Environmental Human Health Issues Related to Indoor Air Pollution from Domestic Biomass Use in Rural China: A Review

C H A P T E R

16 Environmental Human Health Issues Related to Indoor Air Pollution from Domestic Biomass Use in Rural China: A Review Harvey E. Belkin U.S. Geological Survey (ret.), Reston, VA, United States

1 INTRODUCTION Worldwide, more than 3 billion people, about half of the world’s population, depend on solid fuels, including biomass (wood, charcoal, dung, and agricultural residues) and coal, to meet their most basic domestic energy needs such as cooking, boiling water and heating (Holdren et al., 2000; Ezzati & Kammen, 2002; Smith, Mehta, & Maeusezahl-Feuz, 2004; Masud, Sharan, & Lohani, 2007). Approximately 2.4 billion people use biomass and 0.6 billion people use coal for domestic indoor fuel (Smith et al., 2004; Fullerton, Bruce, & Gordon, 2008; Po, FitzGerald, & Carlsten, 2011). Many harmful pollutants are emitted during the burning of solid fuels, in particular large quantities of particulates and gases are produced, especially from open or poorly ventilated stoves. Exposure to indoor air pollution (IAP) from the combustion of solid fuels has been implicated, with varying degrees of evidence, as a causal or

Environmental Geochemistry http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63763-5.00017-3

aggravating agent of respiratory and nonrespiratory diseases in developing countries (e.g., Smith, 1993, 2000; Bruce, Perez-Padilla, & Albalak, 2000; Smith, Samet, Romieu, & Bruce, 2000; Smith & Mehta, 2003; Lim et al., 2012). In China, the most populous country, approximately 80% of its urban and rural households rely on solid fuel for domestic energy. During the last three decades, the Chinese government has recognized that both outdoor and IAP are the most serious causes of preventative illness. Much is being done to alleviate the problems, but energy poverty, a disparate population in remote locales, the expense, and resistance to social change slow the progress. Outdoor biomass burning is widespread, especially in the tropics. It serves to clear land for shifting cultivation, to convert forests to agricultural or pastoral lands, and to remove dry vegetation in order to promote agricultural productivity and the growth of higher yield

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grasses (e.g., Crutzen & Andreae, 1990). Such burning has significant effects on atmospheric chemistry and climate change (Crutzen & Andreae, 1990; Ludwig, Marufu, Huber, Andreae, & Helas, 2003). China is the world’s largest producer (3.86 billion metric tons; World Energy Council, 2013) and consumer of coal, (
50% of the world production; Bloch, Rafiq, & Salim, 2015) and as such is the world’s largest emitter of CO2, SOx, and NOx. The environmental issues caused by coal combustion are well known, although difficult to solve as China develops its economy and standard of living for the world’s largest population. Environmental issues run the gamut from large-scale city and regional pollutions to domestic coal use for heating and cooking, strongly affecting indoor air quality and health. Residential coal combustion results in a high indoor exposure to particles (PM2.5), gases, and hazardous chemicals and toxic trace elements such as PAHs and As, F, Se, and Hg, which may cause the most extensive health damage in China (Florig, 1997; Finkelman, Belkin, & Zheng, 1999). This paper does not address domestic coal use in China, but the following references cover a broad range of environmental issues at different scales: Chen, Hong, and He (1992), Finkelman et al. (1999), Zheng et al. (1999), Finkelman et al. (2002), Finkelman, Belkin, Centeno, and Zheng (2003), Chen, Bi, Mai, Sheng, and Fu (2004), Chen et al. (2006, 2009), Belkin, Zheng, Zhou, and Finkelman (2008), and Zhang et al. (2008) and references therein. In this brief review, the environmental human health issues related to domestic use of solid biomass fuels (wood, charcoal, dung, agricultural residues) in rural China are discussed. The reader should note that the numbers, percentages, and figures used in this review are estimates and vary with time and assessor. Duan et al. (2014) presents an excellent discussion on the limitations and difficulties inherent in domestic fuel use assessment in countries

with large and diverse populations and vast territories such as China.

