Explaining NFL fans' purchase intentions for revered and reviled teams: A dual-process perspective

Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 19 (2012) 332–342

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Explaining NFL fans’ purchase intentions for revered and reviled teams: A dual-process perspective Jeremy J. Sierra a,n, Harry A. Taute b,1, Robert S. Heiser c,2 a

Department of Marketing, McCoy College of Business Administration, Texas State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA Woodbury School of Business, Utah Valley University, 600 W. University Parkway, Orem, UT 84058, USA c School of Business, University of Southern Maine, Box 9300, Luther Bonney 216, Portland, ME 04104, USA b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Available online 29 March 2012

Prior research in consumer decision-making describes the increased utility derived from consideration of both cognitive and emotive determinants of choice (i.e., a dual-process approach). In the sport consumption context, cognitive factors such as personal beliefs and feelings for a particular team have been shown to influence fan behavior. Further, fans often engage in team-related discussion and behaviors rooted in cognitive and emotive perceptions; yet, research examining such factors jointly as determinants of sport consumption is limited. Using undergraduate business student samples from the southwest U.S., this research develops, tests, and shows support for two dual-process models for revered (Study1) and reviled (Study 2) National Football League (NFL) teams. & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Anticipated regret Dual-process theory Locus of control Personal expertise Purchase intention Self-expression

1. Introduction Defined as an ‘‘enthusiastic devotee of some particular sports consumptive object’’ (Hunt et al., 1999, p. 439), sports fans’ pregame, game, and postgame behaviors associated with professional sports are ceremonial, barmy, and directly linked to the lucrative nature of the sports industry. In particular, the National Football League (NFL) and its constituents reap the financial benefit associated with the ardent and novice fan following. With league revenue exceeding $8 billion annually and average game attendance nearing 68,000 (Plunkett Research, Ltd., 2010), local, national, and global economies experience positive financial and nonfinancial effects from the NFL. The activities and events linked with the NFL (e.g., regular season, playoffs, Super Bowl, Pro Bowl, and the draft) are highly anticipated and readily embraced by a sundry and resolute set of adherents seemingly spanning the gamut of fan demographics. Prior research in consumer decision-making describes the increased utility derived from consideration of both cognitive and emotive determinants of choice (Bitner, 1992; Finucane and Holup, 2006). In the sport consumption context, cognitive factors such as personal opinions and beliefs (Sierra et al., 2010), and feelings for a particular team (Koo and Hardin, 2008; Robinson et al., 2004; Taute et al., 2010; Trail et al., 2003b) have been shown to influence fan

behavior. For example, some fans bask in reflected glory (BIRGing) as a means to increase their association with their favorite team after a signature win (Cialdini et al., 1976), whereas other fans may cut off reflected failure (CORFing) as a means to decrease their association with their so-called favorite team after a difficult loss to their rival (Snyder et al., 1986). In such cases, fans may often engage in NFLrelated discussion and behaviors rooted in cognitive and emotive perceptions; yet, research examining such factors jointly (i.e., a dualprocess approach) as determinants of sport consumption is generally lacking. Therefore, two dual-process models for revered (Study1) and reviled (Study 2) NFL teams are developed and tested using one segment of the population, namely undergraduate business students, in a geographically constrained area in the southwest U.S. The exposition proceeds as follows. First, the importance of dualprocess theory to consumer choice models is discussed. Next, the literature on factors that influence sport consumption is reviewed. Then, the model constructs used in Study 1 are presented, followed by the hypotheses, methodology, and results. To further investigate emotional and cognitive determinants of sport consumption, a dualprocess model of sport consumption involving an NFL fan’s least favorite team (Study 2) is developed and tested. An overall discussion of this research is offered, followed by implications, limitations, and future research directions. 1.1. Dual-process theory

n

Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 512 245 3819; fax: þ 1 512 245 7475. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.J. Sierra), [email protected] (H.A. Taute), [email protected] (R.S. Heiser). 1 Tel.: þ1 801 863 8227; fax: þ1 801 863 7218. 2 Tel.: þ1 207 228 8364; fax: þ1 207 780 4662. 0969-6989/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2012.03.007

Dual-process frameworks offer an inclusive look at decision processes by modeling cognitive and emotive factors as choice antecedents. In contrast, only focusing on either antecedent may leave meaningful variance unexplained (Agarwal and Malhotra, 2005;

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van Gelder et al., 2009). In this sense, during the decision-making process, cognitions and emotions do not operate in isolation; they work jointly to drive choice (Hansen, 2005). Further, empirical research suggests that cognitive-based analytic models do not accurately describe how people decide; choice processes are more aptly modeled by incorporating cognitive and emotive decisionmaking determinants (Finucane and Holup, 2006; Pawle and Cooper, 2006). For example, researchers who assume that gamblers place bets solely on expected economic returns (cognitive appeal) or that shoppers purchase household goods based exclusively on a friendly conversation with a store employee while browsing (emotive appeal) fail to capture the scope of consumer decision-making processes (Lehrer, 2009). In addition to the possibility of winning money (cognitive appeal), the thrill of wagering (emotive appeal) motivates gamblers to place wagers; likewise, the likelihood a shopper buys a household good that is marked down (cognitive appeal) may increase after having a friendly conversation with a sales employee (emotive appeal). Dual-process frameworks are apt for modeling consumer purchases. For example, when customer–employee interaction is high, both cognitive and emotive factors are robust predictors of consumer choice (Bitner, 1992). Regarding emotional determinants of choice, anticipated emotions, linked with fantasized outcomes (Kwortnik and Ross, 2007), along with cognitive factors, influence credit card use (Wiener et al., 2007), gambling intentions (Sierra and Hyman, 2009), apparel purchase intentions (Sierra and Hyman, 2011), and desire to exercise, diet, and study (Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). Additionally, in retail contexts, shopping center image and positive anticipated emotions relate positively to shopping center visits (Hunter, 2006). In sport settings, group affiliation and love for the game motivate college football fans to attend games (Kahle et al., 1996); also, cognitions like team identification and opponent quality indirectly affect fan satisfaction of attending a sporting event through emotions like enjoyment and basking in reflected glory (Madrigal, 1995). Building on the identification phenomenon, research shows that brand communities are strengthened as consumer identification with such communities intensifies (Heere et al., 2011); this type of cult-like bonding may be a product of the ritualistic nature of these brand groups (Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001; O’Sullivan et al., 2011). For example, sportsrelated rituals heighten fan interest in the event (Chalip, 1992), which is evident in team and player-based similarity rituals (e.g., face painting, jersey wearing), ultimately making it easier for fans to identify with such sports entities (Sukhdial et al., 2002). As this need for affiliation is met via sport-related identification, higher levels of game attendance may ensue (Donavan et al., 2005). To further understand how cognitions and emotions work as consumer choice determinants, two dual-process models are developed and tested to delineate factors that influence NFL fans’ purchase intentions.

