galbally
(197 I )
1.2 0.2
Turner
et al. (1973)
Vogt el al. (1973) Israel (1974) Wilbrandt Heinemann
(1975) et al. (1976)
>
>
where ,Y,= atmospheric concentration of gas at time r. x0 = atmospheric concentration of gas at time zero, and A, = scavenging coefficient for gas (in units of time-‘).
velocities
of gases except sulphur
Grass Diabatic condition Neutral condition
Ozone
Ozone 1131
Ground
1’31
Irrigated
surface
Vegetation grasses Diabatic condition Neutral condition
Ozone Ozone
1
Juniper bush Sand or dry grass Snow Fresh water Ocean Distilled water
Ozone
Neutral condition Diabatic condition Bare fine sandy loam
1,
Grass
3.1
HF
Alfalfa and orchard grass
I.1
Ozone
0.8 1.2
Iodene vapour
1
1.5
0.13
Elemental 5 >5
Assume ozone density 4Opgm-’
Diabatic Unstable
>
0.59
1
Ozone
Ozone
0.012
dioxide
Comment
Surface
Ozone
0.025
Brice et 01. (1977)
18)
Ground Leaves Field
0.5
Vogt et nl. (1976)
van Dop et al. (1977)
%*= j(,,e Q
Gas
2 0.6 0.16 0.07 0.04 0.02
Aldaz (1969)
Like particulate scavenging, wet deposition of gases may be considered as an exponential decay process and we define a gaseous scavenging coefficient as follows :
*13*
0.35 0.7 1.8 0.7 2.8
(1968)
Reference height (m)
2.5
Chamberlain (1960)
and Ney (1962)
of deposition
Scavenging coefficient of gases
of
condition condition
Mass balance
Unstable
(see van Dop,
1977)
Grass Clover I
Grass
NzO
Ground
Ozone
Dry grass
surface z/L = - 0.3 (ratio of height observation to Obukhov length scale)
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a Compared with the other empirical parameters examined, few laboratory or field estimates of A, have been measured. Values are tabulated in Table 11. Chamberlain (1953) has carried out a theoreticalstudy of gaseous scavenging and for SO2 found that
survey
579
A6 = 10 x 10-s _I‘=3
where J = rainfall intensity in mm h- ‘. This equation gives estimates of A8 for SO2 midway between the laboratory and field estimates given in Table 11.
4 0
3 0
Rsdke et al (1977) Burtsev et al f19701 Hicks (1976) Dana (lS70) Psterson a Crawford (1995)
I 0.01
I
I
0.1
i
10
1
EQUIVALENT PARTICLE DIAMETER
(ymf
Fig. 3. Relationship between rain scavenging rates and particle size.
Table 8. Experimental estimates of surface resistance to gaseous deposition Author (date) Gaastra (1963)
Spedding (1969)
Unswotth er al. (1972)
Chamberlain (1973)
Resistance @cm-1)
1
r; = 33-175 r; = 1.6-6.3 r, = 2.8
> so2
ra = 6-7 rr = 11-17
>
r, = 0.1-4 average 1
>
Garland et al. (1973)
6 = 0.71 r; = 0.95
Fowler and Unsworth (1974)
ri = 3.9 r; = 0.41
Garland et nl. (1974)
r, 52
Owers and Powell (1974)
r; =
0.75 ri = 0.01 r: = 0.73 r, = 0.8 r, = 3.0
Garland (1976)
r, = 0.56 r, = 0.41 r, = 0.88 r, = 0.06 r, = 0.4 r%= > ~0.5 rt = 0.46 r. = 0.21
Plant
Comment Stomata closed Stomata open r,,, = mesophyll resistance Stomata closed
CO* Barley beans
Fully watered Dry Younger beans had smaller resistances
so2
Bean plants
soz
Grass
so2
Grass
so,
Wheat
so2
Grass
so2
Grass
u=26ms-‘rh650/:, u= 5:2ms-’ rh 77% a = 1.8ns-’ rh 80%
> so2 ,
Grass
Summer Winter
) >
1.5
Shepherd (1974)
Unsworth and Fowler (1976)
Gas
r: = 35-40 ,‘,=3 r, = 6
>
(9)
Dry Wet
Short grass Med. grass
SGZ
Soil Water
so,
Wheat
i
Dry Wet
580
I’. A. MCMAHON and P. J. DENISON
Table 8. - continued
Garland
(1977)
Garland
rs = 0.34 r, = 0.66 r, = 0.45 rs = 0.01 rs = 0.56 rr > 0.5
and Branson
Short grass
(1977)
(3,
et al. (1959) (1963)
Banerji
and Chatterjee
Makhon’ko
(1964)
Shirvaikar
and Dmitrieva
Makhon’ko
(1967)
Wolf and Dana Bakulin
et al. (1970)
Burtsev
et al. (1970)
Dana Perkins
(1970)
Graedel
(1975)
Graedel
Radke
and Franey
et al. (1977)
>
(1977)
Washout
Radon
Rainout
Fission
