Enlightened management technique

Viewpoints

the school trip, the fisherman or the ecologist?), but accepts parks as a fait accompli and does not consider alternatives. The first Access to Mountains Bill introduced before the British Parliament in 1884 contained a key clause that became the nucleus of protest for the next 50 years: ‘. . . no owner or occupier of uncultivated mountains or moorland shall be entitled to exclude any person from walking or being on such land for the purpose of recreation or artistic study, or to molest him in so walking or being’. Access to Mountains Bills containing similar clauses were defeated 10 times in the years between 1884 and 1934 - clearly the premise was unacceptable to the landowning lobby. By the time that the access movement culminated in the mass trespasses of the 193Os, workingclass protesters and even conservative and middle-class rambling clubs were lobbying for free access to all land above 1000 feet. But there is an even more radical alternative: ‘Allemansriitten’, or ‘Everyman’s Right’, gives all Swedish citizens the right to walk freely in the countryside. Fields, woods, lakes and private roads and paths are open to all unless damage might result (for instance to crops or growing trees) or privacy might be infringed (for instance on land around a house). To prevent any disturbance to game, dogs have to be kept on a lead. Penalties, for leaving litter range up to six months imprisonment.”

When Frederick Law Olmstead, the American who designed Central Park in New York, USA, Mount Royal Park in Montreal, Canada, and partially rescued Niagara Falls from commercial despoliation, first saw Birkenhead Park in Birkenhead, UK in 1850 he wrote that the park was: ‘entirely, unreservedly, and for ever, the people’s own. The poorest British peasant is as free to enjoy it in all its parts as the British queen . . . Is it not a grand, good thing?‘7 But is the creation of parks a grand, good thing? Given the alternative between parks and no parks/no access, it clearly is. It is important to preserve grand scenery from exploitation and make it available to all, and it is important to practice conservation and good environmental procedures - but not just

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in the parks. Parks cease to be a grand, good thing when:

they are used to constrain the leisure practices of users; they practice regulation without widespread education; conservation in the parks is an apparent justification for the lack of it outside of the park boundaries; and they serve to confirm the rights of private property beyond concerns of privacy and possible damage. is not a historical coincidence that strong access movements appear to coincide with periods of mass unemployment, and it is a truism that strong movements meet with strong resistance, as evidenced in the UK by the extension of the trespass law and the continuing disappearance of footpaths. It is an appropriate time to consider alternative forms of access. Peter Donnelly Associate Professor School of Physical Education and Department of Sociology McMaster University 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada

Notes: This is a shortened and revised version of a paper presented at the Vllth Commonwealth and International Conference on Sport, Physical Education, Dance, Recrea-

tion and Health; Glasgow, Scotland, 18-23 July, 1986. ‘S. Hardy and A.G. Ingham, ‘Games, structure and agency: historians and the American play movement’. Journal of Social History, Vol 17, 1983, pp 285-301. The critical view of parks was a response to the philanthropic view, which still has a great many adherents. 2Among the many sources on the founding of national parks in the USA and Canada, the following are useful and readable: S. Marty, A Grand and Fabulous Notion: The First Century of Canada’s Parks, NC Press, Toronto, Canada, 1984; and J.L. Sax, Mountains Without Handrails, Reflections on the National Parks, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1980. 3P. Donnelly, ‘The paradox of parks: politics of recreational land use before and after the mass trespasses’, Leisure Studies, Vol 5, 1986, pp 211-231. 4P. Bourdieu, ‘Sport and social class’, Social Science Information, Vol 17, 1978, 819-840. 5Dower created this type of social definition as early as 1945: ‘One restriction on the type and volume of visitors is indeed desirable . namely, that those who come to national parks should be such as wish to enjoy and cherish the beauty and quiet of unspoilt country and to take their recreation, active or passive, in ways that do not impair the beauty or quietude, nor spoil the enjoyment of them by others For all who want to spend their holidays gregariously . national parks are not the place.’ J. Dower, National Parks in England and Wales, Cmnd. 6628, HMSO, UK, 1945. 6M. Shoard, ‘Recreation: the people’s countryside’. New Statesman, 23 April 1982, pp 6-8. ‘F.L. Olmstead, Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, USA, 1967.