2 IAP—THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM Severe air pollution, indoor or outdoor, is not just a recent issue for developing countries (Cohen et al., 2005). About 65 years ago, the London, England, smog of December 1952 is estimated to have caused more than 4000 excess deaths. The concentration of the black smoke, mainly due to domestic bituminous coal fires, exceeded 1600 μg/m3 and sulfur dioxide about 700 ppb (Harrison & Yin, 2000). During the same time, Los Angeles, California, had severe intermittent brown smog that developed in the Los Angeles basin; pollution regulations and automobile emission restrictions have greatly reduced this problem (Warneke et al., 2012; Pollack et al., 2013). Fig. 16.1 shows an early (1993) estimated total indoor and outdoor global exposure to particulate matter (all sizes) in industrialized and developing countries. Although the last 60 years since Deng Xiaoping’s historic economic reforms have seen China become an industrial powerhouse, with major migration to cities, air pollution is still a major problem with IAP, especially severe in rural households. Recent studies estimate that outdoor air pollution, mostly from small particulate matter, leads to more than 3 million premature deaths per year worldwide, mostly in Asia (Carrington, 2015; Lelieveld, Evans, Fnais, Giannadaki, & Pozzer, 2015). By 2030 the worldwide death toll attributed to air pollution is projected to be greater than malaria and HIV/AIDS (WEO, 2011; Carrington, 2015). Using recently released Chinese pollution data from over 1500 sites that includes airborne particulate matter (PM), SOx, NOx, and ozone, Rohde and Muller (2015) mapped the outdoor air pollution concentration and sources. They calculated that 92% of the population of

2 IAP—THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM

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1%

9%

14%

76%

Indoor air pollution in developing countries

Outdoor air pollution in developing countries

Indoor air pollution in industrialized countries

Outdoor air pollution in industrialized countries

FIG. 16.1

Total indoor and outdoor global exposure to particulate matter (all sizes) in industrialized and developing countries. Modified from Fullerton, D. G., Bruce, N., & Gordon, S.B. (2008). Indoor air pollution from biomass fuel smoke is a major health concern in the developing world. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 102, 843–851; Data from Smith, K. R. (1993). Fuel combustion, air pollution exposure, and health: The situation in developing countries. Annual Review of Energy and Environment, 18, 529–566.

China experienced >120 h of unhealthy air (US EPA standard), and 38% experienced average concentrations that were unhealthy; China’s population-weighted average exposure to PM2.5 was 52 μg/m3 compared to a US EPA annual-weighted average standard of not more than 12 μg/m3 (Federal Register, 2013). As of 2015, of the 338 monitored Chinese cities, 21.6% reached their air quality standard, and 78.4% failed (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2016). Nevertheless, China is making major progress to abate outdoor air pollution; no Chinese city made the recent top 10 outdoor air polluted cities (WHO, 2016a). IAP froma plethora ofcauses,such assmoking, radon, or burning solid fuels, is also a major global

healthconcern(Zhang&Smith,2003).IAPisespecially egregious to the rural populations of the world. Women and children are especially susceptible, as women usually tend the cooking and heating fires with their children nearby. In the year 2000, nearly 3% of the total burden of disease worldwide was caused by IAP from solid fuel, making it the eighth leading cause of global disease burden among 26 major global risks (Ezzati, Lopez, Rodgers, Vander Hoorn, & Murray, 2002). Fig. 16.2 shows disease burden from indoor smoke from solid fuels in China related to the other causes. Worldwide, the estimated deaths in 2012 per year caused by IAP due to use of solid fuels, all types, for cooking and heating was 4.3 million (WHO, 2014).

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FIG. 16.2

Chinese burden of disease from major risk factors, percent DALYs, “disability adjusted life years”. The overall burden of disease is assessed using the DALY, a time-based measure that combines years of life lost due to premature mortality (YLLs) and years of life lost due to time lived in states of less than full health, or years of healthy life lost due to disability (YLDs). In principle, one DALY equals the loss of 1 year of healthy life. *Represents disease-related risk. Data from Smith, K. R., Rogers, J., & Cowlin, S. C. (2005). Household fuels and ill-health in developing countries: What improvements can be brought by LP gas? (59 pp.). Paris: World LP Gas Association and Intermediate Technology Development Group (Practical Action).

IAP from the use of biomass fuel is a serious disease-causing problem in the rural communities of developing countries, especially China. In 2000, the WHO Global Burden of Disease project estimated that in the developing world, 1,619,000 young children die every year from acute respiratory infections worsened by indoor biomass smoke exposure (Ezzati & Kammen, 2002) and this figure has steadily increased. Although IAP is also a serious problem in urban areas, mostly caused by coal fires or the Chinese open cooking style using a variety of fuels, China’s large rural population has the most chronic problems.