2. Literature review 2.1. Determinants of sport consumption In general, determinants of sport consumption include psychological (e.g., eustress, esthetic pleasure, drama, and entertainment), socio-cultural (e.g., family and social interaction, cultural connections), and social belongingness (e.g., tribal connections, vicarious achievement) dimensions (Smith and Stewart, 2007). Identification, involvement, emotional attachment, and affective state have also been supported as determinants of sport consumption (e.g. Koo and Hardin, 2008; Robinson et al., 2004; Trail et al., 2003a, 2003b). Furthering the involvement finding, Taylor and Shanka (2008) found

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that involvement relates positively to perceived satisfaction of sporting events, which in turn, has a direct positive effect on future event participation intention. Also, sport fan involvement, as Funk and James (2001) found, moves fans from initial awareness of a sport or team to eventual allegiance, suggesting that involvement plays an important role in team attachment (Tsiotsou and Alexandris, 2009) and ultimately, sport brand community development. For online sport consumption, fanship, fan expression, entertainment, escape, and team support explain meaningful variance (Won and Green, 2008). As these findings indicate, both cognitive and emotive factors help explain fans’ sport-related purchases. Additionally, factors that influence attending and watching games, buying officially licensed team goods, and purchasing memorabilia include social networks (Wakefield, 1995), sport and team interest (Mahoney et al., 2002; Robinson et al., 2004), and team identification (Fisher and Wakefield, 1998; Mahoney et al., 2002; Matsuoka et al., 2003), as well as team success, scheduling, team roster quality, price, fan convenience, and forms of entertainment competition (Hansen and Gauthier, 1989). Also, driving sport consumption are entertainment value (Funk et al., 2002), pride (Decrop and Derbaix, 2010), participation in fantasy football (Nesbit and King, 2010), fan loyalty and involvement (Funk and James, 2001; Mahoney et al., 2000), suspense (Peterson and Raney, 2008), and perceived quality and self-image congruence (Dae and Kang, 2009). Moreover, game attendance is positively affected by mood, self-esteem, identity salience, and satisfaction (Laverie and Arnett, 2000; Trail et al., 2005). Other factors contributing to game attendance, which may originate from direct or indirect experience, include nostalgic reflection and style of play; regarding the former, fans are likely to attend live sporting events when they experience nostalgia toward the sport and/or its players (Kulczycki and Hyatt, 2005), and regarding the latter, when the style of play is considered old school (e.g., professional, of high character, humble), fans that espouse this approach of competition are more readily targeted with promotional material aimed at increasing game attendance and other sportrelated purchases (Aiken and Sukhdial, 2004). Again, these findings suggest that both cognitions and emotions influence fans’ sport consumption. Other researchers have examined the hero/villain dichotomy in sports. In NASCAR, this division leads to heighten levels of attitudinal commitment to the sport (Bodkin et al., 2009). Regarding loved collegiate football teams, cognitions such as internal locus of control, personal expertise, and attitude toward the coach are positive determinants of willingness to attend games, and internal locus of control is a positive determinant of intention to purchase apparel (Sierra et al., 2010). Similarly, for loathed college football teams, internal locus of control and attitude toward the coach are positive determinants of willingness to attend games (Sierra et al., 2010). Once more using a collegiate football context, Taute et al. (2010) found a positive relationship between emotional arousal and intention to attend games, pleasure and arousal and intention to purchase apparel, and arousal and dominance and intention to purchase memorabilia; for despised teams, the emotional dimensions of pleasure, arousal, and dominance were each positively related to intention to attend games. To add meaningfully to the aforementioned streams of research, a dual-process framework is used to explain NFL fans’ purchase intentions. Specifically, in Study 1, internal locus of control, personal expertise, self-expression, and anticipated regret are modeled as antecedents of intention to purchase apparel of revered NFL teams, which in turn, is modeled as a determinant of intention to attend games involving such teams. In Study 2, internal locus of control, personal expertise, and general emotions are modeled as antecedents of intention to attend games involving reviled NFL teams. In Study 2, as compared to Study 1, self-expression and intention to purchase apparel are excluded, as purchasing apparel for a least favorite team

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is highly unlikely; also, anticipated regret is substituted with general emotions, as fans would not anticipate regret about a least favorite team losing. Previous research indicates these determinants influence buyers’ decisions across a range of settings, and thus may explain meaningful variance in fans’ purchase intentions for loved and loathed NFL teams. The model constructs used and hypotheses developed for Study 1 are now discussed.