Enlightenedmanagementtechnique Chris Cooper, of Surrey University’s Department of Management Studies for Tourism and Hotel Industries, describes the uses and significance of the technique of interpretation in providing an interface between the tourist destination and the visitor. Interpretation can enhance the visitor experience by making the attributes of the resort more comprehensible.

Tourist destinations must make the visitor aware of their importance, significance, and major features by effective presentation. Interpretation provides this service by the imagina-

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tive display of information in the form of trails, signboards, visitor centres, and audio-visual media to enhance and shape visitors’ experiences and bring the destination to life. Inter-

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pretation also assists in site management as it represents a communication link between the resource and visitor. Yet many tourism practitioners are ignorant of interpretation and its role, while others fail to see its relevance to the tourism industry.’ But, as the industry matures and consumers become more sophisticated in their demands at the destination, interpretation provides a potent technique with which to offer an enhanced experience while at the same time providing a positive management tool to help ameliorate the potential impacts of increased tourist contact with the resource or host society. Interpretation as it is now understood began in North American national parks around the turn of the century and was well developed by World War II. It spread to the UK after the war when it was stimulated first by the conservation movements’ initiatives to make the public aware of the value of the countryside, townscape and industrial heritage, and second by its roots in the environmental education movement both in North America and the UK. A third influence has been the planners’ recognition of the need to plan and manage tourist resources in the face of burgeoning demand set against static supply. As planning for tourism and recreation moves away from defensive management for resource protection and becomes orientated towards the visitor and his needs, interpretation is seen as a sophisticated management tool to achieve these goals. Interpretation is now firmly established as a technique on both sides of the Atlantic with its own professional bodies, journals, and small community (around 2500 practitioners in North America and 200 in England and Wales).* Interpretation offers a number of benefits. First, it assists the visitor in developing a keener awareness and understanding of the destination, enhancing his experience and enjoyment.3 Second, it is an effective management tool - by controlling the information content and positioning of interpretation, visitors can be hurried through pressure points, distributed along a trail, or steered away from

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sensitive areas. It is also felt to change visitor attitudes towards the resource by fostering a desire to protect and thereby influence behaviour.4 Third, interpretation is increasingly seen as a means to revitalize run-down urban or rural areas not only by attracting tourist spending but also by rekindling residents’ sense of community.5

Interpretive planning process The interpretive plan is central to any interpretive project and is normally integral to the management plan.” The interpretive plan follows a flexible and interactive sequence: 0 objectives; 0 inventory; 0 themes; 0 media selection; 0 interpretive emphasis; and 0 evaluation. The interpretive planning process begins by setting objectives - either general ones, eg visitors will leave the destination having enjoyed their time there, or specific, eg the visitor will have understood the way of life of the Vikings.7 Objectives are important, laying down the priorities for the plan and

Figure 1.

Possible

interpretive

acting as a guide for teamwork, and allowing interpretation to be monitored and evaluated against a measurable standard. Once objectives are established the second stage is inventory or stocktaking where the available resources are closely scrutinized and decisions taken as to which should be interpreted. Other sites in the catchment area will also be examined at this stage to prevent duplication. Themes and stories are then sifted out. Themes drive the interpretive process as, once determined, any exhibits or information discordant to the theme must be rejected - it is one of the most common failings of interpretation to include as many themes as possible thus confusing the message and the visitor. It is at this stage that creativity becomes important in the process rather than any guidelines or set formulae. Similarly the final stages of the interpretive plan - media selection and interpretive emphasis (or positioning) - also demand considerable flair and insight as they allow the theme or story to be told. Media selection involves choosing the facilities and services most appropriate to the theme, the resource, and the visitor. There is a

media.

Non-personal unattended services

Personal attended services

I

Au&o-visual

displays

Guided walks

Self-guided

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trails

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Media choices Inventory

Figure 2.

