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Exploring stakeholder engagement in mariculture development: Challenges and prospects for China
Marine Policy 103 (2019) 84–90
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Marine Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol
Exploring stakeholder engagement in mariculture development: Challenges and prospects for China
T
Jinkai Yu∗, Wang Yin College of Economics, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, PR China
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Mariculture Stakeholder engagement Challenge and prospect China
China has a long history of mariculture and is host to abundant marine bioresources. The annual output of China's mariculture industry has ranked first worldwide. However, the unsustainable development of mariculture in China has caused many problems in terms of marine environmental protection, utilization of marine resources and coordinated development of marine industries. This paper starts by describing the current situation of China's mariculture and the potential for promoting mariculture and then proposes that sustainable development of mariculture requires all relevant stakeholders' engagement involving government, aquaculture farmers, mariculture enterprises and related associations. This paper reviews the main challenges in stakeholder engagement in mariculture, including the pressure of industrial transformation, backward technology, risks of extending the industrial chain, and the lack of discursive power. Recommendations are proposed for a division of roles among the stakeholders in mariculture management for promoting the sustainable development of mariculture in China.
1. Introduction China has a long history of mariculture1 and is host to abundant mariculture resources. The nation's vast coastline spans 18,400 km and provides good conditions for the cultivation of marine animals and plants.2 Mariculture plays an important role in China's marine industry. In the past decade, mariculture output in China has grown at an average annual rate of over 19.70%, which exceeds the annual GDP growth rate of China as a whole [2]. Mariculture can not only optimize people's diets by providing high-protein foods but can also adjust marine fishery structures to improve fishermen's incomes and promote social conditions in coastal rural areas [4–6]. However, the rapid development of mariculture and its large-scale operations put enormous pressure on the natural environment [7]. With the increases in environmental consciousness [5,8,9], China is paying more attention to the sustainable development of its mariculture economy instead of traditional and extensive exploitation of marine aquaculture resources. A series of marine policies have been introduced by the Chinese government to protect the marine environment while developing marine aquaculture [10]. Recent polices attempting to
address environmental issues in marine aquaculture from different perspectives, such as “National Marine Functional Zoning (2011–2020)” and the “Marine Ecological Red Line”,3 constitute the basic strategic framework for the future development of marine aquaculture in China [11]. Although the scale and yield of mariculture in China already rank first worldwide and the marine authority is actively optimizing mariculture, mariculture in China still faces several difficulties and challenges [12–14]. In particular, the unrestrained and unscientific development of mariculture causes many problems in terms of marine environmental protection, utilization of marine resources and coordinated development of marine area. Therefore, how to promote the sustainable development of mariculture in China has become a priority problem that needs to be solved [15,16]. Here, sustainable development of mariculture means enhancing growth of marine aquaculture while reducing negative impacts on the marine environment at the same time [6,17]. Due to the need for systematic and comprehensive ocean management, promoting the sustainable development of mariculture requires the engagement of various stakeholders [18,19]. The challenges of
∗
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Yu). Mariculture is the farming of marine organisms for food and other products, either in the natural marine environment, or in land- or sea-based enclosures, such as cages, ponds, or raceways [1]. 2 All data are compiled by State Oceanic Administration (SOA) of China [2] and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations [3]. 3 The MFZ policy is focus on the economic values, and the MERL policy emphasizes values of ecological service [11]. 1
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.02.036 Received 5 September 2018; Received in revised form 21 February 2019; Accepted 21 February 2019 Available online 01 March 2019 0308-597X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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mariculture in China cannot be solved only by the government but by multi-stakeholders from private sector or non-governmental organizations [20,21]. The sustainable development of mariculture can be performed smoothly only with the full consideration of all stakeholders’ interests. Therefore, stakeholder analysis is an effective tool for defining function of each stakeholder and building a comprehensive management framework for mariculture development [22]. Taking into consideration the challenges and prospects of the sustainable development of Chinese mariculture from a stakeholder engagement perspective, the objectives of this study were to (1) understand the current situation of mariculture in China, (2) identify the roles of stakeholders in Chinese mariculture, (3) identify the challenges in creating stakeholder engagement, (4) develop a comprehensive framework of stakeholder engagement for optimizing mariculture management; and (5) analyze countermeasures for promoting sustainable maritime development.