3. Study 1: model constructs and hypotheses 3.1. Locus of control Grounded in Social Learning Theory, locus of control puts forward that social outcomes stem from a person’s effort or uncontrollable forces like other people or chance (Rotter, 1966). For example, an NFL fan adopting internal locus of control for team performance may choose to wear a specific hat during a game because his/her team triumphed in their previous game when he/she sported that cap. Likewise, a soccer fan believing in external locus of control may attribute a poor call by a referee (i.e., others) or luck (e.g., a rival’s fluke goal) as grounds why his/ her team lost a game. The belief in the ability to influence events through mental imagery, effort, or ritual defies both rationality and science (Pronin et al., 2006), but is not uncommon, particularly in sports (Bleak and Frederick, 1998; Ciborowski, 1997; Sierra et al., 2010; Van Raalte and Brewer, 1991). Locus of control is a three dimensional construct where power over events is held either internally, attributed to others, or luck (Levenson, 1973). For this study, others and luck are omitted; regarding the former, fans often attribute game outcomes to other people such as players and coaches (Wann and Dolan, 1994) and in terms of the latter, individually-controlled, superstitious behaviors, rather than fate or chance were of research interest. Hence, this study examines how fans’ internal locus of control for game outcomes influences: their purchase intentions for loved NFL teams and their emotional response in the form of anticipated regret about the prospect of this team’s failure. Superstitions (Joukhador et al., 2004) and hunches (Toneatto et al., 1997) induce gamblers to believe that they can beat the system (Moore and Ohtsuka, 1999), which may heighten their emotional response toward anticipated outcomes (Sierra and Hyman, 2009). In this sense, competitive environments are ripe for emotional responses and perceptions that outcomes can be controlled in some capacity by participant behaviors and beliefs, as if by magic (Pronin et al., 2006). Moreover, athletes are known to adopt certain idiosyncratic behaviors or rituals in the belief they influence performance or outcomes (Bleak and Frederick, 1998; Ciborowski, 1997; Van Raalte and Brewer, 1991). Relevant here, Sierra et al. (2010) found that internal locus of control for game outcomes positively affects fans’ intention to attend games of both their favorite and least favorite collegiate football team. Hence, it appears that locus of control-based self-controlled superstitions are relevant in sport-related exchanges (Mowen and Carlson, 2003). H1. Fans’ internal locus of control about game outcomes involving their favorite NFL team relates positively to their anticipated regret about this team losing. H2. Fans’ internal locus of control about game outcomes involving their favorite NFL team relates positively to their intention to purchase this team’s apparel. 3.2. Personal expertise Explicated in Cognitive Skill Learning Theory, obtained knowledge influences choices and expectations (Anderson,

1982). This subjective or objective knowledge (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987), consists of cognitive structures (e.g., beliefbased facts) and cognitive processes (e.g., decision rules based on these beliefs) (Lee and Olshavsky, 1994). Applied here, fans’ cognitive structures (e.g., team statistical knowledge, such as a winning streak against a certain team) and cognitive processes (e.g., attending a game to root for this team and see the winning streak continue) may influence sport-related consumption. Self-assessed personal expertise is a robust influencer of consumer choice across a variety of contexts (e.g., gambling, cheating, sports, business-to-business, investment services, and brand evaluations) (Bell and Eisingerich, 2007; Belonax et al., 2007; Ceci and Liker, 1986; Nam and Sternthal, 2008; Pablo, 1997; Sierra and Hyman, 2006; Sierra et al., 2010). Related to this study context, the amalgam of sport-related media outlets to peruse enables fans to increase their expertise about teams and players. For example, sports talk radio, blogs, and wireless media offer the dedicated fan immediate and incessant access to soughtafter sports information. As a result, fans readily and confidently assert their newly acquired sports erudition, which may influence product-related purchases. Hence, the relationships between fan expertise about an adored NFL team and their intention to purchase this team’s apparel and attend games involving this team are tested. H3. Fans’ personal expertise about their favorite NFL team relates positively to their intention to purchase this team’s apparel. H4. Fans’ personal expertise about their favorite NFL team relates positively to their intention to attend games involving this team. 3.3. Self-expression Self-expressive value is rooted in brand ownership (Aaker, 1999) and possessions such as attire embody consumers’ selves (Belk, 1988; Michaelidou and Dibb, 2006; Schembri et al., 2010; ¨ Wallstrom et al., 2010). As such, materialism is associated with possessions used for individual expression, including characterization value (possessions that symbolize aspects of their owner’s values) and communication value (possessions that indicate to others its owner’s values) (Richins, 1994). Consumers obtain and parade material possessions to further ascertain their uniqueness; as a result, apparel, tattoos, hair styles, and the like, boost people’s social identity (Tian et al., 2001). Additionally, a person’s selfconcept (i.e., social identity and self-identity) can be clarified and reinforced through product-related symbolism (Elliott, 1998; Elliott and Wattanasuwan, 1998). Specifically, apparel and sport-related purchases made by consumers are closely linked to their self-concept and are used for self-expressive purposes (Kahle et al., 1996; Laverie and Arnett, 2000; Piacentini and Mailer, 2004). Based on the aforementioned, the following hypothesis is posited: H5. Fans’ self-expression of their favorite NFL team relates positively to their intention to purchase this team’s apparel. 3.4. Anticipated regret Anticipated regret is a negative-laden emotion (Roese, 2000) directed toward foreseen anguish stemming from a subpar exchange-related outcome (Currie, 1985), such as when a fan anticipates how saddened they will feel if their adored team loses an important game. Outcomes laced with uncertainty, like athletic events, are ripe to spawn feelings of anticipated regret for parties involved such as sports fans; in uncertain contexts, anticipated regret is a robust decision-making motivator (Das and Kerr, 2010; Greenleaf, 2004; Zhang and Fishbach,

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2005). Applied here, NFL fans may opt to attend a game involving an adored team when they anticipate regret about this team losing that particular game. The reason may reside in fan passion for their adored team; although they can imagine how awful they will feel if their favorite team loses, they want to be in attendance to root for them, while sporting their team’s garb and colors. Hence, fans’ anticipated regret about their favorite team losing is expected to relate positively to both their intention to purchase this team’s apparel and attend this team’s games. To test these notions, the following hypotheses are offered:

apparel purchases. These items were adapted to measure fans’ self-expression through team apparel acquisition.