3 DEFORESTATION AND DOMESTIC SOLID FUEL IN CHINA Deforestation in China began in the more populous regions several thousand years ago. After World War II and the Chinese Civil War, the peace of 1949 brought more deforestation, overgrazing and soil erosion. Mao Zedong’s Great Leap Forward in 1958–60 saw a dramatic increase in the number of factories—there was a

fourfold increase in 1957–59 alone—along with pollution and continued deforestation, to obtain the fuel for inefficient backyard steel production (Zheng, He, Gao, Zhang, & Tang, 2005). Furthermore, the Great Leap Forward shifted populations from the 1960s to the mid-1970s, causing increased pollution as many factories were relocated to the interior from coastal areas, which were considered militarily vulnerable. Since economic reform was begun in 1978 by Deng Xiaoping, environmental degradation has continued to accelerate largely due to rapid industrialization (Zheng et al., 2005). Wood and charcoal were traditional fuel sources before and during early Chinese agricultural development. The progression to other solid fuel sources in China was due to local deforestation and the presence of abundant agricultural wastes. China has a good record of information regarding forest and land use changes. Very detailed records have been kept on vegetation, flora, fauna, climate and agriculture development for more than 3000 years. However, until the 1950s, there was little material in the English language, except for some reports contributed by professional plant

4 RURAL VERSUS URBAN IN CHINA

hunters from Europe and America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and by a few Chinese scholars who were educated abroad. The types of forests varied from boreal forest in the northeast, temperate deciduous broadleaf in the north, and mixed deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forest in the south, with tropical forests in the southernmost region of China. Thus, about half of the land was originally covered by forest. Liu and Wang (1989) estimate that in 2700 BCE, there were 6 provinces with more than 90% forest cover and 14 provinces with more than 50%. The original forest areas are estimated to have covered 425  106 ha in China, but by 1850, 44% of China’s forests had been cleared, and another 27% was lost between 1850 and 1980, leaving China with 13% forest cover (Houghton, 2002). Some areas with just marginal forest ecosystems, such as the loess areas, have suffered severe soil and ecosystem degradation from recent deforestation (Zheng et al., 2005). Today, China’s rural poor have little incentive to manage forest ecosystems in a sustainable manner and illegal tree cutting continues to be a problem in the more remote areas (Zackey, 2007). In the more managed regions of China, afforestation is occurring mainly in the form of tree plantations for timber harvesting for various timber products; this accounts for the major afforestation development in China from 1962 to 2003 (Zhang & Song, 2006). Most households in rural deforested areas use agricultural waste with minor dung use, although in some rural areas, coal beds crop out and are mined either on a village or county scale.

4 RURAL VERSUS URBAN IN CHINA In 1950, The People’s Republic of China, just after the 1949 Revolution, had an 88% rural population (United Nations, 2015). Over the past decades, China has embarked on an immense reform effort to convert itself from a politically

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isolated agrarian state plagued by poverty and underdevelopment into a dominant, marketoriented nation as a major member of today’s globalized world economy. The transformation has encompassed one of the largest and most sustained growth patterns in the history of nation-states; the economic achievements realized since reforms began in 1978 are impressive (Brielmaier, 2010). In 2010, the rural population had fallen to 51% (United Nations, 2015). The Hukou (also called Huji) system, with roots in ancient China, whereby each person must register in one and only one place of residence (Ma, 2010) was instituted by the Communist Government to control migration. In urban areas, the unit of registration is a household, while in rural areas, the unit of registration is a commune, village or state farm. The Hukou system essentially created separate rural and urban labor markets for about 40 years until the late 1980s, when the restrictions on rural-urban migration were gradually eased (Chan & Zhang, 1999; Meng, 2000; Meng & Zhang, 2001). At the end of 2015, the number of migrant workers who left their hometowns to work in other places numbered 169 million and the number of migrants who worked in their own localities numbered 109 million: a total of
278 million (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2016). Of course, this rise to geoeconomic and geopolitical prominence has not come without social, economic, and environmental costs. As a result of its remarkably rapid growth, a middle class, made up largely of coastal residents clustered in China’s large eastern urban centers, has enjoyed the benefits associated with new economic growth. However, the vast rural population of China’s inner western provinces has seen their economic fortunes and lifestyles change at a dramatically slower pace than those of their urban counterparts (Fig. 16.3). Today, the inequality separates the two Chinas, along urban and rural boundaries. This disparity is also reflected in the fuel used for heating and cooking, with apartment dwellers using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

