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Expectation-experience discrepancies and psychological adjustment during cross-cultural reentry
Inrernational Journal of Intercultural Relations, Printed in the USA. All rights reserved.
Vol. 17, pp. 185-196,
1993 Copyright
0147.1767/93 $6.00 + .OO 0 1993 Pergatnon Press Ltd.
EXPECTATION-EXPERIENCE DISCREPANCIES AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT DURING CROSS-CULTURAL REENTRY JOY ROGERS
and COLLEEN
WARD
University of Canterbury, New Zealand ABSTRACT. The study examined expectations, experiences and psychological adjustment during cross-cultural transition and reentry. Twenty secondary school students completed questionnaires during their overseas placements and then again after return to New Zealand. The initial questionnaire assessed expectations about social difficulty on reentry; the subsequent questionnaire measured actual social difficulty, anxiety and depression. Analyses revealed that: I) there was no significant relationship between expectations and experiences; 2) actual, but not expected, social difficulty was related to anxiety and depression; and 3) realistic expectations as such (absolute differences between expectations and experiences) were unrelated to psychological adjustment; 4) however, when experiences were more dtfficult than expected, larger discrepancies were associated with psychological distress. The paper highlights methodological issues in research on expectations and discusses the implications of the findings for crosscultural training.
Expectations have long been regarded as a crucial factor in determining psychological adjustment during cross-cultural transitions (Gullahorn 8z Gullahorn, 1963; Klineberg & Hull, 1979). Indeed, many crosscultural training techniques are predicated on the assumption that it is necessary to prepare sojourners for life abroad by teaching them what to expect in new cultural environments (Kim, 1988; Landis & Brislin, 1983). Although a number of theorists have emphasized the significance of expectations in the adjustment process, few studies have empirically examined this issue. Much of the discussion surrounding expectations has arisen from anecdotal evidence or insubstantial field research which has been lacking in systematic observations. Despite these limitations, theorizing about the significance of expecta-
This paper is based on research by the first author in fulfilment of reauirements for a Master of Arts degree. The authors would like to thank Stu Allan, the National Director of the American Field Service program in New Zealand, and his staff for their cooperation and assistance with this project. Reprint requests should be sent to Colleen Ward, Department of Social Work and Psychology, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore 0511.
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tions in the cross-cultural adjustment process persists. Speculations have been largely influenced by those models of sojourner adaptation which highlight the necessity of matching various cognitive schema to the norms and behaviors encountered in new socio-cultural environments (e.g., Triandis, 1975; Wong-Rieger, 1984). Within the same social cognition tradition, the match between expectations and experiences and its effects on psychological adjustment during cross-cultural sojourning and reentry have been of primary concern. However, two competing hypotheses have emerged in the expectation-experience literature. First, it has been suggested that realistic expectations facilitate adaptation. This is implied by Weissman and Furnham’s (1987) study which compared expectations and experiences of American sojourners in the United Kingdom by considering the absolute discrepancy between the two and its relation to mental health. A second, more refined hypothesis has incorporated an evaluative dimension into the analysis and has emphasized the direction of the expectation-experience discrepancy. Cochrane (1983), for example, argued that undermet high expectations result in adjustment problems based on his studies of West Indian and Asian immigrants in Britain. Conversely, Krupinski (cited in Furnham and Bochner, 1986) suggested that overmet low expectations lead to better adaptation in the context of his work with relatively well adjusted Vietnamese refugees in Australia. A major reason that empirical research on the topic of expectations and cross-cultural transition has been sparse is the difficulty involved in conducting longitudinal research in multi-national settings. This includes practical problems associated with overseas mailings and the location of current pre- and post-departure addresses for sojourners or returnees (Brabant, Palmer & Gramling, 1990). Despite these obstacles, Weissman and Furnham (1987) were able to examine expectations and experiences of American expatriates in the United Kingdom. A particularly strong feature of their research design was the repeated testings; expectations were tapped prior to departure from the United States, and actual experiences were then assessed after arrival in the United Kingdom. Comparing the pre- and postarrival measures, the investigators reported that expectations were remarkably similar to experiences, However, when relying on an absolute discrepancy score between 78 expectations (e.g., expect to be lonely, to use public transport, to share more leisure activities with your spouse) and actual experiences, Weissman and Furnham failed to substantiate a significant relationship between expectation-experience discrepancies and psychological adjustment. More robust data are found in a study by Black and Gregersen (1990) who investigated expectations, satisfaction and intention to leave an overseas assignment in American managers in Japan. Influenced by Louis’ (1980) theorizing on met and unmet expectations, the researchers
Expectations and Experiences of Reentry
187
acknowledged that the discrepancy between expectations and experiences is a significant factor in the adjustment process, but hypothesized that the direction of the discrepancy and the evaluation of its consequences are of greater importance. The research findings confirmed their hypothesis. Overmet general expectations about life in Japan were associated with increased general satisfaction, which, in turn, decreased the likelihood of a decision to prematurely terminate the overseas assignment. Despite their impressive work, the Black and Gregersen study suffered from a major limitation-expectation ratings were done retrospectively, after managers had resided for some time in Japan. The same criticism can be applied to work by Searle and Ward (1990) which corroborated the relationship between expected and real socio-cultural adaptation problems in Malaysian and Singaporean university students in New Zealand and studies by Hawes and Kealy (1980) which reported an association between expectations of a rewarding sojourn and expectations of competent performance on an overseas assignment with self-rated satisfaction