H6. Fans’ anticipated regret about their favorite NFL team losing relates positively to their intention to purchase this team’s apparel. H7. Fans’ anticipated regret about their favorite NFL team losing relates positively to their intention to attend games involving this team.

4.1.5. Intention to purchase apparel and attend games Holmes and Crocker (1987) examined consumer intentions to purchase high and low involvement products and MacKenzie et al. (1986) examined advertising effectiveness and its effect on purchase intentions. Items were adapted from each of these scales and measured fans’ intention to purchase their favorite NFL team’s apparel and attend this team’s games.

3.5. Intention to purchase

4.2. Data collection procedure

Fans’ team-related purchases can be ascribed to team commitment and team identification (Kwon and Armstrong, 2006); as such allegiance intensifies, fans may purchase team apparel of an adored team and attend its games for self-expressiveness of team loyalty (i.e., communication value) (Richins, 1994). In this vein, the communication value of wearing team garb motivates fans to attend sporting events. As such, fans’ intention to purchase their favorite NFL team’s apparel is expected to correlate positively with their intention to attend games involving this team. Hence, the following hypothesis is offered:

NFL fans at a business school located in the southwest U.S. were solicited as respondents. At the onset of the questionnaire, participants were asked to indicate their favorite NFL team and how long in terms of years (MFAV ¼10.78 years, SD ¼6.81), they have felt this way. Subsequently, respondents answered sevenpoint Likert and semantic differential scale items for the studied constructs.

H8. Fans’ intention to purchase their favorite NFL team’s apparel relates positively to their intention to attend games involving this team.

The mean age of respondents (N ¼ 209) is 22.56 (SD¼2.08); males (74%) outnumber females. Whites (72%) and Hispanics (18%) are the main ethnic groups queried. Regarding class rank, seniors (67%) and juniors (26%) dominate the sample. Concerning respondents’ favorite NFL team, Dallas (53%), Houston (14%), San Diego (4%), Indianapolis (3%), and Green Bay (3%) are most venerated.

4. Methodology 4.1. Scale descriptions The survey contained questions from six scales, including: internal locus of control (IntLOC; 3 items), personal expertise (PerEXP; 5 items), self-expression (SelfEXP; 5 items), anticipated regret (AntREG; 4 items), intention to purchase apparel (APPAREL; 4 items), and intention to attend games (ATTEND; 3 items). Complete scale items are provided in Appendix A. Each of these scales is briefly described. 4.1.1. Internal locus of control Sierra et al. (2010) examined internal locus of control in a fanbased collegiate football context. The IntLOC items used in their study were adapted and measured fans’ belief that they have some control or influence over game outcomes involving their favorite team. 4.1.2. Personal expertise Sierra and Hyman (2009) examined self-assessed personal expertise as a determinant of intention to gamble. Five of these items were adapted to measure personal expertise about a favorite NFL team. 4.1.3. Self-expression Grounded in the characterization and communication components of self-expressive values (Richins, 1994), Sierra and Hyman (2011) examined self-expression as a determinant of outlet mall

4.1.4. Anticipated regret Anticipated regret is a negatively-charged emotion directed toward forecasted torment resulting from an unsuccessful exchange outcome (Currie, 1985); it was measured with an adaptation of the gambling-context scale in Sierra and Hyman (2009).

4.3. Sample profile

5. Results 5.1. Factor structure As a first step, principal components analysis with varimax rotation was used to assess the factor structure of the 24 items comprising the six scales. Missing data were handled via pairwise deletion. The resulting six factor solution, in which each item loaded highly on the appropriate factor (i.e., greater than 0.704) with no meaningful cross loadings (i.e., 0.295 or less), accounted for 78.34% of the variance. Reliabilities for the five scales ranged from a ¼0.856–0.931. A confirmatory factory analysis measurement model was then estimated with LISREL 8.72 and the 24 items comprising the six scales. The average variance extracted (AVE) values for each construct (i.e., IntLOC ¼72.96%, PerEXP ¼77.36%, SelfEXP ¼ 66.65%, AntREG ¼72.48%, APPAREL ¼85.69%, and ATTEND ¼68.89%) exceed 50%, which provides additional evidence for convergent validity; also, the AVE values for each construct are greater than the squared correlations between each construct and the other constructs, which offers further evidence for discriminant validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Estimation of the measurement model produced the following goodness-of-fit statistics: w2(237df)¼642.50 (P¼0.00), CFI ¼0.94, NNFI¼0.93, GFI ¼0.80, and SRMR¼0.051.

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IntLOC

H6: 0.13 (2.01)*

H1: 0.39 (5.09)**

AntREG

H5: 0.27 (3.39)**

H2: 0.19 (2.24)* APPAREL

H3: 0.25 (3.81)**

H8: 0.36 (4.51)**

H7: 0.19 (2.68)**

ATTEND

6.1. Attending games of loathed teams SelfEXP

PerEXP H4: 0.21 (2.85)**

*Significant at P<0.05 level **Significant at P<0.01 level

For fans, rooting against a despised team involves hope for this team’s woes experienced when losing a game. This jovial-laden feeling stemming from an out-group’s tribulation is referred to as schadenfreude, realized when Dutch subjects delight in Germany soccer losses (Leach et al., 2003). Similarly, the Disposition Theory of Entertainment (Zillmann, 1980) suggests that consumers may view characters harshly, leading to hopefulness of calamity for such characters. In reality television (Dalakas and Langenderfer, 2007) and sport (Zillmann et al., 1989) settings, fans derive pleasure from the viewing experience when abhorred characters fail in some manner. In the same way, NFL fans may attend games involving their least favorite team with the hope they will lose. 6.2. General emotions

Fig. 1. Favorite NFL team structural model. Note: the path coefficient and t-statistic are provided for each relationship.