Fig. 2. Composition of China's mariculture products in 2016. Data source: MOA in 2016
2. Overview of the development of mariculture in China in China does not make full use of potential mariculture space, and instead excessively exploits near inshore resources, ignoring the use of deep and remote sea space [16]. With the rapid development of mariculture, the unsustainable mariculture has caused many environmental problems such as eutrophication of seawater, outbreaks of diseases in mariculture and deterioration of marine ecosystems [24–26]. According to the “Report on the state of the fishery eco-environment in China” [27], the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Environmental Protection monitored 760 thousand hectares of key mariclture areas in China, and found that area proportions of inorganic nitrogen, active phosphate and petroleum indicators exceeding national standards were 68.1%, 52.1% and 36.3% respectively. To settle the conflicts between mariculture development and marine environmental damage, the “Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)” method which is intended for planning the spatial layout of mariculture is gaining increasing attention from China [28]. Marine spatial planning, as a key form of ocean management, was first applied to the Australian Great Barrier Reef National Marine Park Project in 1978 [29]. Afterward, MSP gradually gained the favor of developed coastal countries, which tried to ease the conflicts between the development of mariculture and the use of ocean space [30]. Under the guidance of EU's ocean policies, EU member countries developed programs of marine spatial planning, such as Belgium's Master Plan of Territorial Sea, the North Sea 2015 Integrated Ocean Management Plan of the Netherlands and the EEZ part of the German Federal Space Planning Act, which had enriched the theoretical and practical
2.1. Development status of mariculture in China According to the data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations [3], China's mariculture industry has been well developed since 1985, and its aquacultural area and output rank first among the world's nations. With continuous growth in the past 10 years, China's mariculture production has reached 19.63 million tons by 2016 (Fig. 1). At the same time, over 3 million traditional fishermen created a mariculture output valued at RMB 314.04 billion using 2166.72 thousand hectares of farmed sea area [2]. However, large-scale mariculture is not same as sustainable mariculture. In 2016, the production of raft culture, cage culture and bottom-sowing aquaculture in shallow-water areas accounted for 60% of total mariculture production [2]. Due to its lack of three-dimensional use of mariculture space, this traditional method is regarded as a backward mode of production [23]. In addition, 62.73% of China's mariculture area is used to farm shellfish such as scallops, clams and oysters, and aquaculture of high-end seafood which has high requirements for breeding environment and low survival rate [6], such as abalone, sea cucumber and sea urchin, is not being promoted (Fig. 2). Deep and remote sea areas have not been fully exploited, with only 119.30 thousand tons output of offshore cage aquaculture [2]. 2.2. Development method of mariculture-MSP Due to aquaculture tradition and technical limitations, aquaculture
Fig. 1. Mariculture production in China during the 2007–2016 period. Data source: MOA from 2007 to 2016 85
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3. Stakeholders in China's mariculture
framework of MSP [30–32]. In general, MSP is a strategic, forward-looking and comprehensive management tool for the sustainable development and utilization of marine resources. It is widely used to solve multiple cumulative or potential conflicts regarding ocean use via a rational layout of marine space. With the guidance of MSP, marine space can be utilized scientifically. Accordingly, Chinese government pays attention to MSP in the sustainable development of China's mariculture.