Personal

Theme

A media matrix.

plethora of media available including not only the familiar signboards, trails, and visitor centres but also interactive video, computer-driven interpretation and a wide range of audio visual techniques (Figure l).s Interpretive media may either be in the form of personal or attended services: 0 information

duty;

??conducted activity; ??talks to groups; and 0 living interpretation. Or in the form of non-personal unattended services:

or

??audio-visual devices; 0 0 0 0 0

written material; self-guided activity; indoor exhibits; visitor centres; and off-site/off-season media.

Three considerations are taken into account in media selection. First, the nature of the media themselves as each is appropriate in its own particular setting and each has its strengths and weaknesses, eg, guided trails allow two-way communication but often preach to the converted - selfguided trails are inexpensive and accessible but lack the immediacy of personal contact. Of course media complement each other - the visitor centre orientates, trails allow exploration, and leaflets act as a reminder of the visit. But media can also compete for attention creating a site that is too ‘busy’, and diffusing interest. Considerations of cost and durability are also important. Second, the visitor must be considered and the media and content should be appropriate to the target audience which may be the blind, children, etc. At the same time choice of media should encourage shared experiences, consider and influence the pace of movement around the destination, en-

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Non-personal

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sure a variety of content to attract repeat visits, and protect the visitor from any hazards of the resource. The resource itself is a final influence on choice, in particular the consideration of visual or oral intrusion from the media and the need to protect sensitive areas from over-use while influencing movement to hardened areas. A media matrix can be constructed to assist the planner in these decisions (Figure 2). The final stage is monitoring to ensure that interpretation is meeting its objectives. This can be done either informally (staff observing behaviour) or more formally (eg, by questionnaire). Throughout the planning process evaluation can be applied in order to test the effectiveness and success of the interpretation. Prince has identified three stages of evaluation: 0 front-end analysis which is research done before the plan is implemented; 0 formative evaluation, done while the project is underway; and 0 summative evaluation which involves testing once the project is complete.’

Wider applications Interpretive planning is being considered at geographical scales other than simply a single destination.‘” Regional and even national interpretive plans are possible and have a number of advantages. For example a higher level approach acts as a framework for interpreting a group of sites and allows the development of themes and sub-themes regionally which can be linked to the marketing of the destination. At the same time this approach avoids duplication of interpretive effort and acts as a catalyst for public and private sector

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cooperation. A number of regional plans now exist and more ambitiously MacFarlane suggests national plans geared to a world interpretation and presentation strategy.” However, this scale of operation demands a comprehensive database and often the typical ordinary site demonstrates a region’s personality rather than the rare, special, but popular attractions.

Discussion However, interpretation has its critics, many of whom argue that manipulation of information is inherently suspect and that the ‘gatekeeping’ role of interpreters can be abused. For example while interpretation supposedly enhances the experience of the visitor there is a danger that it removes inspiration and dampens the need to discover - after all does not the interpreter tell the visitor all he needs to know?i2 Yet, Nyberg argues, this is the interpreter’s professional reality, suggesting the visitor’s perceptions are delusion.13 At the same time the communication process can be patronizing, particularly if the message is unrelated to the audience. And it does not just patronize the audience, it is common for interpretive content to be devoid of social comment, ignoring for example the plight of the rural poor or exploited industrial workforce in the breathless and uncritical exposition of, say, Victorian farming or industrial heritage sites. l4 This obvious gatekeeping role also causes concern when agencies use interpretation overtly to sell their aims, objectives, and point of view. There is also increasing evidence that interpretation preaches to the converted, thus contradicting those who defend interpretation on the grounds of increasing understanding and thus protection of sensitive issues or fragile resources. Despite these caveats, interpretation deserves a wider aulience and understanding among tourism practitioners. Its particular strength lies in its ability to provide an enhanced experience at the destination while at the same time reducing the impact on host societies and landscapes - surely a virtue in the late 1980s when tourist

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ViewpoinslReports

resources will come under increased pressure and the tourist is searching for a ‘quality’ experience at the destination. Chris Cooper Department of Management Studies for Tourism and Hotel Industries University of Surrey Guildford GlJ2 5XH, UK Notes: ‘A. Machin, ‘Changing the viewpoint’, Heritage hterpretation’, Winter 1986, pp 4-5. “T. Stevens, Interpretation. Who does it, how, and why, Centre for Environmental