5.2. Structural equation model The relationships shown in Fig. 1 were tested using a structural equation model with LISREL 8.72. A covariance matrix and maximum likelihood estimation were used to estimate model parameters. Missing data were handled via pairwise deletion. The six constructs—internal locus of control, personal expertise, selfexpression, anticipated regret, intention to purchase apparel, and intention to attend games—with three, five, five, four, four, and three items respectively, were included in the model. Model estimation produced the following goodness-of-fit statistics: w2(241df)¼647.03 (P¼0.00), CFI¼0.94, NNFI¼0.93, GFI ¼0.79, and SRMR¼ 0.065. The structural equation model’s path coefficients are used to evaluate the hypotheses. The t-statistic associated with each path coefficient is significant at the P o0.05 level or better (see Fig. 1). Specifically, fans’ internal locus of control about game outcomes relates positively to both their anticipated regret about their favorite NFL team losing (H1; t ¼5.09) and their intention to purchase their favorite NFL team’s apparel (H2; t ¼2.24). Also, fans’ team-related expertise relates positively to both their intention to purchase their favorite NFL team’s apparel (H3; t ¼3.81) and their intention to attend this team’s games (H4; t ¼2.85). Also, fans’ self-expression via favorite team support relates positively to their intention to purchase their favorite NFL team’s apparel (H5; t ¼3.39). Additionally, the data show a positive relationship between fans’ anticipated regret about their favorite NFL team losing and both their intention to purchase this team’s apparel (H6; t¼2.01) and their intention to attend this team’s games (H7; t ¼2.68). Lastly, fans’ intention to purchase their favorite NFL team’s apparel relates positively to their intention to attend this team’s games (H8; t¼ 4.51).

6. Study 2 To offer insight to dual process theory in professional football consumption, affective and personal belief determinants of fans’ intention to attend games involving loathed NFL teams are examined. Specifically, internal locus of control, personal expertise, and general emotions are modeled as antecedents of fans’ intention to attend games involving their least favorite NFL team. Recall, here compared to Study 1, self-expression and intention to purchase apparel are excluded; also, anticipated regret is substituted with general emotions.

Classified as a state of feeling or affect, emotions are essential to consumer decision-making (Elliott, 1998; MacInnis and de Mello, 2005); neuroscience confirms this notion (Lehrer, 2009; Shiv, 2007). Emotions influence consumer decisions across a variety of contexts, including travel and tourism (Shih-Chieh, ¨ ul ¨ and Menon, 2010), nostalgia (Sierra 2007), advertising (Bulb and McQuitty, 2007), and health care (Kelly and Rupert, 2009), to name a few. Hence, they may be ubiquitous in fans’ responses to professional sport teams (Preuss, 2007). Emotions lead to higher quality choices when matched against cognitive ability (Kidwell et al., 2008); their inclusion in econometric choice models further validates their importance to understanding consumer decision processes (Hermalin and Isen, 2008).

7. Hypotheses Study 1 shows the application of dual-process choice models in a sport context; for example, internal locus of control, personal expertise, self-expression, and anticipated regret relate positively to fans’ intention to purchase their favorite NFL team’s apparel. It is expected then, that a comparable dual-process model will demonstrate explanatory power pertaining to fans’ intention to attend games involving their least favorite NFL team. Specifically, fans that espouse internal locus of control for game outcomes and partake in pregame rituals where such acts are meant to result in an abhorrent team losing (e.g., Oakland Raiders fans putting the hex on the Kansas City Chiefs quarterback) may be inclined to attend games involving this team to experience schadenfreude first hand. Furthermore, internal locus of control-disposed fans may respond favorably toward such despised teams, as this team’s failure on the field is imminent (as projected by such fans’ superstitious behaviors); hence, internal locus of control for game outcomes is expected to relate positively to fans’ emotional response toward reviled NFL teams. H9. Fans’ internal locus of control about game outcomes involving their least favorite NFL team relates positively to their intention to attend games involving this team. H10. Fans’ internal locus of control about game outcomes involving their least favorite NFL team relates positively to their emotional response toward this team. With information sources readily available to acquire teamrelated information, fans that are self-assessed experts regarding loathed teams may be willing to attend games involving such teams to watch a losing streak continue in-person. While Sierra et al. (2010) found no support for this relationship regarding an abhorrent collegiate football team, fan knowledge about despised

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professional teams, developed possibly over decades of rivalry, is expected to relate positively to their intention to attend games involving this team.

9. Results

H11. Fans’ personal expertise about their least favorite NFL team relates positively to their intention to attend games involving this team.

Initially, principal components analysis with varimax rotation was used to assess the factor structure of the 19 items comprising the four scales. Missing data were handled via pairwise deletion. The resulting four factor solution, in which each item loaded highly on the appropriate factor (i.e., greater than 0.724) with no meaningful cross loadings (i.e., 0.158 or less), accounted for 75.02% of the variance. Reliabilities for the four scales ranged from a ¼0.758–0.939. Using LISREL 8.72, a measurement model was then estimated with the 19 items comprising the four scales. The AVE values for each construct (i.e., IntLOC ¼ 60.78%, PerEXP ¼64.82%, EMOT ¼76.65%, and ATTEND ¼ 77.70%) exceed 50%. Also, the AVE values for each construct are greater than the squared correlations between each construct and the other constructs. Estimation of the measurement model produced the following goodness-of-fit statistics: w2(146df)¼ 483.81 (P¼0.00), CFI¼0.88, NNFI¼0.86, GFI¼0.77, and SRMR¼0.052.

