English loanwords in Japanese: Some cultural implications

Lunguuge Sciences, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. l-21, 1980 Printed in Grkat Britain

03884001/90 $3.00 + .OO Pergamon Press plc

English Loanwords in Japanese: Some Cultural Implications

Bates Hoffer

Trinity University

ABSTRACT The various loanward dictionaries published in Japan over the past two decades have been growing in size, from some 20,000 entries in the mid-6Os to well over 30,000 by the 80s. The sociolinguistic interest in the growth is focused on the cultural implications of such a wholesale borrowing, among other features. The categories of loanword use, the functions of loanwords, their proscriptions in some situations, and so on are of interest, as is the similarity of the sophistication of their use to the usage of Chinese loans of over a millenium ago. This presentation will address the following areas: (1) a specification of the ever more complicated categories of borrowings and their intricate &es in Japanese; (2) an analysis of the developing functions of the loans; (3) a discussion of the cultural attitudes which permit much borrowing in some semantic areas, less in others, to the point of rejection in some; (4) a brief discussion of how the present process of wholesale borrowing of English words has certain similarities to the wholesale borrowing of Chinese language and culture some 1400 years ago. The latter point emphasizes how language borrowing is but part of an overall process of cultural interaction.

INTRODUCTION The number of English loanwords in Japanese has increased from zero in 1868 to over 30,000 now listed in the most recent loanword dictionary. Such an influx of loanwords is of especial interest to the sociolinguist interested in the interrelation between language use and social values and to the linguist interested in observing a language in the midst of rapid change. Together with the large number of loans there are several types of usage of those loans which deserve attention. Among the types analyzed below there is a creative one in which the loans are used in poetry and advertising and so on in rather complex ways. LSClZ:l-A

2

Language

Sciences,

Volume

12, Number

1 (1990)

The level of sophistication in the word play reminds the historical linguist of the situation in Japan some one and one-half millenia ago. The Japanese borrowed from China the language, the writing system, the governing system, architecture, religions, and so on. Within a relatively short time the first great poetry collection, the Manyoshu in 760 A.D., contained poetry which included sophisticated word play based on the possibilities inherent in using both Chinese and Japanese forms. While the uses of English loans have not reached the high level of literary use of Chinese loans, the growing complexity of the uses of English over the last decade or two suggests that the impact of English may eventually be as strong as that of Chinese. As is clear from the Chinese example, borrowing on a large scale is never confined to words alone. There are general cultural implications involved, such as changing social values, developments with intercultural relations and so on. Some of the implications of the current borrowing situation are given after the analysis of the types of uses of English loans and of some of the functions of those uses. LOANWORDS

IN JAPANESE

The influence of Chinese culture on Japan was profound, especially in the fifth to eighth centuries. Since the Chinese writing system was borrowed, the vocabulary of Chinese was open to educated Japanese. Eventually two syllabaries were developed from the Chinese written symbols or kanji. The hiragana syllabary came to be used for grammatical forms and for many native words; these days it is used in more ways. The katakana syllabary was primarily used for foreign, non-Chinese items and is still largely but not exclusively reserved for that function. In Japanese writing today, only some 1850 kanji are in common use and all Japanese high school graduates have learned the kanji, both syllabaries and the alphabet which came in with the first Westerners. European influence began in 1542 when Portuguese traders arrived, followed later by their fellow missionaries. Dutch traders arrived soon thereafter. Few loanwords survive from this early period; the most frequently cited is for “pan”for “bread.” A Dutch form encountered often is “koppu*.from the Dutch “kop” for a small glass or cup. After the Tokugawa shogunate early in the 17th century closed Japan to all foreign contact except for a few Dutch traders far in the West of Japan, Dutch was the only European language studied for about two and one-half centuries. Although Russian whalers made contact in north Japan in the 19th century, no Russian loans are in common use from that period. Following Commodore Perry’s 1853 mission to open Japan, the country discarded its military form of government and the emperor system was revitalized. The emperor Meiji assumed the position - the Meiji Restoration - in 1868. During

English Lmmwords in Japmese

3

these and the next few decades Japan sent many of its bright young people abroad to study and return with the best ideas of the West. Since English was seen as the lingua franca, Japan began the process of emphasizing English. Today over 90% of the students graduating from high school have had six years of English language classes. The influence of English has been high since the 19th century and has grown almost geometrically since the 1940s. Over the decades there have been many denunciations of the English and other borrowings as “corrupting” the language and culture. Ironically, the denunciations themselves contain many Chinesederived words. During the past two decades or so, with the rapidly growing impact of loanwords, the denunciations have lost their force. The great influx of Chinese earlier is being matched by the current influx from the European languages, primarily but by no means exclusively English. The loanword dictionaries in Japan have been documenting the influx of foreign words. Some of the dictionaries published over the past twenty-five years are noted in the bibliography. The 1965 one from Shueisha Publishing contained some 10,000 entries. The Sanseido Publishing Company’s dictionary, first published in 1972, was in its fourth edition in 1987 and contained over 33,000 entries. The rapid growth of borrowings attracted a number of scholars who studied the patterns of phonological and semantic change that occurred during the borrowing process. Miura’s book (1979) began looking at the patterns of usage of some of the borrowings. That pattern has become much more complex in the decade since his book appeared, yet his book should be consulted by anyone pursuing the subject. The linguist interested in language change and in languages in contact cannot observe directly the various situations of massive borrowing which have occurred over the centuries. The results may be studied and analyzed in earlier cases such as Arabic into Spanish over the centuries of Arabic occupation, French into English over the centuries following the conquest of 1066, Spanish into Quechua as Spain extended its influence over South America, and so on. However, the situation in Japan can be and is being documented as borrowing occurs. The sociolinguist looks to investigate the various ways in which the loans are being used, the functions of that use, the segments of society in which the various uses occur, and so on. The analysis below, which follows a general section on borrowing, gives a broad picture of these topics. BORROWING/LOANWORDS Historically many of the large scale borrowing situations have involved conquest, cultural domination, great disparity in one or more aspect of level of social development, or so on. Here the situation is different since there is no contiguous border and no large number of English speakers living within Japan. As with so