3.1. Definition of stakeholders The term ‘stakeholder’ originated in management science and means individuals and teams who can influence a company's goals or be affected by a company's goal-fulfillment process [48]. In the field of natural resource management, stakeholders are defined as users and managers of natural resources [49]. And stakeholders in marine fishery refer to individuals, groups and organizations that are involved in or affected by a certain marine fishery resource project or activity [50]. Due to the public-goods properties of marine fishery resources, marine fishery management involves economic, ecologic, social and other aspects, which makes it difficult to achieve management goals [51]. Accordingly, stakeholders' engagement plays an indispensable role in the management of marine fishery. Here, stakeholders are defined as people or organizations with direct interests and rights to provide input in mariculture development [52]. Stakeholders would be expected to increase their engagement in the exploitation of marine aquaculture resources in China, which would make contributions to sustainable development of mariculture.
2.3. Development policies of mariculture in China To implement MSP in China's mariculture, the Chinese government has developed a series of marine management policies. Among these policies, “National Marine Functional Zoning (2011–2020)” and the “Marine Ecological Red Line” are the key ways in which the MSP approach is applied to mariculture in China [11]. The “Marine Functional Zoning (MFZ) of China” policy was approved by the State Council in 2012, and it is expected by the marine authority to resolve the conflicts between marine exploitation and ocean management [33]. In the MFZ, the agriculture and fishery zone comprises the spatial range of marine aquaculture, and the MFZ coordinates the conflicts of sea area uses and mariculture development by guiding the delineation of aquaculture areas. The “Marine Ecological Red Line (MERL)” was introduced to better protect marine fishery resources by delineating key protected sea areas that prohibit or limit any exploitation activity that may affect marine ecosystems [34]. For example, in 2012, the State Oceanic Administration (SOA) introduced “Several Opinions on Establishing the Marine Ecological Red Line System in the Bohai Sea” to strictly limit the exploitation of mariculture resources in the Bohai Sea, based on the local marine aquaculture functional zoning. Compared with the MFZ policy, the MERL policy emphasizes values of ecological service instead of economic values [11]. Under the guidance of mariculture policies framework, Chinese government attempts to establish a harmonious relationship between marine aquaculture activities and marine environment, thus maintaining the sustainable development of mariculture on the basis of scientific marine space management [35].
3.2. The identification of stakeholders From July 2016 to May 2017, field researches in 11 coastal provinces of China were performed with the goal of determining the current mariculture situation, and the key stakeholders were identified through government seminars, visiting enterprises and holding discussions with local households engaged in mariculture. According to the investigation and previous research results [53,54], the key stakeholders in Chinese mariculture can be divided into four groups, based on a qualitative analysis: government, aquaculture farmers, mariculture enterprises and mariculture associations.4 3.3. The role of stakeholders Stakeholders have many rights in the management of marine aquaculture, such as demarcating the development scope of aquaculture space, selecting aquaculture species, and establishing standardization system for aquaculture products. These stakeholders differ in terms of their interests and goals and thus play different roles in the management framework of mariculture development in China. The further development of mariculture not only relies on each stakeholder alone, but also requires that all relevant parties play their roles.
2.4. Development potential of mariculture in China According to the MFZ, the functional area of marine aquaculture will be maintained at over 2.6 million hectares by 2020 [36]. The abundance of mariculture bioresources means that there is a great potential for the further development of mariculture [37]. China is a country with a traditional mariculture industry, i.e. with a low aquaculture proportion of high-end seafood, and the highest proportion of marine aquaculture products in China consists of shellfish and algae. Compared with countries with highly developed mariculture industry, such as Norway, Japan and Canada, the major mariculture species produced in China are lower in value [38–40]. Accordingly, successful experience of other countries' marine aquaculture, such as Salmo salar farming in Norway [41], shows that there may be a development potential in China's mariculture by improving aquaculture species and methods of breeding. Better development of mariculture requires a three-dimensional space utilization pattern. In addition to inshore aquaculture, offshore aquaculture and industrial aquaculture are also needed [42,43]. With the development of aquaculture technology, it is possible to make full use of deep-sea space instead of developing extensive inshore aquaculture. In particular, the emergence of modern marine aquaculture equipment such as intelligent deep-sea cages and aquaculture working vessels [44,45] has promoted the conversion of traditional mariculture to intelligent, automated and ecological marine aquaculture [46,47].