in Canadian technical assistants on international development projects. Comparing cross-cultural transition and reentry, Adler (198 1) argued that returning to one’s original culture is often more difficult than movement to a foreign culture. She attributed this increased difficulty to inaccurate expectations. Adler drew primarily on qualitative data which suggested that returnees’ psychological distress is frequently associated with negative job experiences compared to relatively positive pre-return expectations. Although offering an interesting and perhaps insightful commentary on expectations and reentry, Adler failed to provide enough information about her research design, methodology and the participants in her study to allow for appraisal of the project and the contribution it may or may not make to the broader research area. Given limited research in the field, the relationship between real and expected difficulties and its consequences for psychological well-being during cross-cultural transitions remain unclear. The extent to which sojourners’ expectations are accurate also remains a problematic issue. Weissman and Furnham’s evidence suggests that the two are congruent; however, their study dealt with a sophisticated sample of expatriates who moved between two countries which are relatively similar in terms of language and culture. While a broader literature in social cognition and coping has also emphasized the consistency between expectations and outcomes (e.g., Bandura’s 1986 work on self-efficacy and Seligman’s 1975 research on learned helplessness), theory and research on crosscultural transitions have repeatedly highlighted the inaccuracies of sojourner expectations, particularly in cases of unfamiliarity and inexperience. This issue certainly deserves further attention. With a background of abundant theory but sparse research, the study
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presented here adopts a longitudinal approach in the investigation of expectations, experiences and psychological adjustment in returning student sojourners. To the authors’ knowledge this is the first investigation of sojourner adaptation which employs testings before and after reentry. Consequently, the study has two major objectives. First, the relationships among expected social difficulty, experienced social difficulty and psychological adjustment are examined. Based on recent sojourner research (Ward & Kennedy, in press a, in press b), it is hypothesized that experienced social difficulty will be related to psychological adjustment; however, the investigation of the remaining inter-relationships between expected and experienced social difficulty and between expected social difficulty and psychological adjustment is considered exploratory. Secondly, two competing hypotheses about expectation-experience discrepancies are tested: 1) the realism hypothesis: that unrealistic expectations (large discrepancies between expectations and experiences) are associated with psychological distress during reentry and 2) the directional/evaluative hypothesis: that unrealistic, positive expectations (large discrepancies between expectations which are more positive than experiences) are associated with psychological distress during reentry. METHOD
Subjects Twenty New Zealand students from the American Field Service (AFS) program participated in the study. The sample included 15 females and 5 males. Mean age was 18.8 years (SD = 0.41). Sixty per cent of the subjects (N = 12) had previous overseas experience. AFS promotes international cultural and educational exchanges. Scholars are hosted by local families and attend secondary school during their overseas residence. Placements generally range from 10 weeks to 1 year. Students who had resided in the United States, Canada, France, Switzerland, Germany, Denmark and Indonesia on 1 year placements were included in this study. Materials Two questionnaires were utilized in this research. The first was designed for completion during the AFS placement; the second was distributed after return to New Zealand. Both questionnaires included descriptive demographic information (i.e., age, sex, previous overseas experience, etc.). In addition, the first questionnaire measured expectations about return to New Zealand, that is, expectations about social
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difficulty during reentry, while the second assessed actual social difficulty and psychological adjustment during the reentry period.
Expected and Experienced Difficulty.
This instrument was a modified version of the socio-cultural adjustment scale used by Ward and colleagues in their research with sojourners (Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1992; Ward & Searle, 1991). This version included 13 items (e.g., resuming friendships, getting used to the pace of life) which focus on skills that are required to cope with everyday social situations. Subjects were asked to indicate the amount of difficulty they experienced (or expect to experience) on reentry to New Zealand. Each item is rated on a 5-point scale (endpoints: none/extreme) so that scores range from 0 to 52 with higher scores representing greater social difficulty. The measurement of social difficulty proved reliable and valid in a previous study with New Zealand AFS students (Ward & Kennedy, in press a).
Psychological Adjustment.
Two measures of psychological adjustment were utilized: the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, 1978) and Spielberger’s State Anxiety Inventory (SSAI; Spielberger, 1983). The BDI items include emotional, cognitive and vegetative aspects of depression. The scale has been validated for use with New Zealand populations, and New Zealand norms are also available (Knight, 1982). The BDI has 21 groups of items, and subjects are asked to select one statement from each group which best describes their current feelings; scores range from O-63 with higher scores indicating more severe depression. Within this range respondents may be classified into categories of mild (lo-18), moderate (19-29) and severe (30-63) depression. The Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory includes 20 items. Subjects rely on 4-point rating scales to assess how well each statement describes their current experiences of anxiety (endpoints: not at all/very much so). Scores range from O-60 with higher scores indicative of greater anxiety. The SSAI has demonstrated good reliability and validity for use with secondary school students (Spielberger, 1983) and has also been used extensively in cross-cultural research (Spielberger, Diaz-Guerrero & Strelau, 1990).
Procedure Subjects were sent postal questionnaires during their AFS placements and then again after their return to New Zealand. Completed questionnaires were returned to the researchers in pre-addressed envelopes. Participation in the project was anonymous and voluntary although the questionnaires carried a supporting letter from the National Director of the AFS Program in New Zealand.