4

Language Sciences, Volume 12, Number 1 (1990)

many other aspects of the history of English borrowings, there are similarities to the earlier history of Chinese borrowings. In the early situation in Japan, China’s level of civilization was among the highest in the world. There was no conquest and no direct cultural contact in terms of contiguous boundaries. The impact of the high civilization of China led to a massive borrowing of essentially all aspects of its culture, including a fundamental one - a writing system. Eventually the Chinese systems were re-worked into the Japanese systems. The high prestige of Chinese and the intellectual heritage it embodied were among the reasons for the national commitment. In the last century or so, Japanese have seen English as the lingua franca and have included it in basic schooling. Top universities often require a high level of reading ability in English for admission. The latest developments in science and high technology are to a large extent found in English language materials. Given these and the other evidence of the high level of national commitment to English, it is not surprising that so many English loans have entered Japanese. It would be more surprising if they were not entering Japanese language usage. PATTERNS

OF LOAN USAGE

The most frequent use of an English loan is a simple substitution or code-switch in which an English item is used instead of the native form. Since this use is part of the definition of borrowing, it is not listed as one of the types of usage below. The headings under which the uses are analysed are for ease of reference. They do not represent any set of theoretical categories or the like. The general sequence is from easy to complex uses. The growing complexity of the usage of loans has been studied to some extent by the Japanese language scholars. The various uses of English loans have produced over the years various responses from them and some of their treatments are given in the bibliography. The easier uses are well studied and, in fact, there are in the dictionary almost 100 pages of examples of the first one listed below. The seven patterns of English loan usage which follow begin with the simplest and conclude with some sophisticated word play found in Japan in the late 1980s. Initials and acronyms are in common use, including some not found in the European languages. Following general reduction rules, many long English loans are abbreviated to two or three syllables. A popular use of English loans, especially in areas such as “high tech,” is the shortening of two word compounds. Someloans are from English but are redone in such a way that English speakers would not recognize the meaning and perhaps even the form. Yet another use involves a combination of English plus Japanese elements. Two especially interesting uses include both English loans given Japanese suffixes and Japanese items with English

English Loanwords

in Japanese

5

morphology. The last type of usage treated below is that of sophisticated language play, in which elements of two or three languages are used to create special effects. Initials/Acronyms

There are at least three types of uses under this heading: the use of borrowed items; the use of borrowed items plus Japanese items; new items created in Japan. Almost 100 pages of the 1987 loanword dictionary are devoted to those borrowed initials/acronyms which the Japanese reader may find in, for example, the Japanese press. The few examples given here may suggest the magnitude of this type of borrowing. ABC

C & W IPA

MIP TPO

TQC

American Broadcasting Company but also Australian Broadcasting Company Asahi Broadcasting Company (see below) Audit Bureau of Circulations and a short form for the alphabet Country and Western (music, etc.) International Phonetic Alphabet but also International Phonetic Association Monthly Investment Plan Time, Place, Occasion Total Quality Control.

Some examples occur of initials standing those from English. NEC ABC

for an original Japanese

word plus

Nippon (Japan) Electric Company Asahi Broadcasting Company (see above).

Some examples were created in Japan from the English elements. One that is used internationally is JETRO for the Japan External Trade Organization. There are many other examples in this category than the names of entities. For example, “BG” was used for a number of years for “Business Girl,” a woman who works in an office. When it developed that the form could have negative connotations, it was replaced by “OL” for “Office Lady.” To indicate the complexity, “OL” is also listed for “overlap” and for the German “Orientierungslauf.” One of the most frequently occurring ones in the newspapers is “DK” for “dining-kitchen,” a compound which indicates the Westernized area for food preparation and consumption. The Japanese “daidokoro” indicates the food area of the traditional style house. Here the loan not only indicates the Westernized features but suggests something about the social

6

Language

Sciences,

Volume

12, Number

1 (1990)

values of those who rent or buy the living quarters. The Ministry of Education is releasing an up-date of the accepted terms which may be used in official architectural documents and dining-kitchen (“DK”) is now part of the regular terminology in Japan. Abbreviation

The second type of borrowing pattern is one that occurs regularly in languages. Abbreviation is a dropping of all syllables after the first two or three or, occasionally, four. Some of the frequent examples are: Papartment” E”building” E”connection” E”department” E”inflation” E“sandwich” EYelevision”

J/apaatomeNto/ [used for “apartment J/ birudiNgu/ J/ konekudoN / J/depaatomeNto/ [used for “department J / iNfureelion/ J/ saNdoiZi/ J/ terebijoN/

=

J/ apaato/

house”] = J/ biru/ = J/ kone/ J/ depaato/ = store”] = J/Sure/ = J/ saNdo/ = J/ terebi/ .