3.3.1. Government In China, the government plays a dominant role in the management of mariculture. It controls the overall direction of mariculture development [55]. The Chinese government launched a series of ocean policies aimed at assuring the sustainable development of mariculture. First, the government delineated the development scope of aquaculture space through the MZF and then promulgated the MERL, which further clarified the development principle of mariculture resources based on the MFZ. In addition, the government is accelerating the construction of marine ranching, an intensive mariculture development model, which represents the future of mariculture in China. At the micro-level, the government also makes contributions to reducing the vulnerability5 of mariculture. Local governments in China have been committed to introducing and promoting more economical 4
According to the MFZ policy, only mariculture activities are permitted in pre-defined breeding areas of the agriculture and fishery zone.Therefore, nonmariculture stakeholders are not be discussed in the article. 5 Vulnerability against large-scale environmental changes associated with climate change, marine pollution, and intensive aquaculture [56]. 86
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In addition, industry associations would be able to regulate market behavior by coordinating the interests of all parties. The supplies of mariculture products are sometimes unstable, which can easily cause the market mechanism to malfunction [60]. Industry associations could take measures to control market prices and supply the market with better information. Clearly, a stable market can promote the long-term development of mariculture.
breeding species for many years. For example, a new breed of abalone with better growth performance, i.e. a hybrid of Haliotis discus and the green abalone has been vigorously promoted since 2014, with funding and technical breeding guidance from fishery sectors at all levels. This method is expected to improve aquaculture production and economic value while reducing dependence on the marine environment [57,58]. The governments have also strengthened their capacity to provide marine public services. Relevant departments have taken effective measures to improve aquaculture through early warnings of marine natural disasters and prevention of mariculture diseases.
4. Challenges of stakeholders’ engagement 4.1. The pressure of industrial transformation
3.3.2. Aquaculture farmers Aquaculture farmers are the main executor of any mariculture project in China [5]. In 2016, there were over 5 million aquaculture farmers engaged full-time in mariculture [2], and this self-employed form of aquaculture is a major component of China's mariculture industry, while other component is the aquaculture activities managed by mariculture enterprises. These farmers have the right to select their own aquaculture species and methods of breeding, which forms the basis of mariculture in China. The environmental awareness possessed by farmers directly affects their use of breeding techniques, thus affecting the sustainability of mariculture [57]. Rational farmers will pay attention to protecting the marine environment while seeking economic benefits through mariculture [58]. In contrast, short-sighted farmers may increase their income by carelessly increasing aquaculture densities and cultivation areas. With the improvements in aquaculture farmers’ know-how, farmers are encouraged by local governments to make greater contributions to the upgrading of aquaculture technology. For example, new intelligent deep-sea cages, which are in trial operation in the Long Island area, were invented by an aquaculture farmer in Shandong province. In conclusion, the important role of aquaculture farmers should not be ignored.
Although the Chinese government has realized the importance of protecting the marine environment, the government is still facing pressure to promote economic development [61]. To achieve goals of annual economic growth, local governments are required to pay attention to industries with better future prospect instead of focusing on the future of mariculture. In particular, industries with high added value occupy a more important position in the planning of local governments. With the rapid development of industrialization and urbanization in the coastal areas, the distribution of mariculture has been further compressed. Due to the limited availability of ocean space, there are spatial conflicts between marine industries such as marine aquaculture, marine equipment manufacturing, ocean chemical engineering and coastal tourism. Some large coastal cities such as Shanghai have already lost mariculture space because of space requirements for developing other marine industries [2]. However, mariculrture is closely related to local historical traditions, eating habits, employment of residents and other aspects of people's livelihoods. As a result, in view of the essential status of mariculture, the high-quality development of marine aquaculture cannot be ignored. It is also crucial for local governments to ensure the sustainable development of mariculture industry while accelerating the transformation of marine industries.