Rainout Washout
products
Atmospheric Fission
dust
products
Atmospheric
dust
Rainout
Makhon’ko
(1967)
Makhon’ko
(1967)
Rainout Rainout
plus washout
Snow; Knutson and Stockham (1977)
0.5
“‘Pb; washout thunderstorm
from
Washout Rainout
13 x lo-s5
7.5, 3
Uranin and rhodamine particles respectively
16 x 1O-5 Jo8
Atmospheric
aerosol
Rainout Based on Engelmann’s data (1965)
5 Atmospheric
aerosol
Includes
rainout
Suggest A proportional to rainfall intensity 0.7 x 10 -5
Atmospheric
A SnuW= 25m-5OA,,i,
0.441
19 18 28 43 65 92
x x x x x x
1o-5 10m5 10m5 1o-5 1O-5 10-s
aerosol
Includes
rainout
See Slinn (1976) Rainout Condensation
0.3 -0.5 0.5-0.7 0.7-0.9 0.9-1.5 1.553
(1967)
Rainout
>
r0.2 r0.2
50 x lo-’
Hicks (1976)
of particles
Makhon’ko
(1972)
(1974)
and Franey
Day Night
15 x 1o-55” 5 20 x 1o-55o5
0.4 x 10-s
Esmen (1972)
Acres-ESC
20 x 1o-5
300 x 1o-5
and Crawford
Rodhe and Grandell
0.4 x 1o-5
method
Comment
3 x 1o-5
et al. (1970)
Peterson
Dissolved inorganic contaminent
7 x 1o-5
(1970)
Gradient >
Particulate size (pm) ~_____~
4 x 1o-.5 22 x 1o-5 4 x 1o-5
0.5 x 1o-5J
(1969)
coefficients
__--
SO.,, NH., Cl, NO,
7 x 1os5
et al. (1960)
Makhon’ko (1966)
of scavenging
~_____
2 x 1o-5 2 x 1o-5
2 x 1o-5 Ql x 1o-5 >
(1964)
Bare talc. soil Fresh water Scats pine Pine forest
Author (date)
Georgii
>
SO,
Table 9. Field measurements
Kalkstein
Gradient method 1 Radioactive method
Med. grass
Snow
See Fig. 3
nuclei
Empirical atmospheric deposition parameters-a
581
survey
Table 10. Field observations of washout ratios Author* (date)
-
Ratio (Mass basis)
B
4000 470 1100
Small (1960)
1.0
10
>
Peirson and Cambray (1965)
600-800
r37cs
475-2100
B Pollen
I
Annual means Jan 1963-June 1964 rain 0.15-3.6 mm h-r
Perkins et al. (1970)
Gatz (1972)
Peirson et al. (1973) Gatz (1975)
Prahm et al. (1976) Gatz (1977)
Krey and Toonkel (1977)
Surface area
Snow
lOt-2700
Crawford (1968) Health and Safety Laboratory (1970)
Air near ground
J
190 19
Georgii and Beilke (1966)
(1969)
Snow (equiv. water mm day-‘)
October 1956 September 1959 Average (3 yr)
B
Pelletier et al. (1965)
1lOO--9200
_t
Air concentration at 1200 m
l3’Cs ‘48Co 14*Ba g5Zr 131J
Gatz (1966)
Rain (mm day-‘) > ,
>
560 520 480 500 420
Pierson and Keane (1962)
Van de W~thu~en
1.0 10 0.15
230 130 430
(1960)
Comment
Precipitation 0.1
1250 710 400 1100 620 290
Hinzpeter (1958)
Champlain
Contaminant
B =
gooop-0.59
P = mm rainfall per 3 months
160-18ooO 1500-5500
751 951 169 1212 698 671 380-2900
3%
Cu Fe Pb WI
Mn Zn 23 elements
ram 0.1-8.0 mm h-’
I
Sampled rain days
:: 125 76 325 110
Al As Cd Cr cu Fe Ni Pb Ti V
4000 24000
S Na
Includes both wet and dry deposition
457 548 352 370 253 179 76
M8 K Ca Mn Fe Zn Pb
Metromex, 1971-72 Scavenging ratios vary with particle size-see also Gatz. 1975.
97op-0.1’ 14OOP_1.1
“Sr Pb
P = monthly precipitation (cm)
375 110 125 150
* Many references extracted from Englemann (1971).
582
‘I A. MTMAHON and P. J. D~NISO~
Table
11. Laboratory
Author (date)
and field measurements
of scavenging
A, (s-1)
(1967)
of yase,
Gar
Laboratory results Beilke (1970 Field data Makhon’ko
coefficients
SO, (J = rainfall NO, 6x10
5
mm h- I)
SO,
Hales rt ul. (1970)
2 X IO_ 5 0.4 X lo- i
SO, Small scale experiment SO, Large scale experiment lower value of AB attributed to desorption of SO, from water drops.
Dana
1.3 X lo-’
SO>
rt ul. (1975)
Acknowledgrmenr The senior author wishes to thank Acres Consulting Services Ltd. for the opportunity to become involved in this project which was undertaken while he was on study leave from the Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Australia.
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