The use of these abbreviations varies in frequency in various fields, types of newspapers and magazines, and so on. For example, in highly edited Japanese only high frequency items such as J/terebi/ would be expected. In ordinary conversation of a casual or colloquial style, a high frequency of these forms can be found. In formal styles, especially in print, their frequency is much lower. Shortened

Compounds

Compounds consisting of shortened English words seem to be proliferating in the last few years, especially in the computer field and other high technology fields. This type is listed as a separate category because examples include loans which are not shortened when used alone. For example, J/ komi/ from “communication” is not listed as a loanword dictionary entry, but J/ masu komi/ from “mass communication” is rather frequently encountered in use. The linguistic process used on English loans is an old one in Japanese, resulting in well known examples such as “Toodai” from “Too(kyoo) Dai(gaku)” or “Tokyo University.“Examples from the last several years are: eN suto katu saNdo puro resu

en(gine) st(op) [automobile breakdown] cut(let) sand(wich) pro(fessiona1) wres(tling)

English Loanwords in Japanese

7

Star(sky) & Hutch [TV series] hu(man) tech(nology) of(fice) com(puter) mi(cr0) com(puter) wo(rd) pro(cessor) per(sona1) com(puter) fami(ly) com(puter).

suta haEEi hyu tekku ofu koN mai koN waa puro paso koN famikoN

The last example may become familiar to English speakers since it will be part of a Nintendo video game title: “Suupaa Famikon” or, in English, “Super Famikon.” Japanese

Innovations

One type of loan usage involves English words and phrases used in a new combination or a somewhat different meaning. These new formations may or may not be understandable to the native English speaker. In Miura’s book (1979), he noted some of the examples included here. One-word examples include one from baseball: J/ naitaa/

literally

“nighter”

refers to a night baseball game. Compounds or phrases include such items as: J/waN J/waN

maN kaa/ maN basu/

literally

“one-man “one-man

car” bus.”

These refer to a car or bus in which the driver must collect the fares rather than having a “conductor” or “ticket-taker.” J 1furu-muuN/

literally

“full moon”

is, by analogy to “honeymoon,” a journey by a long-married couple (as if “second honeymoon”); also, J/ furu/ = “old” so that the form functions in both languages in a way that is similar to the examples in Section 7 below. This type of example is becoming much more frequent as the use of English loans spreads to all areas of society and in all but the more formal types of publications. Compounds

Using English

and Japanese

A fifth type of loan usage involves the combination of Japanese elements and English loans, either shortened or not, and Japanese vocabulary. Combining loans and native words is becoming one of the most popular practices in the current use of the Japanese language. Relatively few examples appear in the recent loanword dictionaries, but the next edition should include many of the recent examples. One frequently cited example in this category is a set of combinations which was coined

8

Language

Sciences,

Volume

12, Number

1 (1990)

on the campus of International Christian University in Tokyo, perhaps the most multiethnic institution of higher education in Japan. The terms distinguish the types of Japanese students in terms of their cultural and cognitive behavioral patterns. J/ hoN japa/ J/ haN japa/ J/ heN japa/

from J/ hoN(to-no)/ from J/ haN(buN)/ from J/ heN(na)/

= = =

E“rea1” E“half E“strange”

-I- E”Japa(nese)” i- E“Japa(nese)” -I- E“Japa(nese).”

Another example is from daily vocabulary and suggests the degree to which these compounds have become nativized. This one is written in kanji (Chinese symbols) plus katakana (the syllabary used for foreign words): J/ haburaG/ Loanwords

= E”toothbrush” and Japanese

(i.e. J/ha/

= E“tooth” plus J/ burdi/

= E“brush”).

Morphology

The enumeration of the English loanwords and the description of their uses and functions are interesting in themselves. In linguistic terms, the more interesting situation occurs when either the loanwords begin to be used with the native morphology or the source language morphology begins to influence the native language use. There are indications that both these situations now exist in Japan. Whether the latter one will have any lasting effects is a matter of conjecture. The examples of English loanwords which are used with Japanese suffixes have been in the loanword dictionaries for years and some have been in the regular Japanese dictionaries as well. English

Loans

with Japanese

Morphology

When Chinese was borrowed into Japanese, verbs could be formed by suffixing the generic verb J/ suru/ (“do, ” “make,” or so on) to the Chinese form. Until fairly recently, English loans used as verbs followed this morphological pattern. This sixth type of loan usage involves the first steps in the integration of English loans into the inflectional system of Japanese. Yet the writing system retains an indication of the sources of the borrowed forms. Chinese remains in the consciousness of the speaker distinctly since the earlier Chinese loans are still written in Chinese characters and the English loans are written in katakana, i.e. the syllabary for nonChinese foreign words. The situation is becoming more complex as English words begin to be written with Chinese symbols. For example, “coffee” is now commonly written in Chinese characters. The integration of English loanwords into the Japanese grammatical system can be seen in such examples as J/memoru/ from E“memo(randum)” i- the verbal ending J/ -ru/ and J/ demoru/ from E“demo(nstration)” + J/ -ru/ . These forms are already in the 1987 edition of the loanword dictionary. Several years earlier the

English

Loanwords

in Jnpmeac

9

regular Japanese language dictionary contained J/ daburu/ , meaning “increase, double,” or so on, from E “double” i- J/ -u/ (the variant of J/ -r-u/ occurring after consonant final verb stems). These English loans are themselves inflected, rather than being treated as nouns with the verbalizer J/suru/ suffixed. English loans are also entering the adjectival system. For example, the adjective E”now” as in “the now generation” is used with the Japanese adjectival ending J/i/ , as in J/ naui/, and may be used with the past tense (J/ naukatta) or any other adjectival inflection. Japanese