3.3.3. Mariculture enterprises As the exploiter in the aquaculture industry chain [59], mariculture enterprises can make contributions to the stability of mariculture. Large-scale mariculture enterprises, especially listed companies, can explore the extensive processing of marine aquaculture products and ensure the cultivation of improved varieties at the upper level of the industry chain. For example, the Shandong Homey Aquatic Development Co. Ltd., which started by breeding sea cucumbers, has already become a company involved in ocean food production, health-care food processing and marine medicine research and development, all based on the extensive processing of sea cucumbers. Mariculture enterprises prefer industrial aquaculture, because it yields greater production efficiency and saves environmental governance costs [43]. Industrial aquaculture is also conducive to centralized treatment of aquaculture wastewater to protect the marine environment and promote the sustainability of mariculture. Above all, mariculture enterprises can increase outreach to upstream and downstream parties in the mariculture industry chain and pay more attention to promoting industrial aquaculture, which can enhance the stability of mariculture.
4.2. Challenge posed by backward technology In terms of breeding methods and cultured varieties, mariculture in China has experienced five major changes [37]. The focus in mariculture has switched from marine algae such as kelp and seaweed to sea cucumber, abalone and other rare varieties. Breeding methods in mariculture have become more modern and intelligent. Marine ranching with comprehensive breeding methods and diverse cultured varieties has replaced traditional aquatic farms as new layout unit of mariculture [10]. Marine ranching has already become the future of mariculture development in China. However, the development of marine aquaculture in China raises the abilities required of aquaculture farmers. For example, the new intelligent offshore cage requires that fishermen can be proficient in the use of smartphones and related apps. Many fishermen are unable to operate new tools and facilities in marine fisheries for lack of higher education. As a result, low levels of scientific knowledge and education of farmers limit their ability to master new farming techniques and learn new breeding methods. Facing such a challenge, if some farmers, especially old fishermen, still adhere to traditional methods, they will lose their jobs in the modern mariculture industry.
3.3.4. Related industry associations In general, related industry associations consist of aquatic experts, corporate executives, government officials and farmer representatives. Professional industry associations ought to function as the standard setters in the mariculture industry. The related industry associations have the rights to set detailed industry standards for marine aquaculture, processing and marketing. Mariculture associations can give scientific guidance to mariculture enterprises and famers, such as science-based aquaculture density levels, suitable breeds and economic breeding methods. Under the guidance of science, marine aquaculture at the micro-scale can become more sustainable.
4.3. Risk of extending the industrial chain To enhance their competitiveness, mariculture enterprises need to extend their industrial chain. Some of them may choose to cultivate improved varieties to ensure the layout stability of upstream industry. Others would like to develop their enterprises’ presence in the downstream part of the industrial chain in the form of extensive processing of marine aquaculture products. Both of these methods require that enterprises invest enough money and time into extending the industrial 87
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Under the pressure of developing the local economy and increasing residents’ incomes, local governments are required to firmly adjust the scale of mariculture, especially in those areas dominated by marine aquaculture. Most importantly, governments at all levels must change the development concept of marine aquaculture, abandoning the development of traditional mariculture which occurs at the expense of the environment. Therefore, it is inevitable that marine authorities will promote the construction of modern marine ranching while protecting the marine environment. Marine authorities should also improve the function of public service, such as marine meteorological prediction, fishery stock enhancement, and mariculture disease prevention and treatment to enhance the sustainable development of marine ranching.