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The first overseas mailing returned 45% of the questionnaires (39/ 87). The second questionnaire was completed by 51% of the previous subject group. This resulted in usable data (completed questionnaires from two testings) from 20 respondents (23% of the original pool). This is in line with the return figures provided by Weissman and Furnham (1987). At the time of completion of the first questionnaire the mean length of time before return to New Zealand was 1.85 weeks (range: 1 to 3 weeks). For completion of the second questionnaire, mean length of time since return to New Zealand was 7.15 weeks (range: 4 to 10 weeks). RESULTS Initially, Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was used to assess the internal consistency of the three measurements. The scales proved highly reliable: social difficulty (.84), depression (.80), and anxiety (.86).’ Psychological and social adjustment were first examined in relationship to time of reentry and previous overseas experience. There were no significant correlations between length of time since return to New Zealand and anxiety (r = .30), depression (r = .21) or experienced difficulty (r = .13). Nor were there any significant differences on these measures between students who did and did not have previous overseas experiences (all t’s < 1). Pearson correlations were then undertaken to examine the relationships between expected difficulty, experienced difficulty and psychological adjustment. As hypothesized, a significant relationship emerged between experienced social difficulty and psychological adjustment. This was true for both anxiety (r = .52) and depression (r = .37). Expected difficulty, however, was not related to these measures (Table 1). Nor was there a significant association between expected and experienced difficulties (r = .04). Mean expected difficulty scores were 13.4 (SD = 7.0) compared to the experienced difficulty mean of 15.5 (SD = 9.1); however, these differences were not significant (t(19) = 0.83, n.s). Discrepancies between expected and experienced difficulties were computed in two ways. First, a measure of realistic expectations was taken as the absolute difference between expected and experienced difficulty. Secondly, a measure of directional discrepancy was calculated on the signed difference between real and expected difficulties. Pearson correlations were then performed on the discrepancy indices and the measures of psychological adjustment. Analysis revealed that realistic expectations
‘The research presented here is part of a larger study on the cross-cultural adjustment of 102 returned AFS students (Rogers, 1991). The reliability figures are based on the larger sample which includes the 20 subjects in this study.
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Expectations and Experiences of Reentry TABLE 1 Correlations Between Expectations, Experiences, ExpectationExperience Discrepancies and Measures of Psychological Adjustment Depression
Anxiety Expected Difficulty Experienced Difficulty Absolute Discrepancy Directional Discrepancy
.12 .52* -.ll .35
l
- .20 .37’ - .04 .42’
‘p < .05, l*p < .Ol.
(absolute discrepancy scores) were unrelated to psychological adjustment. However, the directional hypothesis received some support. When the direction of the discrepancy was specified as more difficulty experienced than expected, larger discrepancies were associated with psychological adjustment problems (Table 1). The findings were statistically significant only for depression (r = .42, p < .03); r = .35 (p < .07) for anxiety. Given the results of the correlational analysis, a further test of directional discrepancy was undertaken which relied on median splits to divide the subjects into high (large discrepancy between more negative experience than expectation) and low (small discrepancy between more negative experience than expectation) discrepancy groups. T-test revealed that the high discrepancy group experienced greater anxiety (A4 = 25.0, SD = 7.5) than the low discrepancy group (A4 = 13.9, SD = 9.3); t(18) = 3.02, p < .004.’ This group also evidenced more depression (Mh = 9.8, SD = 4.9; M, = 5.0, SD = 6.0); t(18) = 1.96, p < .03. DISCUSSION The study examined the relationship between expected and experienced social difficulty and psychological adjustment of student sojourners during reentry to New Zealand. The findings revealed that expectations and experiences of social difficulty were unrelated and that experienced, but not expected, social difficulty was associated with psychological adjustment problems. Expectations gained predictive power only when considered in terms of discrepancy from actual experience. Realistic expectations as such were not indicative of psychological well-
*In this analysis the low discrepancy group would obviously also include any subjects who experienced less social difficulty than expected. A one-tailed test of significance is used in these t-tests.
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being; large discrepancies between experiences and expectations were associated with psychological distress only when experiences were more difficult than originally anticipated. The correlation between actual social difficulty and psychological disturbance is not surprising as Ward and colleagues have repeatedly demonstrated a significant link between psychological and socio-cultural adaptation in their sojourner research (Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1992, in press a, b; Ward & Searle, 1991). The association between social skills deficits and depression has likewise been noted in the broader clinical literature (e.g., Haley, 1985). In more specific research on cross-cultural transition Klineberg and Hull (1979) corroborated the relationship between social difficulty and psychological distress in foreign university students. Similarly, in Berry’s model of acculturative stress the prediction of psychological and psychosomatic symptoms is based on multiple factors including social problems relating to language, communication, personal relationships, food and recreation (e.g., Chataway & Berry, 1989; Zheng & Berry, 1991). An issue of greater import concerns the relationship between expectations and experiences during the transition process. Contrary to the commonly reported expectation-experience correlation, this research failed to demonstrate a significant link between the two variables. This study, however, is distinguished in terms of a longitudinal design, as opposed to a cross-sectional approach. The repeated measurement of social difficulty and the testings that occurred during an overseas sojourn and after reentry allow for the more rigorous testing of the expectation-experience relationship. As such, the findings call into question results of crosssectional investigations which rely on retrospective descriptions of expectations and/or incorporate simultaneous data collection about expectations and experiences (see Black & Gregersen, 1990; Hawes & Kealey, 1980; Searle & Ward, 1990). Researchers themselves have explicitly acknowledged the limitations of cross-sectional data, and it is likely that their results are due, at least in part, to measurement artifact. Indeed, cognitive consistency theories suggest that this should be the case (e.g., Festinger, 1957). Methodological issues underpinning the hypothesized expectation-experience link deserve further attention in future research. Expectations in themselves possess no predictive power for either psychological or socio-cultural outcomes; however, their relevance is increased when assessed in conjunction with experiences. Realistic expectations as such do not appear to facilitate psychological adjustment. Rather the quality of expectations in relation to actual experiences is more important. When large discrepancies between expectation and experience result from experiences being more difficult than expected, the likelihood of psychological adjustment problems increases. Conversely, when large discrepancies result because experiences are more positive than anticipated, psychological well-being is enhanced.