Words with English

Morphology

Three types of examples will be given in this section. The first one is an example of the type of two-language word formation that often occurs when students study a foreign language. The form is a combination of Japanese with English affixed to form a translation equivalent of the common American exclamation “unbelievable.” The form in Japanese is by no means rarely encountered. “Unshinjirable” consists of the English affixed /un-/ and /-able/ with the Japanese base form meaning “believe.” While such forms are never or rarely encountered in print, they do occur in spoken usage and may spread through a segment of society. The second type of example involves the addition of an English suffix with a Japanese form. In Japanese, a doubled onomatopoetic form is used in some cases where English would use an adverb, for example, in [“the rain falls” +] J / zaazaa / , which indicates a rather heavy rainfall. Within the last few years, more and more examples are found in spoken language, especially among the young, of the addition of E/h/ = E”-ly” to these forms. One example is J/sorosoro/ = E‘Yeisurely-ly.” Another example is @“leisurely”) + E / li / = J/ sorosorori/ J / Bimijimiri / = E”keenly-ly” or “heartily-ly.” As with “unshinjirable” the use may or may not spread through more segments of society, but the use of E”-ly” is reported from multiple sources. A third type of use is one that is perhaps more important in terms of grammatical impact. This usage involves only Japanese grammatical items, but the model seems to be English grammar. The young have begun adding J/ ni/ to “adverbial” forms which historically do not have them, as in J/ hayaku/ (= E“quickly”) i- J/nil. The result is a form which has the force of E”quickly-ly.” Another example encountered on college campuses is J/ hoNtoo/ (= E”assuredly”) i- J/ ni/ = E“assuredly-1y.” It has been suggested by Japanese linguists that it is probably the anology to English adverbs with E“-1~” that is causing the change in usage. Whether the use will spread is not known, but it is a matter to be kept under observation by the sociolinguist. Creative

Word Play

Chinese was introduced to Japan, the early poets soon learned to make use of the graphics of the written symbols, the sounds of the Chinese forms, and the When

10

Language Sciences, Volume 12, Number 1 (1990)

sound of the native words to produce poetry which could carry two or more messages at once. At times the messages reinforced each other; at other times they were distinct; at other times they contrasted with each other. Their creative uses of the possibilities of the language diversity were quite advanced by the time of the first collection of Japanese poetry in 760 A.D., the Manyoshu. Those in Japan today, who seek to explore new and creative ways in which to use language, have an even greater richness and diversity available to them. English, French, German and many other languages have contributed vocabulary. The exploration of the creative ways in which language is used in Japan is interesting as an example of the advanced state of borrowing. Three types of creative uses are mentioned in this section and a somewhat different one is given in the section on functions of loanwords. The first example illustrates a simple two language word play which has two interpretations which reinforce each other. It is a slogan used by Japan Railways to discourage smoking. Their sign reads J/getuyoobi-wasuwanai-dee/. (J/getuyoobi/ = E“Monday”; J/wa/ = topic marker; J/suwanai/ = E“smoke” i- negation). In this slogan, J/dee/ has two possible interpretations, as the English loan “day” or as a Japanese particle conveying request in the casual style. In formal style the form J/de/ has the short post-consonantal vowel followed by J/ kudasai/ = E“please.” In casual style J/de i- kudasai/ can become J/dee/. In the first interpretation, the sentence is read as “Monday (is) a day of not smoking.” In the second it is read as “Please do not smoke on Monday.” The two messages reinforce each other in an interesting way. The second example is one t+hat involves three languages and multiple interpretations that reinforce each other. A company in Japan that owns clubs in various locations uses the name

You

and

I.

In this example the Chinese character for E“friend” is pronounced J/ yuu/ and is homophonous with E”You.” The second Chinese character, E”like, love,” is pronounced J/ai/ and is homophonous with E“1.” The meaning of the whole is a combination which is mutually reinforcing: you and I, friends who like each other. For places where friends meet, it is an interesting and catchy name. In this example Chinese and English loans, together with their graphic representations, are used in Japanese in a creative way. The third type of creative use is perhaps more significant in the development of the borrowing practice. Two examples are given here. The first one is a double, reinforcing meaning, as above, but the English reading follows the English

English

Loanwords

in Japanese

11

grammatical order. In the sign designed to help keep the noise level down, the Japanese reading is a compound and the English is an imperative phrase. J/hi saireNto/ can be read as two English words: E”Be silent.“In Japanese such a direct command would perhaps be offensive in the public situation. The Japanese / bi/ is also the pronunciation for the Chinese character for“beautiful” and some Japanese interpret the phrase as “Silence is beautiful,” similar in meaning to the English saying “Silence is golden.” The example differs from those above since the English reading depends on a familiarity with English word order in imperatives. The second example of word play involving grammatical patterning is from an ad used a few years ago by the Japan National Railways to promote tourism to a beautiful peninsula southwest of Tokyo. [This

j?