chain, which means that the enterprises will need to take on some of the opportunity costs [62]. In addition, an enterprise decides its future direction based on its own judgment, thus there may be business risks associated with extending the industrial chain. An enterprise's own judgment may appear to be biased. If mariculture enterprises receive insufficient in returns after spending a great deal of capital and time, their industrial chain and future prospects will be negatively affected. Faced with the pressure of operating interests, companies will be very cautious about their decisions regarding the industrial chain. Some risk-avoidance decisions tend to delay the conversion of the industrial layout of mariculture in China. As a result, the risk of extending the industrial chain is a serious challenge associated with the engagement of mariculture enterprises.6
5.2. Improving the professionalism of aquaculture farmers 4.4. Lack of discursive power With the upgrading of China's marine aquaculture industry, many new types of breeding equipment, aquaculture species and culturing methods are appearing. The new breeding equipment requires that aquaculture farmers have greater knowledge of equipment operation instead of mastering the superficial use of traditional fishing gear. The culturing of new aquaculture species may differ from that of local traditional breeds, which requires that local aquaculture farmers master a higher level of culturing technology. In addition, the marketization of the marine aquaculture industry requires that aquaculture farmers in China have necessary knowledge of economics to maintain a clearheaded view of the market [60]. As operators of marine ranching projects, it is vital that Chinese aquaculture farmers improve their professionalism to keep up with the pace of mariculture change. Only highly qualified farmers can meet the challenge of industrial upgrading and seize the opportunity to operate modern mariculture facilities.
In China, many mariculture associations have limited influence on mariculture because of many constraints from the state [63]. These associations would not like to engage in their roles in the management of mariculture, which are advising aquaculture farmers about mariculture technology and setting standards in the mariculture industry [55]. There are even several associations that are merely symbolic and do not play any roles. Thus, these associations do not perform their proper functions in the management of China's mariculture because they lack discursive power [64]. Most of the related industry associations are loose non-governmental organizations. Some associations are operated and managed by large mariculture enterprises, and they ignore the interests of small enterprises. Thus, it is difficult for the related industry associations to make accurate claims in the discussion of promoting mariculture. Moreover, associations and scientific research institutions in mariculture are relatively independent and lack close cooperation and communication. Clearly, these associations are unable to recommend scientific breeding instructions and set reasonable industry standards without the guidance of scientific research institutions. In conclusion, defects in operational mechanisms have caused association stakeholders to face certain challenges.
5.3. Extending of the industrial chain and stabilizing the mariculture industry Market plays a leading role in China's mariculture. To bring the guiding role of the market into play, enterprises should take a more aggressive part in the management of mariculture. Mariculture enterprises should extend the industrial chain for the stability of mariculture by implementing company development strategies. Mariculture enterprises should ensure the stability of the upstream part of the chain by cultivating or introducing improved varieties. In general, improved varieties would significantly improve the productivity of mariculture, and promote the sustainable development of local mariculture [65]. Enterprises would like to develop their presence in the downstream part of the industry chain by extensive processing of marine aquaculture products, such as processing of marine food and producing marinederived drugs and other health products.
5. Prospects of stakeholder engagement Mariculture plays an important role in the blueprint of China's marine industry development. In view of the current defects in China's mariculture, further optimization of mariculture with key stakeholders' engagement will become the direction of sustainable development for China. As a result, it is necessary to establish a comprehensive management framework in which all of the stakeholders work in cooperation with a proper division of roles. On the one hand, all of the stakeholders should be able to identify their own functional position to fully harness their own advantages. On the other hand, the stakeholders should communicate and cooperate with one another instead of participating in the management of mariculture in isolation. A comprehensive management framework with effective engagement of government agencies, aquaculture farmers, mariculture enterprises and mariculture associations would promote the sustainable development of mariculture.
5.4. Establishing an effective engagement framework that includes related associations As an important stakeholder in mariculture, the function of related associations cannot be replaced by other stakeholders. Mariculture associations should strengthen their voices and dedicate effort to maintaining an effective engagement framework regarding the sustainable development of mariculture. In particular, mariculture associations should strengthen their cooperation with scientific research institutes to improve their abilities to provide technical guidance to mariculture, which can enhance the discursive power of associations significantly. Mariculture associations should also communicate more with aquaculture companies to deepen their understanding of the market. If these associations are able to provide scientific technical guidance to aquaculture and regulate market behavior, they will make a difference in the framework of engagement in mariculture. Clearly, it is necessary to establish an effective engagement framework in which the related associations can fully perform their roles.