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At first glance the findings appear hard to reconcile with existing social psychological and clinical literature on cognition and mental health. Taylor and Brown (1988) have discussed a growing body of research which has shifted emphasis from the adaptive dimensions of realistic expectations to the positive effects of illusory biases on psychological well-being. In this regard undue optimism, unrealistically positive views of self and exaggerated notions of personal control have received special attention. Two points are made about this literature. First, while the adaptive features of positive expectancies have been documented, the consequences of the failure to meet these expectations have not been adequately assessed. Secondly, methodological issues may be partially responsible for the seemingly divergent pattern of results. Although investigators have examined both correlational and causal links between expectancies and outcomes, they have not explicitly considered the effects of expectation-experience discrepancies on mental health. For example, some researchers make assumptions about preexisting expectancies without assessing them; others provide measurements of both expectancies and outcomes and subject the data to correlational analysis but fail to consider the actual discrepancy between the two (see reviews by Bandura, 1989; Taylor & Brown, 1988). While expectancies and outcomes may be related on a general level, the discrepancy dimension remains altogether a different issue. Having argued in favor of the robust research design of the study presented here, it is also appropriate to acknowledge its limitations. The questionnaire return rate and the sample characteristics are of prime concern. On the first count, the sample size is small. An overall return rate of 23% was achieved with approximately half of the invited participants responding in each of the two questionnaire postings. Although this compares favorably with return rates in international surveys (Jobber & Saunders, 1988), the representativeness of the sample and its potential for generalizing to other groups or situations are called into question. Similar issues are raised by the psychosocial characteristics of the sample under study. On this count, AFS scholars are bright and highly motivated students who possess psychological and social resources to deal with the stress of cross-cultural transition. There is little evidence of psychological adjustment problems in this group; indeed, the depression scores are below the New Zealand diagnostic norms for mild depressive disorders. In this instance it might be argued that the psychological hardiness of the sample further limits the generalizability of the findings to other groups of sojourners. It is equally plausible, however, that diminished variance in psychological adjustment during reentry has actually diluted the significance of discrepancies in expectations and experiences. In either case, further longitudinal research with more varied samples of sojourners is required.
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Despite these reservations, the finding that unmet positive expectations result in psychological distress during cross-cultural relocations has obvious implications for cross-cultural training. The data suggest that in at least some circumstances, it is a worthwhile strategy to overprepare sojourners for the problems that they may encounter during crosscultural transitions. Having made that point, however, it is important to acknowledge that crossing cultures involves a wide range of expectations. This research was restricted to expectations about situational social difficulties, and the findings should not be extended beyond that domain. It would be inappropriate, for example, to suggest to sojourners that hosts or fellow nationals are intrinsically unpleasant or that individuals who relocate are necessarily inefficient at dealing with cross-cultural contact and change. It would be instructive, however, to place emphasis on situational difficulties that arise in social interactions during these relocations. This is especially true for the reentry process as training and preparation are often lacking for that particular transition experience. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that discrepancies arising from expectations which are more positive than experiences are linked with impaired psychological adjustment during reentry. The findings have theoretical and applied implications for an area which has been both under-investigated and poorly researched. On a conceptual level the findings support the directional/evaluative hypothesis of expectation-experience matching. In the applied domain the results suggest that training effectiveness may be increased if sojourners are overprepared for social difficulty on reentry. As expectations remain a popular topic in cross-cultural psychology but the theorizing is based on limited empirical evidence, the expectation-experience discrepancy warrants more extensive investigation in future research. More rigorous testing of expectations and experiences in longitudinal studies is recommended. This includes research with larger and more diverse sojourner samples and studies of both initial relocation and reentry. In this way investigators can make a significant contribution to understanding and facilitating the process of psychological adjustment during cross-cultural transitions.
REFERENCES ADLER, N. J. (1981). Reentry: Managing cross-cultural transitions. Group and Organization Studies, 6, 341-356. BANDURA, A. (1986). Socialfoundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. BANDURA, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175-l 184. BECK, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory (rev. ed.). Philadelphia: Center for Cognitive Therapy. BLACK, J. S., & GREGERSEN, H. B. (1990). Expectations, satisfaction, and
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intention
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Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 485-506. BRABANT, S., PALMER, C. E., & GRAMLING, R. (1990). Returning home: An empirical investigation of cross-cultural reentry. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 14, 387-404. CHATAWAY, C. J., & BERRY, praisal, coping and adaptation.
J. W. (1989). Acculturation
experiences,
ap-
Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 21,
295-309. COCHRANE, R. (1983). The social creation of mental illness. London: Longman. FESTINGER, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press. FURNHAM, A., & BOCHNER, S. (1986). Culture shock: Psychological reactions to unfamiliar environments. London: Methuen. GULLAHORN, J. T., & GULLAHORN, J. E. (1963). An extension of the U curve hypothesis. Journal of Social Issues, 19, 33-47. HALEY, W. D. (1985). Social skills deficit and self-evaluation among depressed and non-depressed psychiatric patients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41,
162-168. F., & KEALEY, D. (1979). Canadians in development: An empirical study of adaptation and effectiveness on overseas assignment. Ottawa: Cana-
HAWES,
dian International Development Agency. JOBBER, D., & SAUNDERS, J. (1988). An experimental investigation into cross-national mail survey response rates. Journal of International Business
Studies, 19, 483-489. KIM, Y. Y. (1988). Communication and cross-cultural adaptation. Philadelphia: Multi-lingual Matters. KLINEBERG, O., & HULL, W. F. (1979). At a foreign university: An international study of adaptation and coping. New York: Praeger. KNIGHT, R. G. (1982). Some general population norms for the short form Beck Depression Inventory. Unpublished manuscript, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. LANDIS, D., & BRISLIN, R. (1983). Handbook of intercultural training (Vol. 1). Tarrytown, NY: Pergamon Press. LOUIS, M. R. (1980). Surprise and sense making: What newcomers experience in entering unfamiliar organizational settings. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25,226-25 1. ROGERS, J. (1991). Reentry and cross-cultural transitions: Variables related to socio-cultural and psychological maladjustment. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. SEARLE, W., & WARD, C. (1990). The prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 12, 61-71. SELIGMAN, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development and death. San Francisco: Freeman. SPIELBERGER, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. SPIELBERGER, C. D., DIAZ-GUERRERO, R., &STRELAU, J. (1990). Crosscultural anxiety (Vol. 4). New York: Hemisphere.