$

Map]

E”This” i- J / izu/ -l- E”map.” In this phrase, J/ i-zu/ (two Chinese characters) is homophonous with the Japanese pronunciation of E‘W and the whole phrase is to mean “This is a map of Izu.” The Subject-Object-Verb pattern of Japanese is not evident here; the English grammatical pattern is used. The absence of an appropriate article E”a” may seem to indicate that the grammatical pattern has not been perfectly followed, yet the final J/ t.ti of “Izu” may be interpreted as the article E“a.” In these examples and the many more which occur in contemporary Japan, some of the real interest for the reader lies in looking for such entertaining creative uses of language and in deciphering them. Examples involve not only Japanese, Chinese and English, but also French, German and so on. It is important for the language scholar to recognize that these creative uses of English loans signal one of the major late stages in the borrowing process. In many ways, as will be noted in the concluding section, the situation is similar to that of the impact of Chinese borrowings by the end of the Nara period (794 A.D.). The seven types of uses of English loans outlined above are not designed to be exhaustive but suggestive. The two points of especial interest to linguistics have been emphasized already. First, there have been some grammatical dislocations based on English in the speech of some Japanese. The situation warrants careful observation in the future. Second, the proliferation of uses of the loans and their introduction into almost all areas of Japanese language use is similar to if not equivalent to the massive influence of the Chinese language in Japan one and onehalf millenia ago. This latter point will be discussed further in the concluding section after a treatment of the functions being served by loanwords.

12

Language Sciences, Volume 12, Number 1 (1990)

FUNCTIONS

OF ENGLISH

LOANWORDS

Loanwords serve a number of functions other than ordinary communication of words and ideas. Some functions have been suggested earlier and are expanded in this section. Loanwords serve a variety of functions for the speaker and may serve as suggestions to the listener about the speaker’s background, intentions, and so on. Similarly, the large amount of borrowing, the multiplications of uses, and the several functions of the loans suggest the high value placed on some aspects of American culture in Japan. New Words When a new object or activity or idea enters a culture, the word or words which express it may be borrowed. The most basic function of a loanword is communicating the new object/ action/ idea. A culture may elect to use its own resources (as in “fire-horse” for a steam locomotive) for the new item. In other cases the loanword enters the language and becomes part of the regular dictionary. “Kimono,” “pizza,” “ beret” and all the many thousands of other loans have as their basic function simple communication of the dictionary meaning of the word or phrase. These new words may enter and remain for centuries, as indicated for place names in any country, or they may enter for a time and then fall into disuse. Usually a word must be in use for 20-25 years before it enters a major dictionary. In terms of usage, some people like to be among the first to use new items that enter the vocabulary. For example, writers who try to spot new trends and ideas from abroad are often in the vanguard of the spread of new words. Fashion;

Up-to-Date

Loanwords may serve the function of labeling the speaker as fashionable, as upto-date. As noted earlier, Japanese has borrowed an English word which expresses this function well. “Now,” as in “the now generation,” has been borrowed as the adjectival form / naui/ and it refers to being up-to-the-minute in terms of fashion, ideas, and so on. The use of loanwords which are no longer “now” may mark the speaker as old-fashioned, of the older generation, or so on. Japan first borrowed “BG” for “Business Girl,” or a female who worked in an office. In the 1960s this term was sup&ceded by “OL” for “Office Lady,” although members of the older generation may still use the outdated loanword. Currently many words in the high technology field are being borrowed into Japanese. It is a mark of being up-to-date to be current in recognizing the new words and their reduced forms. Over the past decade or so computer-related words were being generated with high frequency. J/fami koN/ from E”fam(ily) com(puter),” J/mini koN/ from E”mini(ature) com(puter),” J/ hyu tekku/ / from E“hu(man) tech(nology),“and so on are familiar

English Loanwords in Japanese

13

to any Japanese who keeps up with the modern age. Certain segments of any society seem to attach more value to being “naui” than others. College students seem to be constantly aware of changes in the most recent usage in language as well as in fashions and so on from abroad. Westernized In Japan there is a function

of loanwords which is related to”Fashionable” but in some cases it has no meaning of being “recent.” Miura gives the example of the room or area for preparing food in a Japanese house. The native word J/daidokoro/ refers to the traditional space, as explained earlier, while the loanword J/ kiEEiN/ refers to the Westernized version of the same space. J/ kiZN/ functions to identify the style of the room, the probable style of the house and its occupants. Since there has been a great change in the life-style of Japanese since the reopening of the country to outsiders in 1868, there has been a growing dichotomy between traditional Japan and modern Japan. Words such as J/ kiEEiN/ serve to identify a whole complex of values associated with Westernization. A “DiningKitchen” or “DK” refers to a room which combines the two functions of food preparation and consumption. The form also indicates that the style of table and so on is probably the Western one, with chairs and appropriate table and so on. The secondary function of some loanwords may be that of identifying the speaker’s set of values in regard to the topic under discussion. Special Situation

Some loanwords function in particular situations and are not appropriate in others. Often the special situation in a grammatical or other language-related one. For example, E”all” is borrowed into Japanese as J/ ooru/ , but is not used in many of the contexts appropriate in English. E”Al1” as an independent word as in the meaning of “all the people’* or “all day” is rarely used. J/ ooru/ is basically used as a compound, as noted in the loanword dictionaries: J/ooru HiizuN/ (“all-season”), J/ ooru sutaa/ (“all-star”), J/ ooru maitii/ (“all-mighty”), J/ ooru rauNdo/ (“allround”). Miura notes that this limitation of J/ooru/ to this special linguistic situation is almost never given in the loanword dictionaries. Euphemism