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FIG. 16.3 Distribution of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita by province and municipality in China. Data as of 2011 in Renminbi (RMB) modified from McVey, H. H. (2013). China in transition, insights: Global Macro trends Vol. 3.3. New York: Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. http://www.kkr.com/sites/default/files/KKR_Insights_130409.pdf (Accessed 18 June 2016).

or electricity while rural households rely on traditional solid fuels, mostly biomass. The last 20 years have seen rural workers migrate to the city, many in temporary housing, in order to support families or to earn money for marriage, for example, in their rural village. Therefore, even though the rural population has fallen, the overall use of biomass may not have fallen in proportion, as many migrants keep part of their family in their rural community (Xu & Xie, 2015).

5 DOMESTIC BIOMASS USE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES In 1998, biomass use accounted for
14% of world energy consumption, a higher share than that of coal (12%) and comparable to that of gas (15%) and electricity (14%). In developing countries, in which three-quarters of the world’s population live, biomass energy (firewood, charcoal, crop residues, and animal wastes) accounts, on

5 DOMESTIC BIOMASS USE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

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FIG. 16.4 Fuel use in China, Southeast Asia, and India. Data from World Health Organization (WHO). (2016a). WHO Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database (update 2016). http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/ databases/cities/en/ (Accessed 20 July 2016) and World Health Organization (WHO). (2016b). Global Health Observatory data repository, Population using solid fuels (estimates) Data by country. http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main. 1701?lang¼en (Accessed 16 June 2016) using their 2013 estimates. Southeast Asia comprises Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Singapore, and Laos.

average, for one-third of total final energy consumption and for nearly 75% of the energy used in households (IEA, 1998). A recent (2013) estimate of fuel use in developing countries and regions (Fig. 16.4) such as China, Southeast Asia, and India shows the continued dominance of biomass use in today’s rural communities (WHO, 2016b). For example, according to the 2011 India census (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2012), approximately 66% of all households relied primarily on wood, agricultural residues, or cow dung for energy. This comprises 23% of urban households and 86% of rural households in India. Approximately 780 million Indians living in 160 million households relied primarily on these fuels for their cooking needs (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2012). For much of the world’s rural population, the home cooking and heating fires account for most of the direct energy demand. Household fuel demand accounts for more than half of energy demand in most countries with per capita incomes under $1000 (WEO, 2011). Substitution between biomass fuels may be a more general phenomenon than substitution with conventional fuels, especially in rural areas. For example, a reduced availability of wood biomass may

not necessarily lead to an increasing use of alternative conventional fuels such as LPG, because there may be a switch to a lower-quality, but freely available and renewable, biomass fuel, such as crop residues or dung.

5.1 Domestic Biomass Use in Rural China The IEA (2010) estimates that in 2009, almost 0.5 billion Chinese relied on the traditional use of biomass for cooking, although only 8 million did not have access to electricity. They also project that in 2030 (IEA, 2010) the number of households worldwide that rely on biomass for domestic use will increase mainly in subSaharan Africa, India, and other Asian developing countries, excluding China. The energy demand in rural China is divided into cooking and heating. Not all rural households have or need heat, but all need cooking fires. A recent comprehensive, landmark study of urban and rural household fuel use included more than 91,000 households from 31 provinces and municipalities (Duan et al., 2014). In rural communities, biomass was used for cooking in 47.6% of the households, whereas coal and biomass accounted for 21.4% and 19.0%, respectively, for heating. Fig. 16.5 shows the difference

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FIG. 16.5

Household fuel use for cooking and heating in rural China. Data from Duan, X., Jiang, Y., Wang, B., Zhao, X., Shen, G., Cao, S., et al. (2014). Household fuel use for cooking and heating in China: Results from the first Chinese Environmental Exposure-Related Human Activity Patterns Survey (CEERHAPS). Applied Energy, 136 (C), 692–703.

in fuel use between cooking and heating in rural China, as recently measured by Duan et al. (2014). It is the author’s experience that in rural Chinese villages, electricity is the common energy source for lighting in households where heating and cooking will be various solid fuels (e.g., Chen et al., 2006). In places where electricity is not available, kerosene lamps are the alternative for lighting (WHO, 2016b). As China’s rural economy improves, either by increased local industrial development or migrant workers sending funds home, households tend to move up the energy ladder. The “energy ladder” is a useful framework for examining trends and impacts of household fuel use (Smith, Apte, Yuqing, Wongsekiarttirat, & Kulkarni, 1994; van der Kroon, Brouwer, & van Beukering, 2013). The ladder ranks household fuels along a spectrum running from simple, relatively primitive fuels (dung, agricultural crop residues, wood) through transition fuels (kerosene, coal, and charcoal) to advanced fuels (electricity, LPG, biofuels). Biofuel is usually defined as a fuel (liquid or gas) produced

by aerobic or anaerobic processes such as biodiesel, ethanol, or biogas. The more efficient fuelstove combinations that represent steps in the ladder tend to become cleaner, more efficient, more storable, and more controllable. The type of agricultural waste biomass used in rural China varies widely depending on region. Northern province households may use wheat, corn, millet and kaoliang (sorghum) residues, whereas south of the Huai River, rice agricultural wastes are predominant. The biomass type distribution is even more complex as each household may have a different mix as a function of wealth, occupation, social status, location, and tradition.

6 EMISSION FACTORS OF BIOMASS BURNING Commonly used domestic biomass fuels are dung, agricultural waste, wood, and charcoal. During the last two decades, many researchers have investigated the emission factors and energy efficiencies of various biomass fuels and the effects of different traditional rural stove designs and ventilation systems (e.g., Brauer, Bartlett, Regalado-Pineda, & PerezPadilla, 1996; Kim Oanh, Reuterga˚rdh, & Dung, 1999; Bhattacharya, Salam, & Sharma, 2000; Bhattacharya, Albina, & Abdul Salam, 2002; Roden, Bond, Conway, & Pinel, 2006; Li et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2008; Akagi et al., 2011; Libra et al., 2011; Yao, Chen, & Li, 2012; Shen et al., 2013). The emission factor is usually defined as the ratio between the amount of pollution generated and the amount of a given raw material burnt. The term may also refer to the ratio between the emissions generated, quantities of pollutant emitted into the atmosphere or dumped in water, and the outputs of production processes. It is commonly expressed as the number of kilograms of pollutant per ton of the source material or fuel.

7 TYPES OF POLLUTION FROM BIOMASS BURNING

Some researchers (e.g., Bhattacharya et al., 2000) have used the following equation to assess emissions, Emissions ¼ Σ(EFabc  Activityabc), where EF ¼ emission factor (gram of pollutant per kg of fuel), Activity ¼ fuel consumed (kg), a ¼ fuel type, b ¼ sector-activity, c ¼ technology type such as stove, furnace, kiln, etc. Emission factors have been calculated in experimental apparatus using various biomass fuels. Although the emission data during any experiment can provide useful comparisons, the relationship of any particular emission factor to household IAP is not clear, due to the major differences in biomass composition, stove use and design, location, and ventilation. Note that chimney installation may not by itself ensure adequate indoor air quality (Xiao et al., 2015). Dung, i.e., manure, varies in composition among ovine, bovine, porcine, and fowl producers (e.g., Xiao et al., 2015). Similarly, agricultural wastes, wood, and charcoal vary in composition due to inherent differences in plant varieties, e.g., soft versus hard wood and the different types of grasses harvested for grain, wheat, rice, etc. Furthermore, any particular fuel source can have differences in moisture content, ash content, and the volatile fraction. In general, dung has the highest emission factor, the lowest efficiency, followed by agriculture waste, wood and charcoal. For example, the range of ash content (dry basis) and volatile fraction (dry basis) of the following biomass fuel groups are: manures ¼ ash 31%–19%, volatile fraction 70%– 57%, grasses ¼ ash 6.7%–1.4%, volatile fraction 83%–75%, and woods ¼ ash 0.1%–10%, volatile fraction 70%–90% (Libra et al., 2011). Charcoal also varies as a function of wood species and type of production method used; ash typically varies from 10% to 1%, and volatile fraction from 45% to 8%. This general ranking of biomass efficiencies is similar to the estimates of Holdren et al. (2000) and Bhattacharya et al. (2000). Other researchers have investigated the differences in the concentration of emission components such as CO, CO2, total hydrocarbon

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(THC), PAH, and particulates (PM2.5, PM10) among the various biomass fuels and stove configurations (e.g., Kim Oanh et al., 1999; Mudway et al., 2005; Li et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2008; Jetter et al., 2012; Shen et al., 2013). All investigations conclude that indoor biomass burning produces unacceptable levels of pollutants. In fact, biomass burning (indoor and outdoor) is the largest source of primary fine carbonaceous particles and the second largest source of trace gases in the global atmosphere (Andreae & Merlet, 2001; Bond et al., 2004; Guenther et al., 2006; Forster, Ramaswamy, Artaxo, et al., 2007).

7 TYPES OF POLLUTION FROM BIOMASS BURNING 7.1 Gases Rapid (flaming) combustion involves reaction of O2 with gases evolved from the solid biomass fuel and converts the C, H, N, and S in the fuel into highly oxidized gases such as CO2, H2O, NO2, and SO2, respectively, and also produces most of the black (or elemental) carbon particles. Incomplete or smoldering combustion tends to play a more dominant role through surface oxidation and pyrolysis to produce more deleterious complex compounds. Smoldering produces most of the CO, N2O, CH4, nonmethane related organic compounds, partially oxidized volatile organic compounds, and organic aerosols. The produced organic compounds can be complex and varied as a function of the type of fuel, stove, degree of ventilation, weather conditions, elevation, etc. The more harmful pollutants are PAHs, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, methanol, acetone, and nitrogen compounds, such as acetonitrile and hydrogen cyanide (Holzinger et al., 1999). Included in the PAH group are, for example, naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, retene, benzo[c]phenanthrene, cyclopenta[c,d]

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pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, and benzo(a)pyrene (Zhang et al., 2008; Shen et al., 2013). The reader is referred to Ding et al. (2012), Shen et al. (2013), and Bandowe et al. (2014) for a more complete list of the potential PAHs produced by biomass combustion. Among the other complex organic compounds formed from biomass burning are PCDFs and dioxins (Lavric, Konnov, & De Ruyck, 2004; Johansson et al., 2016). Furans and the related dioxins are among the most notorious persistent environmental pollutants and are considered a high-priority carcinogenic risk by the World Health Organization and other country’s environmental protection agencies. The main source of PCDFs is biomass burning where during combustion furans and dioxins are often absorbed onto and into particles and are found in ash from peat and wood burning. Wood burning for heating and cooking constitutes a major human exposure to airborne particulate PCDFs and dioxins in some parts of the world (Northcross, Hammond, Canuz, & Smith, 2012).

7.2 Particulate Matter Particulate matter (PM) is the term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen

with the naked eye. Others are so small that they can only be detected using an electron microscope. From the population of total suspended particles (TSP), those 10 μm in aerodynamic diameter are considered the most deleterious to human health due to their ability to penetrate the alveolar region of the respiratory system. The current PM classification uses three size ranges, PM10 (
10–2.5 μm), PM2.5 (2.5 μm and less) and ultrafine UF-PM0.1 (100 nm or less; e.g., Englert, 2004). The ultrafine particle population appears to have more intrinsic toxicity per unit mass probably due to its higher surface area increasing reactivity and its greater potential penetration into the respiratory and circulatory system. Fig. 16.6 shows the general relationship of the different size fractions among the total suspended particles. However, in many regions in China, especially on the Loess (Huangtu) Plateau, wind-driven dust and silt are common atmospheric conditions that can penetrate houses and will change the size fraction distribution. Mudway et al. (2005) experimentally demonstrated that the burning of dung cake (bovine) produced highly oxidizing, biologically active, fine particles related to the content of redox active metals in the dung. The elevated production of fine particles is a consequence of dung’s high ash and moisture content (Libra et al., 2011).

Coarse particles TSP PM10 ~60% PM2.5 UF

FIG. 16.6 Areas show the fractions of total suspended particles (TSP) related to size (aerodynamic diameter). PM10, PM2.5, and UF areas are particulate matter 10 μm, 2.5 μm, and ultrafine, respectively. Modified from Englert, N. (2004). Fine particles and human health—A review of epidemiological studies. Toxicology Letters, 149, 235–242.

8 WHERE THERE’S SMOKE THERE’S LUNG DISEASE

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8 WHERE THERE’S SMOKE THERE’S LUNG DISEASE IAP involves two potential disease vectors, particulate matter and gases (vapors). In many cases, these are difficult to separate, as particulates can absorb some vapors. Liu (2007) comments in an editorial, “Where there’s smoke there’s lung disease,” The evidence is overwhelming that chronic exposure to IAP leads to shortened life expectancy due to a variety of diseases, either respiratory or nonrespiratory (e.g., Smith et al., 2004; Smith, Rogers, & Cowlin, 2005; Lim et al., 2012). All biomass is, at some concentration level, carbon source for potential oxidation, producing heat as a function of its composition, moisture and ash content. Carbon combustion produces soot (smoke) and a multitude of gases, either adsorbed or free, especially where the combustion process is inefficient. Soot, as it is now understood (Troy & Ahmed, 2015), is a black, powdery substance, built of subunits of PAHs. Soot, i.e., PAH, can form from the burning of any carbonaceous compound, from simple fuels such as propane (the Maillard reaction on hamburgers in a home barbeque) to coal and other complex carbonaceous fuels. Humans have been producing PAHs from their first cooking fires in the Early Stone Age (Troy & Ahmed, 2015). The major health effects from biomass burning are respiratory, related to the inhalation of “smoke” from the cooking and heating fires. However, there are significant nonrespiratory human health problems related to indoor biomass burning, some due to surface tissue absorption of airborne pollutants. Fig. 16.7 shows some of the major respiratory and nonrespiratory diseases related to IAP. It is predominantly women and young children who suffer premature death by IAP; women are the predominant cooks in world cultures and are usually attended by their children. Xiao et al. (2015) found that high concentrations of CO, NO2, PM2.5 and soot were found indoors,

FIG. 16.7 Schematic chart showing the major categories of respiratory and nonrespiratory diseases caused or exacerbated by indoor air pollution. Modified from Kim, K. H., Jahan, S.A., & Kabir, E. (2011). A review of diseases associated with household air pollution due to the use of biomass fuels. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 192, 425–431.

with the highest values at standing breathing level in Tibetan kitchens when biomass was burning. Jiang and Bell (2008) compared PM2.5 and PM10 from noncooking and cooking biomass burning in urban and rural communities in northeastern China. Stationary monitoring results indicated that rural kitchen PM10 levels were three times higher than those in urban kitchens during cooking and that PM10 concentrations were 6.1 times higher during cooking periods compared to noncooking periods for rural kitchens. The levels of PM2.5 for rural cooks were 2.8–3.6 times higher than for all other participant categories, with the highest exposures occurring during cooking periods in both rural and urban households. Low stove and biomass fuel efficiencies cause rural cooks to spend 2.5 times more hours cooking than urban counterparts and they had 5.4 times higher PM2.5 levels during cooking ( Jiang & Bell, 2008). Both the higher PM levels and time spent cooking also

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impact young children, who are often with their mothers. Children are particularly susceptible to IAP due to their biologic differences from adults: their absorption, metabolism, and elimination of xenobiotics, their respiratory physiology, their proportionally larger relative dose of an inhaled toxin, and their higher cumulative risk from inhaled toxins over time (Flynn, Matz, Woolf, & Wright, 2000; Epstein et al., 2013). Furthermore, the fetus can be particularly vulnerable from the transmission of mother-inhaled toxins through the placenta-fetal unit. The following summary (Fullerton et al., 2008; Kim, Jahan, & Kabir, 2011) relates the more common emission compounds from biomass burning to potential health effects. (1) Particulate matter (<10 μm) may include a mixture of soot and micrometer-sized mineral matter. Inhalation of high particle concentrations produces bronchial irritation, and inflammation and increased cellular activity and also can produce a reduction in immunity and cause fibrotic response. The single most important potential effect is chronic bronchitis and COPD. China has the highest world rate of COPD (4.6 DALYs/ 1000 capita) per year (WHO, 2009), much caused by IAP. Also, exacerbation of asthma from wheezing, and respiratory infections can be caused by PM inhalation (Strak et al., 2012 and references therein). Recent studies have found that long-term exposure to PM2.5 increases the risk of hypertension, especially in young women and the obese (Zhang, Laden, Forman, & Hart, 2016); in older men it can negatively affect renal function and increase renal function decline (Mehta et al., 2016); and it adversely affects the survival of acute myocardial infarction patients (Chen et al., 2016). (2) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and many other complex hydrocarbons form primarily

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

from incomplete burning. PAH and similar compounds are carcinogenic and can cause lung cancer, cancer of the mouth, nasopharynx, and larynx. Included in this group are condensates formed from biomass smoke as it cools. Bruce et al. (2015) reviewed the available evidence on household use of biomass fuel as a cause of lung cancer and suggest that strong evidence exists, but future studies need better exposure assessment in order to adequately understand the dose-response relationship. Pokhrel, Smith, Khalakdina, Deuja, and Bates (2005) suggests that biomass combustion-produced condensates absorbed by the eye sclera could cause cataracts, corneal damage and can lead to blindness. Sulfur dioxide inhalation produces acids in reaction with the lung mucosa; acute exposure increases bronchial reactivity, exacerbating asthma and wheezing. Nitrogen dioxide also produces acids in reaction with the lung mucosa; acute exposure increases bronchial reactivity, exacerbating asthma and wheezing. Both SOx and NOx increase respiratory infection susceptibility and cause reduced lung function, especially in children. Carbon monoxide is a well-known killer in acute concentrations, as it binds to hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which reduces oxygen delivery to the body’s organs. Chronic exposure profoundly affects the developing fetus, causing low birth weights and an increase in perinatal fatality.

9 MITIGATION AND REDUCTION OF IAP IN RURAL CHINA Three major strategies are taking place to reduce the environmental human health issues from biomass use for domestic cooking and heating in rural China (Edwards, Smith,

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10 CONCLUSIONS

Zhang, & Ma, 2004): (1) Improving infrastructure and increasing industrialization, especially in the predominantly rural western provinces, to raise the income level of the population; (2) introducing more efficient stoves with better combustion efficiencies and ventilation; and (3) developing affordable household biogas generators to produce fuel for cooking, heating, and lighting. As the income level of the rural Chinese household increases, so does their status and ability to afford cleaner fuels for domestic use. Many opt for a mixed-fuel use related to the fuel availability, tradition, and expense in their community. Past decades have seen the introduction of domestic stoves with improved efficiency and ventilation in rural China (e.g., Smith, Gu, Huang, & Qiu, 1993; Sinton et al., 2004; Smith et al., 2007). The adoption of these improved stoves has been a modest success for a variety of reasons (e.g, Bruce, Rehfuess, & Smith, 2011; Rehfuess, Puzzolo, Stanistreet, Pope, & Bruce, 2014); the foremost problems are expense, failure to understand local traditions and culture, and resources. Mainali, Pachauri, and Nagai (2012) estimate that 24% of the rural and 17% of the urban Chinese population will still use solid fuels (biomass > coal) in 2030 under a business-as-usual scenario. China has abundant plant and animal agricultural waste resources, (e.g., 650 million tons of crop residue and 3 billion tons of animal manure in 2007; Chen, Zhao, Ren, & Wang, 2012). Traditionally, most of these wastes are burnt, discarded, or directly discharged into the environment, causing significant pollution. As China’s animal husbandry develops, porcine, bovine, and poultry production, both on large and small scale, has increased, generating increasing amounts of manure: porcine, 2000; bovine, 1140; and poultry, 400 million tons per annum (Zhang et al., 2009). Biogas generators, both on a household and large-farm scale, have been introduced to many rural Chinese communities ( Jiang, Sommer, & Christensen, 2011;

Chen et al., 2012; Gosens, Lu, He, Bluemling, & Beckers, 2013). As of 2008, 30.5 million household biogas digesters were built and produced up to 12 billion m3 of biogas per year (Yao et al., 2012). In large farms in particular, manure-fed biogas power projects are being developed as the dairy industry continues to expand in China (Leber, 2010). Large-scale biogas production is used to generate electricity, whereas smaller household or small-farm scale biogas generators produce combustible gas usually for cooking and lighting. However, after an extensive survey of rural biogas use in four provinces, Gansu, Guangxi, Hubei, and Shandong, Gosens et al. (2013) concluded that biogas use in rural areas does not eliminate biomass fuel or coal use for domestic cooking and heating.

10 CONCLUSIONS IAP from biomass burning is a significant disease cause in rural Chinese households. Both respiratory and nonrespiratory diseases put an undue burden on rural Chinese in additional to their economic and social disadvantages. Considering the expense and vast area involved, meaningful improvements in IAP for all of the rural population may take many generations. Much time, effort, and funding will be needed to significantly reduce IAP from biomass. WHO (2006) commented that from 1990 to 2006, progress in access to modern cooking fuels had been negligible in developing countries. However, China is committed to improving the health of both their urban and rural populations and such national governmental directives will do much to facilitate progress.

Acknowledgments The constructive reviews by Robert B. Finkelman (UT Dallas) and Clinton T. Scott (U.S. Geological Survey) are gratefully acknowledged.

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