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TAYLOR, S. E., & BROWN, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193210. TRIANDIS, H. C. (1975). Culture training, cognitive complexity and interpersonal attitudes. In R. Brislin, S. Bochner & W. J. Lonner (Eds.), Crossculturalperspectives on learning (pp. 39-77). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. WARD, C., & KENNEDY, A. (1992). Locus of control, mood disturbance and social difficulty during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16, 175-194. WARD, C., & KENNEDY, A. (in press a). Psychological and socio-cultural adjustment during cross-cultural transitions: A comparison of secondary students overseas and at home. International Journal of Psychology. WARD, C., & KENNEDY, A. (in press b). Where’s the culture in cross-cultural transition? Comparative studies of sojourner adjustment. Journal of Crosscultural Psychology. WARD, C., & SEARLE, W. (1991). The impact of value discrepancies and cultural identity on psychological and socio-cultural adjustment of sojourners. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15, 209-225. WEISSMAN, D., & FURNHAM, A. (1987). The expectations and experiences of a sojourning temporary resident abroad: A preliminary study. Human Relations, 40, 313-326. WONG-RIEGER, D. (1984). Testing a model of emotional and coping responses to problems in adaptation: Foreign students at a Canadian university. Znternational Journal of Intercultural Relations, 8, 153-184. ZHENG, X., & BERRY, J. W. (1991). Psychological adaptation of Chinese sojourners in Canada. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 451-470.
Vol. 17, pp. 185-196,
1993 Copyright
0147.1767/93 $6.00 + .OO 0 1993 Pergatnon Press Ltd.
EXPECTATION-EXPERIENCE DISCREPANCIES AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT DURING CROSS-CULTURAL REENTRY JOY ROGERS
and COLLEEN
WARD
University of Canterbury, New Zealand ABSTRACT. The study examined expectations, experiences and psychological adjustment during cross-cultural transition and reentry. Twenty secondary school students completed questionnaires during their overseas placements and then again after return to New Zealand. The initial questionnaire assessed expectations about social difficulty on reentry; the subsequent questionnaire measured actual social difficulty, anxiety and depression. Analyses revealed that: I) there was no significant relationship between expectations and experiences; 2) actual, but not expected, social difficulty was related to anxiety and depression; and 3) realistic expectations as such (absolute differences between expectations and experiences) were unrelated to psychological adjustment; 4) however, when experiences were more dtfficult than expected, larger discrepancies were associated with psychological distress. The paper highlights methodological issues in research on expectations and discusses the implications of the findings for crosscultural training.
Expectations have long been regarded as a crucial factor in determining psychological adjustment during cross-cultural transitions (Gullahorn 8z Gullahorn, 1963; Klineberg & Hull, 1979). Indeed, many crosscultural training techniques are predicated on the assumption that it is necessary to prepare sojourners for life abroad by teaching them what to expect in new cultural environments (Kim, 1988; Landis & Brislin, 1983). Although a number of theorists have emphasized the significance of expectations in the adjustment process, few studies have empirically examined this issue. Much of the discussion surrounding expectations has arisen from anecdotal evidence or insubstantial field research which has been lacking in systematic observations. Despite these limitations, theorizing about the significance of expecta-
This paper is based on research by the first author in fulfilment of reauirements for a Master of Arts degree. The authors would like to thank Stu Allan, the National Director of the American Field Service program in New Zealand, and his staff for their cooperation and assistance with this project. Reprint requests should be sent to Colleen Ward, Department of Social Work and Psychology, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore 0511.