One function of loanwords is that of acting as a euphemism for a native word or phrase that carries negative connotations. In early English language materials, the word “die” often had substitutes used instead: fell, left, went over, crossed to the other side, and so on. Languages can use loans as well for the purpose of communicating an idea while avoiding an undesirable connotation. An example is

14

Language

Sciences,

Volume

12, Number

1 (1990)

J/ toire/ or J/ toiretto/ from the E”toilet” to substitute for the various native words for the room. There are a number of other examples in current use. For example, J/ meido/ (“maid”) rather than the native J/joEuu/ is the preferred term for those working for foreign families; J/jo&.m/ is being seen as one that carries negative connotations. In public transportation and elsewhere, Japan has set aside certain areas and seats for the use of senior citizens, using a phrase that is in English a euphemism as well. The phrase is J / CirubaaSiito/ or E“silver seat,” which identifies perhaps the color of the hair rather than the advanced age of the person who qualifies to sit in the area. Some euphemisms have a semi-official status. Reports indicate that the Japanese media should avoid description of someone as J/ kiEigai/, perhaps at the risk of their jobs. The word to be used on the air or in print is one of the English words of the same meaning: “crazy” or “mad.” Another good example is J/rooN/ (“loan”) instead of the native /SakkiN/. In Japan, things borrowed were traditionally returned by the beginning of the New Year. Falling into debt was considered disgraceful. A person who wanted to purchase something was expected to save the money for it and to repress his desire until he could afford it. The fairly recent influx of consumerism and commercialism has changed the life-style patterns of many Japanese, but the shame attached to being in debt is still present. The use of / rooN/ alone for /hkkiN/ is not sufficient to avoid the negative connotations. /rooN/ is used in the sense of J/rooN wo kumu/, where / wo/ is the object marker and / kumu/ refers to the formation of something. “Forming” a loan refers to the structured process which involves a bank or other economic organization, a legally binding repayment system, and so on. A / rooN/ has become a well-planned economic activity and a / rooN/ carries not a negative connotation but a connotation that the borrower has a healthy and secure financial future. A / rooN/ has such a good connotation that some Japanese have taken too much advantage of the system and are going through a / rooN jigoku/ or “loan hell.” The development of the use of / rooN/ in this positive light paralleled the development of the Japanese economy, especially in the 196Os, into one of the top two economies in the world. In this example, / rooN/ began as a euphemism for /8akkiN/ and developed even more positive connotations and is the frequently heard term in the last decade of the 20th century. Given the large number of English loanwords entering Japanese, there are many possibilities for native words with negative connotations to be replaced with English euphemisms. Prestige

For many centuries in the West Latin was the language of education and therefore the mark of the learned man and woman. In earlier centuries, for example, the educated nun was expected to know Latin and French in addition to the mother tongue. English still has many examples of the prestige of Latin,

English

Loanwords

in Japanese

15

especially in written materials. Ibid., etc., et al., and so on are usual citation forms in educated usage. A number of Latin or Latin-derived phrases are used in the conversation of learned people, such as inter alia, ex cathedra, and QED (from quod erat demonstrandum or ‘that which was to be proved”). In early Japanese history, Chinese was the mark of the educated person and was used in the official documents. The situation of English in Japan is different. The use of English loanwords is used as a mark of education and prestige, but they are used less frequently in official documents than in almost any other part of written Japanese. In terms of education, some 95% of Japanese study English from middle school. The entrance requirements at many of the top universities require a high level of competence in written English, so that those who are highly educated have a good command of written English. Especially in the high technology fields, the upto-date expert uses many English words and phrases. In this way, English loans function as prestige markers in terms of education level. The estimate is that by the year 2000 more than 80% of Japanese will have had six years of schooling in the English language. That dedication to the study of English both encourages the borrowing of words and leads to their use as a mark of the educated class. In official documents, native words (which in this case includes those borrowed from China centuries ago) are the preferred usage. English words are making inroads in some areas such as the public media, with less and less reluctance being shown by the stations to use loanwords. Over the past few decades, the increase in English words in daily use has had an impact on the use of English loans in reporting the stories. The continued high prestige of Chinese words and their written forms in relation to such areas as that of the Emperor, Shinto (the native religion), and Buddhism suggests that English loans will not make much of an inroad into official and ritual usage. English usage will remain the mark of prestige in terms of education and perhaps international experience. Poetic/ Literary/

Word Play

Over the centuries Japanese literature included both Japanese and Chinesederived vocabulary in its poetry and prose. Authors were able to use doublemeaning forms for a variety of effects, from humor to pathos. The classical novel “Tale of Genji”- the world’s first novel, written about 1000-1010 A.D. - included many examples of the intricate and poetic use of wordplay. The ability to produce poetry including such a literary device was one mark of the educated and refined court noble. For a simple example, an early poem in the novel seems to concern the day or occasion (hiru) which is not auspicious for a visit. It is also a message about garlic (hiru) on the other’s breath that suggests the reason that the day is not auspicious. Given this long history, it is not surprising to see English and other language loans being used in many interesting ways in a variety of forms from advertising to