Interpretation Occasional Paper 2, Manchester, UK, 1983. 3G.W. Sharpe, ed, interpreting the environment, Wiley, New York, 1982. 4F. Tilden, Interpreting our heritage, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, USA, 1957. 5Civic TrusVCentre for Environmental Interpretation, Up Greenhill and Down the Dale. An interpretive plan for Wirksworfh, Derbyshire, Civic Trust, London, 1983. ‘Countryside Commission, Guide to countryside interpretation Part 1. Principles of interpretive planning, Countryside Com-

mission, Cheltenham, UK, 1975. 7A.D. Putney and J.A. Wagar, ‘Objectives and evaluaiion in interpretive planning’, Journal of Environmental Education. 1973. Vol 5, No 1, pp 43-44. ‘Countryside Commission, Guide to coun-

tryside interpretation Part 2. Interpretive media and facilities, Countryside Commis-

sion, Cheltenham, UK, 1975. ‘D. Prince. Evaluatino interoretation. A discussion paper, Cenire for invironmentat Interpretation Occasional Paper 1, Manchester, UK, 1982. ‘OB. Goodey, ‘The interpretive boom’, Area, 1979, Vol 11, No 4, pp 285-288. “J.M. Macfarlane, ‘Cordillera Communications’, Heritage Interpretation, Winter 1986, p 5. ‘*K.L. Nyberg, ‘Some radical comments on interpretation’, in G.E. Machlis and DR. Field, eds, On interpretation. Sociology for interpreters

of natural and cultural history,

Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, USA, 1984, pp 151-155. 13/hid.

14Goodey, op tit, Ref 10.

Reports Greentourism The notion of ‘green’, or ecological, tourism, in which people are encouraged to pursue rural leisure activities in a manner that will benefit, rather than harm, the countryside, is gaining popularity. Independent tourism and environment consultant Arwel Jones describes a recent conference on the subject which looked at ways of developing a coherent, ecologically sound strategy for the future. The Natural History Museum in London, a world centre for the appreciation and protection of nature, was an obvious venue for a one day conference to consider new opportunities for tourism in the countryside. On 20 May 1987, delegates respresenting tourism development and rural conservation interests met to consider the way forward. The conference, sponsored by Welsh Country Holidays and British Caledonian Airways, was chaired by Professor Tony Travis of the University of Birmingham. He opened the proceedings by posing the question ‘what is green tourism?’ and suggested it was the phenomenon of people away from their usual habitat in pursuit of leisure activities in the countryside, excluding such areas as the urbanized coast and ski resorts. As far as the tourist industry is concerned, it is that segment of the industry and of

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government agencies that responds to the needs of tourists in such areas. It also includes the impact that the tourist industry and public sector organizations have upon host rural communities and their social, cultural, economic and physical environments. Professor Travis offered a second, Maori-inspired definition (in which the Earth is seen as our immortal mother) of a type of tourism closely linked to, and dependent upon, continuing long-term social, economic and environmental benefits brought about by the wise management of natural resources. To illustrate his point, he spoke of the experience of the French Tourisme en Espace Rural. the national coordinating body for green tourism, which includes the gite system and offers a whole range of activity-based provision such as fishing, pony trekking, white water rafting, flying and hang

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gliding trips. It provides tours based on ecological conservation study, rural cycling, countryside cooking or ch&teau bottled wine making and rural and agricultural life discovery; organizes holidays for canoeing, golfing, rural ndive art study; and promotes the teaching of rural sports and crafts. Professor Travis suggested that the difference between the French and British approach lies not in which activities are taking place, but in regional and national organization. The French system is coordinated, using information and databases to support marketing and booking systems, which makes it increasingly easy for both the domestic and overseas market to plug directly into a large number of offers; this does not yet happen in the UK. His next question was ‘why have green tourism?’ The reasons he gave were both positive and negative - as part of the response to new agricultural policies, to meet the changing economic needs of rural communities, to promote better rural conservation, to entertain and inform urban dwellers about the countryside and to respond to market demands for new tourism products and experiences. Who benefits? He suggested that, if thoughtfully implemented, green tourism could represent an important step

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December 1987