186
J, Rogers and C. Ward
tions in the cross-cultural adjustment process persists. Speculations have been largely influenced by those models of sojourner adaptation which highlight the necessity of matching various cognitive schema to the norms and behaviors encountered in new socio-cultural environments (e.g., Triandis, 1975; Wong-Rieger, 1984). Within the same social cognition tradition, the match between expectations and experiences and its effects on psychological adjustment during cross-cultural sojourning and reentry have been of primary concern. However, two competing hypotheses have emerged in the expectation-experience literature. First, it has been suggested that realistic expectations facilitate adaptation. This is implied by Weissman and Furnham’s (1987) study which compared expectations and experiences of American sojourners in the United Kingdom by considering the absolute discrepancy between the two and its relation to mental health. A second, more refined hypothesis has incorporated an evaluative dimension into the analysis and has emphasized the direction of the expectation-experience discrepancy. Cochrane (1983), for example, argued that undermet high expectations result in adjustment problems based on his studies of West Indian and Asian immigrants in Britain. Conversely, Krupinski (cited in Furnham and Bochner, 1986) suggested that overmet low expectations lead to better adaptation in the context of his work with relatively well adjusted Vietnamese refugees in Australia. A major reason that empirical research on the topic of expectations and cross-cultural transition has been sparse is the difficulty involved in conducting longitudinal research in multi-national settings. This includes practical problems associated with overseas mailings and the location of current pre- and post-departure addresses for sojourners or returnees (Brabant, Palmer & Gramling, 1990). Despite these obstacles, Weissman and Furnham (1987) were able to examine expectations and experiences of American expatriates in the United Kingdom. A particularly strong feature of their research design was the repeated testings; expectations were tapped prior to departure from the United States, and actual experiences were then assessed after arrival in the United Kingdom. Comparing the pre- and postarrival measures, the investigators reported that expectations were remarkably similar to experiences, However, when relying on an absolute discrepancy score between 78 expectations (e.g., expect to be lonely, to use public transport, to share more leisure activities with your spouse) and actual experiences, Weissman and Furnham failed to substantiate a significant relationship between expectation-experience discrepancies and psychological adjustment. More robust data are found in a study by Black and Gregersen (1990) who investigated expectations, satisfaction and intention to leave an overseas assignment in American managers in Japan. Influenced by Louis’ (1980) theorizing on met and unmet expectations, the researchers
Expectations and Experiences of Reentry
187
acknowledged that the discrepancy between expectations and experiences is a significant factor in the adjustment process, but hypothesized that the direction of the discrepancy and the evaluation of its consequences are of greater importance. The research findings confirmed their hypothesis. Overmet general expectations about life in Japan were associated with increased general satisfaction, which, in turn, decreased the likelihood of a decision to prematurely terminate the overseas assignment. Despite their impressive work, the Black and Gregersen study suffered from a major limitation-expectation ratings were done retrospectively, after managers had resided for some time in Japan. The same criticism can be applied to work by Searle and Ward (1990) which corroborated the relationship between expected and real socio-cultural adaptation problems in Malaysian and Singaporean university students in New Zealand and studies by Hawes and Kealy (1980) which reported an association between expectations of a rewarding sojourn and expectations of competent performance on an overseas assignment with self-rated satisfaction in Canadian technical assistants on international development projects. Comparing cross-cultural transition and reentry, Adler (198 1) argued that returning to one’s original culture is often more difficult than movement to a foreign culture. She attributed this increased difficulty to inaccurate expectations. Adler drew primarily on qualitative data which suggested that returnees’ psychological distress is frequently associated with negative job experiences compared to relatively positive pre-return expectations. Although offering an interesting and perhaps insightful commentary on expectations and reentry, Adler failed to provide enough information about her research design, methodology and the participants in her study to allow for appraisal of the project and the contribution it may or may not make to the broader research area. Given limited research in the field, the relationship between real and expected difficulties and its consequences for psychological well-being during cross-cultural transitions remain unclear. The extent to which sojourners’ expectations are accurate also remains a problematic issue. Weissman and Furnham’s evidence suggests that the two are congruent; however, their study dealt with a sophisticated sample of expatriates who moved between two countries which are relatively similar in terms of language and culture. While a broader literature in social cognition and coping has also emphasized the consistency between expectations and outcomes (e.g., Bandura’s 1986 work on self-efficacy and Seligman’s 1975 research on learned helplessness), theory and research on crosscultural transitions have repeatedly highlighted the inaccuracies of sojourner expectations, particularly in cases of unfamiliarity and inexperience. This issue certainly deserves further attention. With a background of abundant theory but sparse research, the study
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presented here adopts a longitudinal approach in the investigation of expectations, experiences and psychological adjustment in returning student sojourners. To the authors’ knowledge this is the first investigation of sojourner adaptation which employs testings before and after reentry. Consequently, the study has two major objectives. First, the relationships among expected social difficulty, experienced social difficulty and psychological adjustment are examined. Based on recent sojourner research (Ward & Kennedy, in press a, in press b), it is hypothesized that experienced social difficulty will be related to psychological adjustment; however, the investigation of the remaining inter-relationships between expected and experienced social difficulty and between expected social difficulty and psychological adjustment is considered exploratory. Secondly, two competing hypotheses about expectation-experience discrepancies are tested: 1) the realism hypothesis: that unrealistic expectations (large discrepancies between expectations and experiences) are associated with psychological distress during reentry and 2) the directional/evaluative hypothesis: that unrealistic, positive expectations (large discrepancies between expectations which are more positive than experiences) are associated with psychological distress during reentry. METHOD
Subjects Twenty New Zealand students from the American Field Service (AFS) program participated in the study. The sample included 15 females and 5 males. Mean age was 18.8 years (SD = 0.41). Sixty per cent of the subjects (N = 12) had previous overseas experience. AFS promotes international cultural and educational exchanges. Scholars are hosted by local families and attend secondary school during their overseas residence. Placements generally range from 10 weeks to 1 year. Students who had resided in the United States, Canada, France, Switzerland, Germany, Denmark and Indonesia on 1 year placements were included in this study. Materials Two questionnaires were utilized in this research. The first was designed for completion during the AFS placement; the second was distributed after return to New Zealand. Both questionnaires included descriptive demographic information (i.e., age, sex, previous overseas experience, etc.). In addition, the first questionnaire measured expectations about return to New Zealand, that is, expectations about social
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difficulty during reentry, while the second assessed actual social difficulty and psychological adjustment during the reentry period.
Expected and Experienced Difficulty.
This instrument was a modified version of the socio-cultural adjustment scale used by Ward and colleagues in their research with sojourners (Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1992; Ward & Searle, 1991). This version included 13 items (e.g., resuming friendships, getting used to the pace of life) which focus on skills that are required to cope with everyday social situations. Subjects were asked to indicate the amount of difficulty they experienced (or expect to experience) on reentry to New Zealand. Each item is rated on a 5-point scale (endpoints: none/extreme) so that scores range from 0 to 52 with higher scores representing greater social difficulty. The measurement of social difficulty proved reliable and valid in a previous study with New Zealand AFS students (Ward & Kennedy, in press a).
Psychological Adjustment.
Two measures of psychological adjustment were utilized: the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, 1978) and Spielberger’s State Anxiety Inventory (SSAI; Spielberger, 1983). The BDI items include emotional, cognitive and vegetative aspects of depression. The scale has been validated for use with New Zealand populations, and New Zealand norms are also available (Knight, 1982). The BDI has 21 groups of items, and subjects are asked to select one statement from each group which best describes their current feelings; scores range from O-63 with higher scores indicating more severe depression. Within this range respondents may be classified into categories of mild (lo-18), moderate (19-29) and severe (30-63) depression. The Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory includes 20 items. Subjects rely on 4-point rating scales to assess how well each statement describes their current experiences of anxiety (endpoints: not at all/very much so). Scores range from O-60 with higher scores indicative of greater anxiety. The SSAI has demonstrated good reliability and validity for use with secondary school students (Spielberger, 1983) and has also been used extensively in cross-cultural research (Spielberger, Diaz-Guerrero & Strelau, 1990).
Procedure Subjects were sent postal questionnaires during their AFS placements and then again after their return to New Zealand. Completed questionnaires were returned to the researchers in pre-addressed envelopes. Participation in the project was anonymous and voluntary although the questionnaires carried a supporting letter from the National Director of the AFS Program in New Zealand.
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The first overseas mailing returned 45% of the questionnaires (39/ 87). The second questionnaire was completed by 51% of the previous subject group. This resulted in usable data (completed questionnaires from two testings) from 20 respondents (23% of the original pool). This is in line with the return figures provided by Weissman and Furnham (1987). At the time of completion of the first questionnaire the mean length of time before return to New Zealand was 1.85 weeks (range: 1 to 3 weeks). For completion of the second questionnaire, mean length of time since return to New Zealand was 7.15 weeks (range: 4 to 10 weeks). RESULTS Initially, Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was used to assess the internal consistency of the three measurements. The scales proved highly reliable: social difficulty (.84), depression (.80), and anxiety (.86).’ Psychological and social adjustment were first examined in relationship to time of reentry and previous overseas experience. There were no significant correlations between length of time since return to New Zealand and anxiety (r = .30), depression (r = .21) or experienced difficulty (r = .13). Nor were there any significant differences on these measures between students who did and did not have previous overseas experiences (all t’s < 1). Pearson correlations were then undertaken to examine the relationships between expected difficulty, experienced difficulty and psychological adjustment. As hypothesized, a significant relationship emerged between experienced social difficulty and psychological adjustment. This was true for both anxiety (r = .52) and depression (r = .37). Expected difficulty, however, was not related to these measures (Table 1). Nor was there a significant association between expected and experienced difficulties (r = .04). Mean expected difficulty scores were 13.4 (SD = 7.0) compared to the experienced difficulty mean of 15.5 (SD = 9.1); however, these differences were not significant (t(19) = 0.83, n.s). Discrepancies between expected and experienced difficulties were computed in two ways. First, a measure of realistic expectations was taken as the absolute difference between expected and experienced difficulty. Secondly, a measure of directional discrepancy was calculated on the signed difference between real and expected difficulties. Pearson correlations were then performed on the discrepancy indices and the measures of psychological adjustment. Analysis revealed that realistic expectations
‘The research presented here is part of a larger study on the cross-cultural adjustment of 102 returned AFS students (Rogers, 1991). The reliability figures are based on the larger sample which includes the 20 subjects in this study.
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Expectations and Experiences of Reentry TABLE 1 Correlations Between Expectations, Experiences, ExpectationExperience Discrepancies and Measures of Psychological Adjustment Depression
Anxiety Expected Difficulty Experienced Difficulty Absolute Discrepancy Directional Discrepancy
.12 .52* -.ll .35
l
- .20 .37’ - .04 .42’
‘p < .05, l*p < .Ol.
(absolute discrepancy scores) were unrelated to psychological adjustment. However, the directional hypothesis received some support. When the direction of the discrepancy was specified as more difficulty experienced than expected, larger discrepancies were associated with psychological adjustment problems (Table 1). The findings were statistically significant only for depression (r = .42, p < .03); r = .35 (p < .07) for anxiety. Given the results of the correlational analysis, a further test of directional discrepancy was undertaken which relied on median splits to divide the subjects into high (large discrepancy between more negative experience than expectation) and low (small discrepancy between more negative experience than expectation) discrepancy groups. T-test revealed that the high discrepancy group experienced greater anxiety (A4 = 25.0, SD = 7.5) than the low discrepancy group (A4 = 13.9, SD = 9.3); t(18) = 3.02, p < .004.’ This group also evidenced more depression (Mh = 9.8, SD = 4.9; M, = 5.0, SD = 6.0); t(18) = 1.96, p < .03. DISCUSSION The study examined the relationship between expected and experienced social difficulty and psychological adjustment of student sojourners during reentry to New Zealand. The findings revealed that expectations and experiences of social difficulty were unrelated and that experienced, but not expected, social difficulty was associated with psychological adjustment problems. Expectations gained predictive power only when considered in terms of discrepancy from actual experience. Realistic expectations as such were not indicative of psychological well-
*In this analysis the low discrepancy group would obviously also include any subjects who experienced less social difficulty than expected. A one-tailed test of significance is used in these t-tests.