16

Language

Sciences,

Volume

12, Number

1 (1990)

poetry. Some examples were given in an earlier section. A few more will help show the intricate use of the loans. The first example is similar to the earlier example of J/ dee/ being interpreted as a Japanese polite request or as the English loan “day.” This example also suggests two other functions of an English loan, those being prestige and the literary use of word associations. A few years ago the Japan Railways East wanted to choose a name for a line which would have good connotations for the viewers/users. They did a user study which resulted in the choice of “E-deN,” a combination of the capital English “E” and the Chinese form for the first element in “railroad car.” The “E” was chosen for several reasons. E is the first letter of the English form of the word for “Electric Rail Car”and of the word “East.“‘%” also relates to “every day,” “economy,*’ and “energy,” all of which are related to the riding experience. “Extern” in Japan refers to work at a distance from home; “enjoy”suggests the type of ride. Some suggested other related words as “ease,” “elegance,” and even “exotic.” In addition to those connotations, the sound of “E” is J/ii/ which means “good.” One final point is that the English pronunciation of the combination is that of “Eden” which has good connotations in English. This careful attention to all properties of language, including the connotations of loanwords indicates the advanced stage of borrowing in current Japan. One unexpected result of the naming of the line “E-deN” is instructive of the importance of cultural values in the country. The Japan Rail East eventually had to drop the name because the people felt that the use of J/ii/ or “good” was presumptuous on the part of the company and they did not appreciate the lack of appropriate business modesty. Some of the information received by the company also raises the possibility that the use of a borrowing to substitute for such a fundamental Japanese word as J/ii/ is not acceptable as of the present. The second set of examples begins with an extension of the earlier example of “You & I.” In terms of creative uses, there are appearing more examples of creative alterations of basic Chinese characters to create a particular effect. By 1989 the signs advertising this club included some in which the lower right side of J/yuu/ had a “heart” substituted. In some cases the “heart” had the lower lines extended through their connection so that the final form resembled to some extent the original Chinese form. The two examples are:

The second example is one which uses French, English and Japanese for an effect similar to “You & I.” The name of a club/ bar in Tokyo is J/yuu moi/, which consists of the English “you” (which also suggests J/yuu/ or “friend”) and the French “moi” or “I.” The two language “friends/ you and I” idea for a meeting place

English Loanwords in Jqmmse

17

is extended by the total combination being pronounced like the Japanese for “humor,” which in this case refers to the meaning relating to good feeling or ambience: you and I will be in a good, friendly humor if we patronize this club. It is possible that two aspects of the French are used here: first the prestige associated with French in general and second the positive associations with romance in the French culture. The third example given here is related to the earlier “Be silent.” English is used for slogans by various businesses and the government to catch people’s attention. A phrase used to help people concentrate on the monetary difficulties a few years ago was J/ sutoppu za iNfure/ or “Stop the inflation.” Here the whole phrase is in the English order and the grammatical form of the English imperative is preserved. The imperative pattern is one of the few rather frequently occurring borrowed grammatical patterns in Japan. English and other loans in Japanese function in a wide variety of ways and they illustrate the degree and depth of the impact of English on Japanese. If the history of Chinese loans in Japanese is a precedent, within a few centuries essentially all the now frequently used English loans will have been nativized to the point of being in the regular dictionaries. One of the steps in that direction has already begun. Some English words are being written in the script which is usually reserved for native words. A chain of restaurants called the “Skylark” has its title written in hiragana. Some write the first syllable twice as large and the effect may be seen as that of a capital English letter beginning the name. Although the example list is short, it is interesting to recall that the English “coffee” is regularly written in Chinese characters and is listed in the regular dictionaries in that fashion. As more English loans become written in hiragana and even in kanji, the process of English loanwords being nativized will probably move more quickly. CONCLUSIONS The sections above have presented evidence of the massive borrowing of English into Japanese, of the various innovative uses which have been developed, and of the expanding functions of those uses. Such developments do not occur in a vacuum; rather, they suggest that both elements within the Japanese language and deeper cultural factors are involved. Miller has suggested that the Japanese language is both adapted to the use of foreign items and that the Japanese have always shown a fondness for innovations in language use (1967: 292). It is still difficult to refrain from characterizing Japanese as having a remarkable aptness for many varieties of special or even “notable” utterances involving word play, sound symbolism, and other varieties of linguistic usage which take extraordinary advantage of the resources of the language. Lsc 12:1-E

1%

Language Sciences, Volume 12, Number 1 (1990)

The many loanwords from various languages constitute a part of the resources available to the Japanese language. In terms of the cultural values suggested by the presence of the loans, Hasegawa suggested some five decades ago that there was nothing particularly strange about the massive influx. He dealt with the situation following the opening of the country after two and one-half centuries of being closed to outside contract. At the Meiji Restoration, “the rapid taking-over of foreign culture was a practical necessity and in no sense a departure from a norm” (1938: 35). He compared the situation in Japan during the wholesale borrowing of many aspects of Chinese culture earlier in history. His book appeared before the geometrical increase in loans from the West, yet his observations border on prophecy. Although Japan’s acquisition of a high level of culture in ancient times naturally involved all the changes in cultural forms consequent on the incursion of a continental civilization, yet even in the age of worship of things continental the nature of the -indigenous culture enabled it, by the Heian period f794 A.D.], to emerge from the realm of imitation and create purely Japanese cultural forms, giving birth to a truly Japanese literature, art, and architecture. Japan since the Meiji Restoration has posed a new problem here, yet once again the real question is that of how Western civilization will be Nipponicized; one thing that seems certain is that Japan will not stop at out-and-out imitation of the West (1938: 35).