Additionally, emotions have a significant effect on decision making (Hermalin and Isen, 2008). Just as basketball fans find solace and experience schadenfreude in a loathed team’s loss, like when Los Angeles Lakers fans bask in the glow of a Boston Celtics defeat, NFL fans may attend games of despised teams, motivated by the anticipation of a loss by such rivals. For example, as grounded in Zillmann’s (1980) Disposition Theory of Entertainment, pleasure relates positively to fans’ willingness to attend games involving reviled collegiate football teams, as foes’ calamity and failure are desired (Taute et al., 2010). To test the generalizability of this finding, and provide support for the dual process approach, a positive relationship between fans’ general emotions toward a least favorite NFL team and their intention to attend games involving this team is posited. H12. Fans’ emotional response toward their least favorite NFL team relates positively to their intention to attend games involving this team.

8. Methodology 8.1. Scale descriptions The survey contained questions from four scales, including: internal locus of control (IntLOC; 3 items), personal expertise (PerEXP; 5 items), emotional response (EMOT; 6 items), and intention to attend games in hope of a loathed team loss (ATTEND; 5 items). Sources for all scales, aside from EMOT, were identified in Study 1. Regarding EMOT, Havlena and Holbrook (1986) evaluated consumers’ emotional responses to a wide range of consumption settings, including athletics, entertainment, dining, and fashion, to name a few; six of these semantic differential items were used to measure fans’ emotional response toward their least favorite NFL team. Complete scale items are provided in Appendix A.

8.2. Data collection procedure NFL fans at a business school located in the southwest U.S., who did not participate in Study 1, were solicited as respondents. At the onset of the questionnaire, participants were asked to indicate their least favorite NFL team and how long in terms of years (MLEASTFAV ¼8.75 years, SD¼ 6.6), they have felt this way. Subsequently, respondents answered seven-point Likert and semantic differential scale items for the studied constructs.

9.1. Factor structure

9.2. Structural equation model The relationships shown in Fig. 2 were tested using a structural equation model with LISREL 8.72. A covariance matrix and maximum likelihood estimation were used to estimate model parameters. Missing data were handled with pairwise deletion. The four constructs—internal locus of control, personal expertise, emotional response, and intention to attend games—with three, five, six, and five items respectively, were included in the model. Model estimation produced the following goodness-of-fit statistics: w2(147df)¼484.26 (P¼0.00), CFI¼0.88, NNFI¼ 0.86, GFI¼0.77, and SRMR¼0.054. The structural equation model’s path coefficients are used to evaluate the hypotheses. The t-statistic associated with each path coefficient is significant at the Po0.05 level or better (see Fig. 2). Specifically, fans’ internal locus of control for game outcomes involving their least favorite NFL team relates positively to both their intention to attend games involving this team (H9; t¼2.89) and their emotional response toward this team (H10; t ¼2.56). Also, fans’ expertise regarding their least favorite NFL team relates positively to their intention to attend this team’s games (H11; t¼ 2.37). Additionally, fans’ emotional response toward their least favorite NFL team relates positively to their intention to attend games involving this team (H12; t¼ 2.88).

IntLOC

PerEXP H9: 0.24 (2.89)**

H10: 0.22 (2.56)*

H11: 0.18 (2.37)*

8.3. Sample profile

EMOT The mean age of the sample (N¼ 171) is 21.97 (SD ¼1.46); males (72%) outnumber females. Whites (71%) and Hispanics (19%) are the main ethnic groups studied. In terms of class standing, seniors (71%) and juniors (16%) are most represented. Regarding teams loathed, Dallas (21%), New England (12%), New York Giants (11%), Philadelphia (11%), and Oakland (8%) are least regarded.

H12: 0.22 (2.88)**

ATTEND

*Significant at P<0.05 level **Significant at P<0.01 level Fig. 2. Least favorite NFL football team structural model. Note: the path coefficient and t-statistic are provided for each relationship.