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being; large discrepancies between experiences and expectations were associated with psychological distress only when experiences were more difficult than originally anticipated. The correlation between actual social difficulty and psychological disturbance is not surprising as Ward and colleagues have repeatedly demonstrated a significant link between psychological and socio-cultural adaptation in their sojourner research (Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1992, in press a, b; Ward & Searle, 1991). The association between social skills deficits and depression has likewise been noted in the broader clinical literature (e.g., Haley, 1985). In more specific research on cross-cultural transition Klineberg and Hull (1979) corroborated the relationship between social difficulty and psychological distress in foreign university students. Similarly, in Berry’s model of acculturative stress the prediction of psychological and psychosomatic symptoms is based on multiple factors including social problems relating to language, communication, personal relationships, food and recreation (e.g., Chataway & Berry, 1989; Zheng & Berry, 1991). An issue of greater import concerns the relationship between expectations and experiences during the transition process. Contrary to the commonly reported expectation-experience correlation, this research failed to demonstrate a significant link between the two variables. This study, however, is distinguished in terms of a longitudinal design, as opposed to a cross-sectional approach. The repeated measurement of social difficulty and the testings that occurred during an overseas sojourn and after reentry allow for the more rigorous testing of the expectation-experience relationship. As such, the findings call into question results of crosssectional investigations which rely on retrospective descriptions of expectations and/or incorporate simultaneous data collection about expectations and experiences (see Black & Gregersen, 1990; Hawes & Kealey, 1980; Searle & Ward, 1990). Researchers themselves have explicitly acknowledged the limitations of cross-sectional data, and it is likely that their results are due, at least in part, to measurement artifact. Indeed, cognitive consistency theories suggest that this should be the case (e.g., Festinger, 1957). Methodological issues underpinning the hypothesized expectation-experience link deserve further attention in future research. Expectations in themselves possess no predictive power for either psychological or socio-cultural outcomes; however, their relevance is increased when assessed in conjunction with experiences. Realistic expectations as such do not appear to facilitate psychological adjustment. Rather the quality of expectations in relation to actual experiences is more important. When large discrepancies between expectation and experience result from experiences being more difficult than expected, the likelihood of psychological adjustment problems increases. Conversely, when large discrepancies result because experiences are more positive than anticipated, psychological well-being is enhanced.
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At first glance the findings appear hard to reconcile with existing social psychological and clinical literature on cognition and mental health. Taylor and Brown (1988) have discussed a growing body of research which has shifted emphasis from the adaptive dimensions of realistic expectations to the positive effects of illusory biases on psychological well-being. In this regard undue optimism, unrealistically positive views of self and exaggerated notions of personal control have received special attention. Two points are made about this literature. First, while the adaptive features of positive expectancies have been documented, the consequences of the failure to meet these expectations have not been adequately assessed. Secondly, methodological issues may be partially responsible for the seemingly divergent pattern of results. Although investigators have examined both correlational and causal links between expectancies and outcomes, they have not explicitly considered the effects of expectation-experience discrepancies on mental health. For example, some researchers make assumptions about preexisting expectancies without assessing them; others provide measurements of both expectancies and outcomes and subject the data to correlational analysis but fail to consider the actual discrepancy between the two (see reviews by Bandura, 1989; Taylor & Brown, 1988). While expectancies and outcomes may be related on a general level, the discrepancy dimension remains altogether a different issue. Having argued in favor of the robust research design of the study presented here, it is also appropriate to acknowledge its limitations. The questionnaire return rate and the sample characteristics are of prime concern. On the first count, the sample size is small. An overall return rate of 23% was achieved with approximately half of the invited participants responding in each of the two questionnaire postings. Although this compares favorably with return rates in international surveys (Jobber & Saunders, 1988), the representativeness of the sample and its potential for generalizing to other groups or situations are called into question. Similar issues are raised by the psychosocial characteristics of the sample under study. On this count, AFS scholars are bright and highly motivated students who possess psychological and social resources to deal with the stress of cross-cultural transition. There is little evidence of psychological adjustment problems in this group; indeed, the depression scores are below the New Zealand diagnostic norms for mild depressive disorders. In this instance it might be argued that the psychological hardiness of the sample further limits the generalizability of the findings to other groups of sojourners. It is equally plausible, however, that diminished variance in psychological adjustment during reentry has actually diluted the significance of discrepancies in expectations and experiences. In either case, further longitudinal research with more varied samples of sojourners is required.
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Despite these reservations, the finding that unmet positive expectations result in psychological distress during cross-cultural relocations has obvious implications for cross-cultural training. The data suggest that in at least some circumstances, it is a worthwhile strategy to overprepare sojourners for the problems that they may encounter during crosscultural transitions. Having made that point, however, it is important to acknowledge that crossing cultures involves a wide range of expectations. This research was restricted to expectations about situational social difficulties, and the findings should not be extended beyond that domain. It would be inappropriate, for example, to suggest to sojourners that hosts or fellow nationals are intrinsically unpleasant or that individuals who relocate are necessarily inefficient at dealing with cross-cultural contact and change. It would be instructive, however, to place emphasis on situational difficulties that arise in social interactions during these relocations. This is especially true for the reentry process as training and preparation are often lacking for that particular transition experience. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that discrepancies arising from expectations which are more positive than experiences are linked with impaired psychological adjustment during reentry. The findings have theoretical and applied implications for an area which has been both under-investigated and poorly researched. On a conceptual level the findings support the directional/evaluative hypothesis of expectation-experience matching. In the applied domain the results suggest that training effectiveness may be increased if sojourners are overprepared for social difficulty on reentry. As expectations remain a popular topic in cross-cultural psychology but the theorizing is based on limited empirical evidence, the expectation-experience discrepancy warrants more extensive investigation in future research. More rigorous testing of expectations and experiences in longitudinal studies is recommended. This includes research with larger and more diverse sojourner samples and studies of both initial relocation and reentry. In this way investigators can make a significant contribution to understanding and facilitating the process of psychological adjustment during cross-cultural transitions.
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