As shown in the developments in usage and in the innovations in forms, Hasegawa’s comments could be applied to the loanword situation today. The social linguist looks at language usage always in the context of the cultural values of the users. The types and functions of the usage of loans are clearly of interest, including such specific areas as the estimates that 5% of the vocabulary items used in daily Japanese conversation and 11% of the total words produced in conversation are from English. Such figures indicate a high prestige level for the English and suggest an even higher number of loanwords in the future and further developments in both types of usage and expansion into other functional areas. The changing relations between the two countries in terms of governmental diplomacy and so on over the past few decades seem to have had little overall effect on the growth of usage. There are various reasons why this should be so. One is in the nature of cultural developments themselves. Such an important development in Japan was the introduction of Chinese culture. It took several centuries for the broad pattern of the “Nipponicization” of Chinese elements to become clear. There are still such elements in Japanese culture today more than a millenium after the high point of that borrowing situation. Zen Buddhism became an influence near the beginning of the Kamakura period (1185 A.D.), its high point came centuries later, and its heritage exists today. It is a truism to note that cultural developments are slow to mature. The Meiji Restoration was

English

Loanwords

in Japanese

19

only some 120 years ago, which is not an especially long time in these terms. Elements are introduced, reactions occur, dislocations must be handled and so on. As noted above, innovations are often treated as corrupting the purity of the native language. On the other hand, some people encourage change in the strongest of terms. During the Meiji period, Yukichi Fukuzawa (1835-1901), a famous educator, expounded his “Escape from Asia* theory, where Japan should become a European-style empire in the Eastern Sea. Those who would defend the status quo and opposed any change often identified the Japanese language with the culture. This argument is an appealing one and one that is raised in one form or another for every change or innovation in cultural development. The identification of language and culture can go so far as to conclude that a culture dies if the language of its speakers changes, whether through gradual assimilation or through use of another language. Yet there are cultures, such as the Italian, which maintain stability in a different country as identifiable cultural units for generations after the members have essentially lost their mother tongue. Other such examples could be multiplied. Where culture is defined in terms of the complex of values underlying the behavior of a group, elements such as language are important but not as one of the defining characteristics. “Nipponicization,” as Hasegawa used it, indicates the deeper cultural value of absorbing and transforming such items as loanwords into integral parts of the Japanese system. Language and culture in this usage are not static elements; they adjust to meet new demands. Since the Meiji Restoration, Japan has been adjusting to its changing roles as it developed into one of the world’s economic giants. Language itself is in constant flux in what is sometimes described as constant renegotiation between speakers. Languages change over time as speakers renegotiate to interact with the changing world. Such changes in language and culture do not occur at a constant rate. The fact that English is now used in almost all the functions of language in Japan, be they original Japanese or nativized Chinese, suggests that a new plateau has been reached. In the Nipponicization of loanwords, the absorption of English vocabulary has, it would seem, reached the point where the next step will be the further nativization of the loans so that eventually their uses and functions will be undistinguishable from all other vocabulary. This process may take 50 or 100 years or more, but it appears to be happening now. Linguists and others interested in the language sciences should pay careful attention to the ongoing growth and development of Japanese. The conclusion that a plateau has been reached parallels observations being made in other areas of Japanese life, such as economics. “Japan has turned the corner,” writes Taylor. “Its undeniable successes and its increasing wealth could make the rest of this century a time for renewal.. .“( 1983: 226). Japan is looking at

20

language Sdmca,

Volume 12, Number 1 (1990)

its traditions and “renegotiating” the way in which its language is used in light of its new status on the world stage. Seen as part of its current goal of internationalization, the borrowing of terminology and other vocabulary from other countries is a natural development. The “nature of the indigenous culture” is once again showing the strength inherent in the ability to borrow, transform and integrate the best from other cultures, including their ianguages.

REFERENCES Arakawa, Sobei 1967 Gairaigo Jiten (Loanword Dictionary), Tokyo: Kadokawa. Gaikoku Kara Kita Shingo Jiten Henshubu 1965 Gaikoku Aura Kita Shingo Jiten (Dictionary of New Words from Foreign Countries), Tokyo: Shueisha. Gairaigo Kenkyukai 198 I Gairaigo Jiten (Loanword Dictionary), Tokyo: Meicho. Gengo 1987 Language 16. 116. Greenberg, Joseph 1966 Universals of Language, Joseph Greenberg (ed.), Cambridge: MIT Press. Han, Mieko I962 Japanese Phonology, Tokyo: Kenkyusha. Hasegawa, Nyozekan 1938 The Japanese Character: A Cubural Profile, Tokyo: Kodansha. ( 1983) Hattori, Y. n.d. “Patterns of EngIish Lexical Adoption in Japanese,” Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1980. Hoffer, Rates L. I982 “Cross-cultural Sociolinguistic Profiles: Misreadings and Misunderstandings,” in Proc. XII&h fnt. Gong. Linguists, Shiro Hattori and Kazuko fnoue (eds.), Tokyo. Miller, Roy Andrew 1967 The Japanese Language, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Miura, Akira 1979 English Loanwords in Japanese, Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle and Co. Miyagawa, Shigeru and Chisato Kitagawa 1984 Studies in Japanese Language Use, Shigeru Miyagawa and Chisato Kitagawa (eds.), Carbondale: Linguistic Research.

English Loanwords in Japanese

Sanseido Henshubu 1972 Konsaisu Gairaigo Jiten (Concise Loanword Dictionary), Sanseido. (Fourth edn, 1987). Taylor, Jared 1983 Shadows of the Rising Sun, Tokyo: Tuttle Co.

21

Tokyo: