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Ergonomics in journal design
AppliedErgonomics1970, 1.4, 207-209
Ergonomics in journal design Dr. E. C. Poulton Assistant Director of the Medical ResearchCouncil's Applied Psychology Unit, Cambridge and T. R. Warren and J. Bond Iliffe Science and Technology Publications Ltd
The article describes how the design and layout of Applied Ergonomics was established. The available range of choices was related to the ergonornic requirements and to the practical requirements. A table shows in detail how they were matched.
This is an example in which the principles of ergonomics and of aesthetic design were balanced against the principles of good management, practicability and cost. It is important for two reasons. First, a journal entitled Applied Ergonomics should conform to the ergonomic principles which it expounds. Secondly, the design of Applied Ergonomics presents an example of what can be achieved by attention to ergonomic principles. Journal committees and editors could well follow the ergonomic principles illustrated in the design of Applied Ergonomics when the opportunity arises for a change of format in their journals. About six months before the appearance of the first issue of Applied Ergonomics, a meeting was held in Cambridge to discuss the format and detailed design of the new journal. The meeting was attended by the scientific editor Brian Shackel, the executive editor Trevor Warren, the journal designer John Bond, and the printing ergonomist Christopher Poulton. The publishers, Iliffe Science and Technology Publications Ltd, had placed a certain number of restrictions upon the choices which could be made. The restrictions were necessary to make the new journal match the publisher's existing journals in certain respects. The international A4 size had been adopted as a standard where possible by the publisher, and it was thought appropriate for Applied Ergonomics where large clear illustrations and tables would be needed. The choice of typeface was limited to those which were available to the printers, who would set the journal using computer typesetting techniques. The restrictions are listed in the second column of the table. Without these restrictions, it would not have been possible to produce the journal at an economic cost. At the meeting in Cambridge, the design team considered each of the points listed in the table. The available range of choices was discussed in the light of the ergonomic requirements and of the practical requirements. Where there was still a choice, it was left to the journal designer to choose the most pleasing overall design. The design decisions in the right hand column of the table are compatible with the design and layout of the journal. But by themselves they do not specify the exact design and layout of a page. This is done by the journal designer. He has to fit together the text, the title and summary, the figures and tables to make pages which are visually pleasing and functional. The result is a journal which we believe to be ergonomically efficient and pleasing.
In addition to the design decisions listed in the table, a number of other decisions had to be made. Like the decisions in the table, they reflect ergonomic and practical requirements. Matt paper was chosen because it reduces the glare from reflected light sources. The tables have no vertical rules and a minimum of horizontal rules. Rules are expensive. There is no evidence at present to suggest that rules help comprehension, provided there is adequate spacing between columns and table sections. There are no footnotes unless they are absolutely essential. The authors of articles have thek affiliations given directly under their names. This enables the reader to identify the author at a glance, instead of having to search for the footnotes. The name of the journal, year, volume number, issue number and page numbers are printed above the title of each article. It facilitates filing and indexing. The distinctive red cover helps to identify the journal. The red is sufficiently dark to mask ordinary dirty fingerprints. In dim light the cover has a subjective brightness which matches a dark grey with a reflectance of about 10%. The white letters therefore stand out clearly, even in dim light. White numbers on a grey background with a reflectance of about 10% have been found to be about as legible as white numbers on black, or black numbers on white (Williams, 1967). The title is printed high on the front cover. It ensures that the title can be seen when the issue is placed in a typical library position display rack with only the top of the cover showing. The volume number, issue number and date are printed on the front of the red cover in black, because they have to be altered with each issue. They comprise the only black lettering on the front of the cover. Thus they are fairly distinctive in good light. But in dim light they are hardly visible, because the red cover does not reflect enough light into the eyes. Williams (1967) found that in dim light, black numbers on a background with a reflectance of 10% took twice as long to locate as black numbers on white, or white numbers on black. The cover was originally designed for litho printing and the 'black' line would then also have been reversed to appear on white letters on a red ground. However, practical considerations necessitated a change to letterpress printing for the covers and black was used to avoid making a new cover block for each issue. An alternative cover design might incorporate a white area to print this black lettering and so improve legibility in dim light. Such a change in
Applied Ergonomics September1970
207
cover design is not considered desirable by the publisher at this early stage in the journal's history. The spine or backbone is white. At the top, the volume and part numbers are printed, the volume number in bold type. They are set vertically, with the part number below the volume number. They are correctly oriented when the journal parts stand upright on a shelf. Just below them the journal name, volume number, part number, pages and date are printed along the spine, so that they are read horizontally, in the usual way, when the journal lies flat with face up. The layout requires the words to be read downward when the journal stands upright. This is as good an arrangement as any (Tinker, 1963). Below the date, a black bar moves down the spine with each successive issue. Thus the absence of a part from the set can be seen at a glance without having to check the part numbers. This article has described a case study in journal design. So far, the only validation has been spoken and written opinions which have been very satisfactory. It is hoped that an experimental validation may be run in due course. References Burt, C.
1959 'A psychological study of typography'. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Gregory, M., and Poulton, E. C. 1970 Ergonomics, in press. Even versus uneven right hand margins and the rate of comprehension in reading. Factors in t h e e r g o n o m i c design o f t h e j o u r n a l
Perry, D. K. 1952 Journalof Applied Psychology, 36, 346-347. Speed and accuracy of reading Arabic and Roman numerals.
Poulton, E. C. 1960 Ergonomics, 3 , 2 4 5 - 2 4 8 . A note on printing to make comprehension easier. Poulton, E. C. 1965 Journalof Applied Psychology, 4 9 , 3 5 8 - 3 6 2 . Letter differentiation and rate of comprehension in reading. Poulton, E. C. 1967 Journalof Applied Psychology, 51, 417-425. Searching for newspaper headlines printed in capitals or lower-case letters.
Poulton, E. C. 1969 Journalof Applied Psychology, 5 3 , 2 4 4 - 2 4 9 . Asymmetrical transfer in reading texts produced by teleprinter and by typewriter. Poulton, E. C., and Brown, C. H. 1968 Journalof Applied Psychology, 52, 16-21. Rate of comprehension of an existing teleprinter output and of possible alternatives. Tinker, M. A. 1963 'Legibility of print'. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. Williams, C. M. 1967 Human Factors, 9 , 4 5 5 - 4 6 0 . Legibility of numbers as a function of contrast and illumination.
Applied Ergonomics
Design variable
Restriction of choice
Ergonomic requirements
References
Practical requirements
Design decision
Length and number of columns
Page 203 mm (8 in) wide
Lines should be 1.5 to 2.5 alphabets long (50 to 89 mm [ 2 to 3-5 ins] )
Burt 1959 Poulton 1960 Tinker 1963
Two equal columns for general articles
84 mm (3.3 in) columns
Two unequal columns for 'Handbook' section where a more versatile use of illustrations is required. Book format possible if required when reprinting
56 and 117 mm (2.2 and 4-6 in) columns
Three equal columns for short item sections like News and Abstracts
56 mm (2.2 in) columns
Separation between columns
2.5 mm (0.1 in) separation is adequate
Tinker 1963
5.0 to 7.5 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in) separation on aesthetic grounds
Margins
Print read more slowly on curved paper. Otherwise margins unnecessary
Tinker 1963
13 mm (0"5 in) margin on each side of page. This minimum is aesthetic and traditional Unjustified lines
Justified (straight right hand edge) or unjustified lines
(Computer print out justifies automatically)
Unjustified lines are easier for poor readers as they avoid uneven letter and word spacing, broken words at the ends of lines and "rivers' of white space running down the column of text
Gregory and Poulton 1970
Design of type for text
Press Roman, Univers or Aldine
Univers (without serifs) reduces rate of comprehension
Poulton 1965
208
Applied Ergonomics
September 1970
Adequate range of Aldine sizes not available
Press Roman
Design variable
Restriction of choice
Ergonomic requirements
References
Practical requirements
Design decision
Size of type
8, 9, 1 0 o r 11 point available
Type should not be smaller than 10 point
Burt 1959 Poulton 1960 Tinker 1963
Smaller size required for three column format. It also allows more words per page, and so reduces the cost of production
Two columns: 10 pt type Three columns: 9 pt type
Leading (space) between lines of type
Leading probably unnecessary
Tinker 1963 pp 106--7
1 point leading. Designer's decision on aesthetic grounds
Paragraphing 1. indentation
Indenting first line of paragraphs increases speed of reading
Tinker 1963
Indent first line of all paragraphs
Paragraphing 2. vertical separation of paragraphs
Effect not known
Titles and subheadings
Titles all in capitals are less easy to pick out than titles in lower case
Separate by half a line height to emphasize paragraphing, Probably more ergonomic as well as more aesthetic Poulton 1967
Printing in capitals reduces speed and comprehension
Tinker 1963 Pou Iton and Brown 1968 Poulton 1969
Printing in italics reduces speed of reading
Tinker 1963
All titles and sub-headings upper and lower case, ie initial caps only except for special short titles. (eg Procrustes) Titles for articles
30 pt Univers medium
A range of four sub-headings in text
1, 14 pt Univers medium 2. 11 pt Univers bold 3. 10 pt Press Roman bold
4. 10 pt Press Roman italic (to be used only when absolutely necessary)
Space above and below headings
Headings should stand out. Can be done by using a different design of typeface and by separating the headings from the text
Sub-heads 1 and 2 : 1 ½ line space above and ½ line space below. Sub-heads 3 and 4 : 1 line space above and none below
Summary
The summary should be next to the title, not at the end of the articles
Summary next to title
The summary should be distinguished from text
11 pt Univers with 1 pt leading
Should be distinguished from text. Capitals and italics not recommended (see Titles and sub-headings)
Univers 10 pt with 1 pt leading. No capitals or italics
Tables and figure captions
Roman numerals are read more slowly end less accurately than Arabic numerals
Perry 1952
Arabic numerals
References in text
Author and year should be given in text to save the reader from frequent reference to list at end of article
Author and year given in text
Reference list
Authors names should be easily located
Authors printed bold on separate line
Full title should be given to tell t h e reader what the reference is about
Full title given (at end of reference in the case of articles)
Unfamiliar abbreviations should not be used
Name of journal or source given in full
Applied Ergonomics
September 1970
209
Ergonomics in journal design Dr. E. C. Poulton Assistant Director of the Medical ResearchCouncil's Applied Psychology Unit, Cambridge and T. R. Warren and J. Bond Iliffe Science and Technology Publications Ltd
The article describes how the design and layout of Applied Ergonomics was established. The available range of choices was related to the ergonornic requirements and to the practical requirements. A table shows in detail how they were matched.
This is an example in which the principles of ergonomics and of aesthetic design were balanced against the principles of good management, practicability and cost. It is important for two reasons. First, a journal entitled Applied Ergonomics should conform to the ergonomic principles which it expounds. Secondly, the design of Applied Ergonomics presents an example of what can be achieved by attention to ergonomic principles. Journal committees and editors could well follow the ergonomic principles illustrated in the design of Applied Ergonomics when the opportunity arises for a change of format in their journals. About six months before the appearance of the first issue of Applied Ergonomics, a meeting was held in Cambridge to discuss the format and detailed design of the new journal. The meeting was attended by the scientific editor Brian Shackel, the executive editor Trevor Warren, the journal designer John Bond, and the printing ergonomist Christopher Poulton. The publishers, Iliffe Science and Technology Publications Ltd, had placed a certain number of restrictions upon the choices which could be made. The restrictions were necessary to make the new journal match the publisher's existing journals in certain respects. The international A4 size had been adopted as a standard where possible by the publisher, and it was thought appropriate for Applied Ergonomics where large clear illustrations and tables would be needed. The choice of typeface was limited to those which were available to the printers, who would set the journal using computer typesetting techniques. The restrictions are listed in the second column of the table. Without these restrictions, it would not have been possible to produce the journal at an economic cost. At the meeting in Cambridge, the design team considered each of the points listed in the table. The available range of choices was discussed in the light of the ergonomic requirements and of the practical requirements. Where there was still a choice, it was left to the journal designer to choose the most pleasing overall design. The design decisions in the right hand column of the table are compatible with the design and layout of the journal. But by themselves they do not specify the exact design and layout of a page. This is done by the journal designer. He has to fit together the text, the title and summary, the figures and tables to make pages which are visually pleasing and functional. The result is a journal which we believe to be ergonomically efficient and pleasing.
In addition to the design decisions listed in the table, a number of other decisions had to be made. Like the decisions in the table, they reflect ergonomic and practical requirements. Matt paper was chosen because it reduces the glare from reflected light sources. The tables have no vertical rules and a minimum of horizontal rules. Rules are expensive. There is no evidence at present to suggest that rules help comprehension, provided there is adequate spacing between columns and table sections. There are no footnotes unless they are absolutely essential. The authors of articles have thek affiliations given directly under their names. This enables the reader to identify the author at a glance, instead of having to search for the footnotes. The name of the journal, year, volume number, issue number and page numbers are printed above the title of each article. It facilitates filing and indexing. The distinctive red cover helps to identify the journal. The red is sufficiently dark to mask ordinary dirty fingerprints. In dim light the cover has a subjective brightness which matches a dark grey with a reflectance of about 10%. The white letters therefore stand out clearly, even in dim light. White numbers on a grey background with a reflectance of about 10% have been found to be about as legible as white numbers on black, or black numbers on white (Williams, 1967). The title is printed high on the front cover. It ensures that the title can be seen when the issue is placed in a typical library position display rack with only the top of the cover showing. The volume number, issue number and date are printed on the front of the red cover in black, because they have to be altered with each issue. They comprise the only black lettering on the front of the cover. Thus they are fairly distinctive in good light. But in dim light they are hardly visible, because the red cover does not reflect enough light into the eyes. Williams (1967) found that in dim light, black numbers on a background with a reflectance of 10% took twice as long to locate as black numbers on white, or white numbers on black. The cover was originally designed for litho printing and the 'black' line would then also have been reversed to appear on white letters on a red ground. However, practical considerations necessitated a change to letterpress printing for the covers and black was used to avoid making a new cover block for each issue. An alternative cover design might incorporate a white area to print this black lettering and so improve legibility in dim light. Such a change in
Applied Ergonomics September1970
207
cover design is not considered desirable by the publisher at this early stage in the journal's history. The spine or backbone is white. At the top, the volume and part numbers are printed, the volume number in bold type. They are set vertically, with the part number below the volume number. They are correctly oriented when the journal parts stand upright on a shelf. Just below them the journal name, volume number, part number, pages and date are printed along the spine, so that they are read horizontally, in the usual way, when the journal lies flat with face up. The layout requires the words to be read downward when the journal stands upright. This is as good an arrangement as any (Tinker, 1963). Below the date, a black bar moves down the spine with each successive issue. Thus the absence of a part from the set can be seen at a glance without having to check the part numbers. This article has described a case study in journal design. So far, the only validation has been spoken and written opinions which have been very satisfactory. It is hoped that an experimental validation may be run in due course. References Burt, C.
1959 'A psychological study of typography'. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Gregory, M., and Poulton, E. C. 1970 Ergonomics, in press. Even versus uneven right hand margins and the rate of comprehension in reading. Factors in t h e e r g o n o m i c design o f t h e j o u r n a l
Perry, D. K. 1952 Journalof Applied Psychology, 36, 346-347. Speed and accuracy of reading Arabic and Roman numerals.
Poulton, E. C. 1960 Ergonomics, 3 , 2 4 5 - 2 4 8 . A note on printing to make comprehension easier. Poulton, E. C. 1965 Journalof Applied Psychology, 4 9 , 3 5 8 - 3 6 2 . Letter differentiation and rate of comprehension in reading. Poulton, E. C. 1967 Journalof Applied Psychology, 51, 417-425. Searching for newspaper headlines printed in capitals or lower-case letters.
Poulton, E. C. 1969 Journalof Applied Psychology, 5 3 , 2 4 4 - 2 4 9 . Asymmetrical transfer in reading texts produced by teleprinter and by typewriter. Poulton, E. C., and Brown, C. H. 1968 Journalof Applied Psychology, 52, 16-21. Rate of comprehension of an existing teleprinter output and of possible alternatives. Tinker, M. A. 1963 'Legibility of print'. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. Williams, C. M. 1967 Human Factors, 9 , 4 5 5 - 4 6 0 . Legibility of numbers as a function of contrast and illumination.
Applied Ergonomics
Design variable
Restriction of choice
Ergonomic requirements
References
Practical requirements
Design decision
Length and number of columns
Page 203 mm (8 in) wide
Lines should be 1.5 to 2.5 alphabets long (50 to 89 mm [ 2 to 3-5 ins] )
Burt 1959 Poulton 1960 Tinker 1963
Two equal columns for general articles
84 mm (3.3 in) columns
Two unequal columns for 'Handbook' section where a more versatile use of illustrations is required. Book format possible if required when reprinting
56 and 117 mm (2.2 and 4-6 in) columns
Three equal columns for short item sections like News and Abstracts
56 mm (2.2 in) columns
Separation between columns
2.5 mm (0.1 in) separation is adequate
Tinker 1963
5.0 to 7.5 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in) separation on aesthetic grounds
Margins
Print read more slowly on curved paper. Otherwise margins unnecessary
Tinker 1963
13 mm (0"5 in) margin on each side of page. This minimum is aesthetic and traditional Unjustified lines
Justified (straight right hand edge) or unjustified lines
(Computer print out justifies automatically)
Unjustified lines are easier for poor readers as they avoid uneven letter and word spacing, broken words at the ends of lines and "rivers' of white space running down the column of text
Gregory and Poulton 1970
Design of type for text
Press Roman, Univers or Aldine
Univers (without serifs) reduces rate of comprehension
Poulton 1965
208
Applied Ergonomics
September 1970
Adequate range of Aldine sizes not available
Press Roman
Design variable
Restriction of choice
Ergonomic requirements
References
Practical requirements
Design decision
Size of type
8, 9, 1 0 o r 11 point available
Type should not be smaller than 10 point
Burt 1959 Poulton 1960 Tinker 1963
Smaller size required for three column format. It also allows more words per page, and so reduces the cost of production
Two columns: 10 pt type Three columns: 9 pt type
Leading (space) between lines of type
Leading probably unnecessary
Tinker 1963 pp 106--7
1 point leading. Designer's decision on aesthetic grounds
Paragraphing 1. indentation
Indenting first line of paragraphs increases speed of reading
Tinker 1963
Indent first line of all paragraphs
Paragraphing 2. vertical separation of paragraphs
Effect not known
Titles and subheadings
Titles all in capitals are less easy to pick out than titles in lower case
Separate by half a line height to emphasize paragraphing, Probably more ergonomic as well as more aesthetic Poulton 1967
Printing in capitals reduces speed and comprehension
Tinker 1963 Pou Iton and Brown 1968 Poulton 1969
Printing in italics reduces speed of reading
Tinker 1963
All titles and sub-headings upper and lower case, ie initial caps only except for special short titles. (eg Procrustes) Titles for articles
30 pt Univers medium
A range of four sub-headings in text
1, 14 pt Univers medium 2. 11 pt Univers bold 3. 10 pt Press Roman bold
4. 10 pt Press Roman italic (to be used only when absolutely necessary)
Space above and below headings
Headings should stand out. Can be done by using a different design of typeface and by separating the headings from the text
Sub-heads 1 and 2 : 1 ½ line space above and ½ line space below. Sub-heads 3 and 4 : 1 line space above and none below
Summary
The summary should be next to the title, not at the end of the articles
Summary next to title
The summary should be distinguished from text
11 pt Univers with 1 pt leading
Should be distinguished from text. Capitals and italics not recommended (see Titles and sub-headings)
Univers 10 pt with 1 pt leading. No capitals or italics
Tables and figure captions
Roman numerals are read more slowly end less accurately than Arabic numerals
Perry 1952
Arabic numerals
References in text
Author and year should be given in text to save the reader from frequent reference to list at end of article
Author and year given in text
Reference list
Authors names should be easily located
Authors printed bold on separate line
Full title should be given to tell t h e reader what the reference is about
Full title given (at end of reference in the case of articles)
Unfamiliar abbreviations should not be used
Name of journal or source given in full
Applied Ergonomics
September 1970
209