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10. Discussion Previous research shows that both cognitive (e.g., identification, locus of control) and emotive (e.g., arousal, eustress) factors independently influence sport-related behavioral intentions (e.g., Kwon, 2001; Sierra et al., 2010; Taute et al., 2010). Building on this understanding, the current research examines how cognitive and emotive factors simultaneously influence consumer intentions (i.e., a dual-process model) in a sport context. As dualprocess models impart a more complete picture of consumer decisions compared to either cognitive or emotive-based choice models (Malhotra, 2005; Sierra and Hyman, 2009), this effort offers meaningful insight to this type of choice process (Lehrer, 2009). The studies here illuminate important determinants of NFL fan purchase intentions for loved and loathed teams. Specifically, Study 1 indicates fans’ internal locus of control for game outcomes, team-related expertise, self-expression of revered teams, and anticipated regret about unfavorable game outcomes, relate positively to intention to purchase apparel of loved NFL teams, which in turn relates positively to intention attend games involving this team. Further, team-related expertise and anticipated regret relate positively to fans’ intention to attend games involving adored NFL teams. Taken together, these findings validate dual-process theory in a NFL-based revered team context. Internal locus of control, as a self-controlled superstition, e.g., wearing a lucky jersey on game day (Mowen and Carlson, 2003), motivates fans to purchase their favorite NFL team’s apparel. Keen fans thus believe that they have some control over, or the ability to influence game outcomes, as if by magic (Pronin et al., 2006). This fascinating mindset is habitually used by athletes and gamblers (Ciborowski, 1997; Joukhador et al., 2004; Langer, 1975); the research here generalizes this phenomenon to NFL fans. Additionally, the data reveal a significant positive relationship between internal locus of control and anticipated regret regarding game outcomes, which suggests fans’ emotional involvement with games intensifies as they attribute games outcomes, in some capacity, to their behaviors and rituals; this finding also implies that fans’ emotional involvement regarding anticipated regret may lead fans to seeks out ways (e.g., rituals) to better control game outcomes. Hence, team-related purchases and game-linked emotions can be ascribed to superstitiousladen fans. Furthermore, the data show that fans’ team-related expertise regarding an adored NFL team relates positively to their intention to purchase this team’s apparel and attend this team’s games, validating the importance of self-assessed knowledge as a determinant of behavioral intentions. These findings provide sport marketers a recipe to increase consumption of their offerings; namely, bombard fans with team and player-related information across a host of media (e.g., email alerts, tweets, social media postings, and blogs) so as to increase team and player-linked expertise. Also, as seen in fans’ appearance on game days (e.g., face painting, costume wearing), self-expression of adored teams is rife. These data show a positive relationship between fans’ selfexpression of revered NFL teams and intention to purchase this team’s apparel; thus, sport marketers should capitalize on fans’ self-expressive needs via promotional campaigns. Supporters of anticipated emotions as choice determinants pay homage to the role of forecasted outcomes, either negative or positive, in consumer decision making. For example, visiting a casino or watching a favorite team play can spark negative forecasted results, thereby giving rise to anticipated regret regarding outcomes. Specifically, gamblers can envision leaving a slot machine one spin too early (as the next could be the jackpot winner); also, fans can imagine their team blowing a lead and losing the game. The findings here reveal that anticipated regret

regarding game outcomes for loved teams increases fans’ intention to purchase this team’s apparel and attend their games. Hence, sports marketers could capitalize on this effect via their communicative strategies by highlighting team and player patronage regardless of game outcomes. In other words, fans should be encouraged to attend games for support, even in defeat, as undefeated seasons are rare and enthusiastic support for teams is continually needed. Additionally, Study 1 shows the importance of getting fans to purchase their favorite team’s apparel, as intention to make such purchases relates positively to intention to attend games involving their favorite team. Through wireless, online, and/or in-store promotional strategies aimed at getting fans to purchase team apparel (e.g., family discounts, contests), sport marketers can increase fans’ intention to attend games. Study 2 results suggest that internal locus of control for game outcomes, team-related expertise, and team-linked emotional response relate positively to intention to attend games involving reviled NFL teams, validating dual-process theory in an NFLassociated loathed team context. Also, internal locus of control for game outcomes relates positively to team-based emotional response. Here, as in Study 1, superstitious-tendencies (i.e., internal locus of control) positively affect behavioral intentions and emotional responses even for despised teams. Thus, it appears fans believe their behaviors prior to and during a game shape game outcomes, such that when sport-related rituals are properly carried out, attending games involving a loathed team increases because a defeat is projected. As such, sports marketers would be wise to bolster fans’ belief that they have some control, albeit perceived, over game outcomes for both loved and loathed teams. Regarding team-related expertise, knowledge regarding opposing teams, players, and coaches positively influences fans’ intention to attend games, in this case, for despised teams. Thus, team contact points both outside (e.g., websites, apps) and within (e.g., signage, souvenir programs) the stadium, should contain a surfeit of data regarding opposing teams, players, and coaches as a means to boost team-related fan knowledge. Additionally, emotional response relates positively to intention to attend games involving loathed teams; therefore, sport marketers should try and generate favorable emotional response toward reviled teams, which may be achieved by promoting entities that comprise the team, such as star players (Spoelstra, 2010), rather than the team itself. Such favorable affect may lead to brand extension opportunities as well (Hagtvedt and Patrick, 2009) 10.1. Implications The findings support dual-process theory in a professional sport context and thus suggest avenues for the development and execution of appropriate sport-related marketing strategies. For example, linking team promotions to fan responsibility (i.e., internal locus of control) for team success (e.g., fans in attendance wearing all red attire to create a ‘‘Red Out’’ in the stands, partaking in tailgating rituals, and maintaining an upbeat and positive outlook during a game no matter the circumstance), as the results suggest, should positively affect fans’ intention to attend NFL games involving revered and reviled teams. Teams may also capitalize on the importance fans place on selfexpression of their favorite NFL team, which relates positively to fans’ intention to purchase this team’s apparel; in this sense, it is the apparel worn that not only is a personal expression of the diehard fan, but also a means to control game outcomes, via that lucky shirt, for those that are internal locus of control advocates. Comparable to gambling promotional campaigns sparking wagers via an emotional hook (e.g., lottery billboard ads that

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use ‘Today is the Day!’ copy), sports marketers could embed their promotional materials with images and copy pertaining to anticipated and general emotions. For example, as the findings show, anticipated regret relates positively to fans’ intention to attend games involving their favorite NFL team; thus, promotional copy (e.g., ‘We need you there!’) could accentuate the need for fans to be in attendance regardless of game outcomes for venerated teams. Regarding loathed teams, communication efforts should highlight entities of such teams (e.g., star players) that may trigger positive emotional responses in fans (‘love the player, hate the team mindset’). As the results indicate, favorable affect directed toward despised teams relates positively to fans’ intention to attend games involving such teams; the New Jersey Nets of the NBA used a similar approach (i.e., promoting star players of rival teams in promotional media), resulting in an increase in game attendance for home games (Spoelstra, 2010). In an attempt to build reverence for adored teams, sport marketers’ communicative strategies should accentuate team and player-related information to enrich fan expertise and knowledge (e.g., offensive and defensive statistics, draft pick data). For example, various types of promotional media (e.g., wireless ads, social media, blogs, and email alerts) could provide information to boost fan knowledge of NFL players, coaches, and organizations. Such communication efforts, as the data reveal, should have a positive effect on fans’ behavioral intentions for loved (regarding apparel purchases and game attendance) and loathed (regarding game attendance) teams. Beguilingly, aside from promotional campaigns developed around adored teams, the results suggest extending such efforts to despised teams as well, as fans’ beliefs (i.e., internal locus of control about game outcomes) and expertise about foes have positive effects on intention to attend games involving these teams. Such behaviors may be explained by segmented lineage theory (Sahlins, 1961), which explores predatory behavior of tribes. According to this framework, tribes are keyed up more so by threat than by cohesive social structure. As such, opposing groups, such as despised NFL teams, are perceived as barriers to societal advancement. Thus, when travel time and expenses are sensible, fans of a team band together and attend games of repugnant foes to watch them fail (Leach et al., 2003). 10.2. Limitations and future research The current research is not limitation-free. First, business student samples from a southwest U.S. university supplied data about their favorite and least favorite NFL team; as such, collecting additional data in various regions, with non-business students or non-student samples, for teams across multiple professional and collegiate sports would help generalize the findings (Winer, 1999). Second, the instruments used to measure the studied constructs may not be equally valid across all sport contexts, which could affect the measurement properties of the underlying constructs and their interrelationships. To provide further insight into fans’ responses to NFL and other professional sports, additional factors could be modeled. For example, future research could explore effects of demographic factors such as family life cycle, fantasy football participation (Drayer et al., 2010), or athletic involvement (current or former) on sport-related purchase intentions. Additional psychographic determinants of sport purchase intentions could be examined, including fan intensity (casual vs. avid), anticipated elation about team success (Brandstatter and Kriz, 2001), and team brand association (Ross et al., 2007). The situational context may also play a role in fans’ behavioral response to sports and teams. For example, are fans more willing to attend a home rivalry game or an away rivalry game? Also, does the number of regular season

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games (e.g., 82 NBA games, 16 NFL games, 162 MLB games) affect fans’ willingness to attend games? Interpretive methodologies could be used to explore the effects of fan emotions and cognitions on their sports-laden purchases. Additionally, the impact of social media and fan communities on sport transactions warrants inquiry (Wakefield, 1995); for example, would a Twitter posting urging fans to attend a game, wearing certain attire, lead to an increase in attendance?

Appendix A Scale Items—Study 1 (favorite team) Internal locus of control (a ¼0.856): (Seven-point Likert scale, 1-SD to 7-SA) (1) The amount of effort that I put into pregame rituals affects if my favorite NFL team will win. (2) What I decide to wear on game day (e.g., lucky shirt) affects if my favorite NFL team will win. (3) My ability to remain positive during the game affects if my favorite NFL team will win. Personal expertise (a ¼0.931): (Seven-point Likert scale, 1-SD to 7-SA) (1) (2) (3) (4)

I know a lot about my favorite NFL team. I am very familiar with the players on my favorite NFL team. I am very familiar with the coaches of my favorite NFL team. When it comes to my favorite NFL team, I am highly informed about their tradition. (5) Relative to other fans, I am very knowledgeable about my favorite NFL team. Self-expression (a ¼0.889): (Seven-point Likert scale, 1-SD to 7-SA) (1) By wearing my favorite NFL team’s apparel, it says a lot about who I am. (2) You can tell a lot about a person by what NFL team apparel they wear. (3) When I wear my favorite NFL team’s apparel, it is a reflection of my lifestyle. (4) I can really be myself when I wear my favorite NFL team’s apparel. (5) When I wear my favorite NFL team’s apparel, I get a glimpse of the type of person I am. Anticipated regret (a ¼0.896): (Seven-point Likert scale, 1-SD to 7-SA) (1) As kick off approaches, I can imagine feeling ‘‘bummed out’’ if my favorite NFL team does not win. (2) During the week leading up to a game, I can imagine feeling agony if my favorite NFL team loses. (3) During the game, I can envision experiencing sorrow if my favorite NFL team loses. (4) Prior to a game, I can see myself being upset if my favorite NFL team does not win. Intention to purchase apparel (a ¼0.912): (Seven-point semantic differential scale) (1) Would not seek out/would seek out (2) Not very likely/very likely

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(3) Improbable/probable (4) Would consider/would not consider (reverse coded) Intention to attend games (a ¼0.906): (Seven-point semantic differential scale) (1) Would not seek out/would seek out (2) Not very likely/very likely (3) Improbable/probable

Scale Items—Study 2 (least favorite team) Internal locus of control (a ¼0.755): (Seven-point Likert scale, 1-SD to 7-SA) (1) The amount of effort that I put into pregame rituals affects if my least favorite NFL team will win. (2) What I decide to wear on game day (e.g., lucky shirt) affects if my least favorite NFL team will win. (3) My attitude during the game affects if my least favorite NFL team will win. Personal expertise (a ¼0.901): (Seven-point Likert scale, 1-SD to 7-SA) (1) I know a lot about my least favorite NFL team. (2) I am very familiar with the players on my least favorite NFL team. (3) I am very familiar with the coaches of my least favorite NFL team. (4) When it comes to my least favorite NFL team, I am highly informed about their tradition. (5) Relative to other fans, I am very knowledgeable about my least favorite NFL team. Emotional response (a ¼0.939): (Seven-point semantic differential scale) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Unhappy/happy Unpleased/pleased Unsatisfied/satisfied Discontent/content Uncomforted/comforted Ungratified/gratified

Intention to attend games (a ¼0.927): (Seven-point Semantic Differential scale) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Would not seek out/would seek out Not very likely/very likely Improbable/probable Would not consider/would consider Unwilling/willing

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