5.1. Development of modern marine ranching on the basis of MERL The MERL policy of China established the basic principles of mariculture development. The unsuitable layout of mariculture needs to be changed to protect the marine environment according to the policy. 6 The discursive power refers to the control ability of mariculture associations in the development process of mariculture and the right to modify various mariculture rules [64].
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6. Conclusions
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Mariculture in China is at a critical stage, and its development model urgently needs to change. Although China already ranked first in terms of both production and area of marine aquaculture, mariculture in China lags far behind that of nations with developed mariculture industries. Traditional and extensive exploitation of marine aquaculture resources has caused a series of problems in the marine environment. Therefore, it is necessary to promote the sustainable development of mariculture in China. However, the problems in mariculture require the engagement of key stakeholders: government, aquaculture farmers, mariculture enterprises and relevant mariculture associations. Only a comprehensive engagement framework with all relevant stakeholders playing their roles can promote the sustainable development of mariculture. Stakeholder engagement in mariculture faces many challenges, such as the governmental pressure of industrial transformation, backward technology in mariculture operations, risks to enterprises from extending the industrial chain and the discursive power problem of mariculture associations. To promote a sustainable mariculture in China, the stakeholders in marine aquaculture should take targeted steps to fully play their own roles and to communicate well with other stakeholders. Conflicts of interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 71673259), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 71273247), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (201862004) and the Humanities and Social Science Project of the Ministry of Education (No. 15JJDZONGHE024; No.12YJA790020). References [1] J.H. Steele, Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, second ed., Academic press, 2009, pp. 537–544. [2] The State Oceanic Administration of the People's Republic of China, China Fishery Statistical Yearbook (2007-2016), China Ocean Press, Beijing, China, 2017. [3] The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), The state of world fisheries and aquaculture, Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/I9540EN.pdf. [4] The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), The future of mariculture: a regional approach for responsible development in the Asia-Pacific region, Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0202e/i0202e00.htm. [5] B. Xie, J. Qin, Organic aquaculture in China: a review from a global perspective, Aquaculture 414–415 (2013) 243–253. [6] L.L. Zou, S.L. Huang, Chinese aquaculture in light of green growth, Aquacult. Rep. 2 (2015) 46–49. [7] H. Liu, G. Su, Vulnerability of China's nearshore ecosystems under intensive mariculture development, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 10 (2015) 8957–8966. [8] A. Gough, Educating for the marine environment: challenges for schools and scientists, Mar. Pollut. Bull. 124 (2017) 633–638. [9] G.Q. Li, Q. He, S. Shao, et al., Environmental non-governmental organizations and urban environmental governance: evidence from China, J. Environ. Manag. 206 (2018) 1296–1307. [10] M. Su, Y. Yang, Evolution of district marine policies in China: the case of Shandong Province, Mar. Pol. 89 (2018) 124–131. [11] W.H. Lu, J. Liu, X.Q. Xiang, et al., A comparison of marine spatial planning approaches in China: marine functional zoning and the marine ecological red line, Mar. Pol. 62 (2015) 94–101. [12] R.L. Zhang, J.Y. Pei, R.J. Zhang, et al., Occurrence and distribution of antibiotics in mariculture farms, estuaries and the coast of the Beibu Gulf, China: bioconcentration and diet safety of seafood, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 154 (2018) 27–35. [13] P. Liang, X.F. Gao, Q.Z. You, et al., Role of mariculture in the loading and speciation of mercury at the coast of the East China Sea, Environ. Pollut. 218 (2016) 1037–1044. [14] Y. Han, F.Y. Wei, G.Q. Ye, et al., A study on evaluation the marine carrying capacity in Guangxi Province, China, Mar. Pol. 91 (2018) 66–74. [15] W. Xu, Y.E. Dong, X. Teng, et al., Evaluation of the development intensity of China's coastal area, Ocean Coast Manag. 157 (2018) 124–129.
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aquaculture value chain in Bangladesh, Aquaculture 493 (2018) 456–468. [60] S.W. Purcell, W.H. Williamson, P. Ngaluafe, Chinese market prices of beche-de-mer: implications for fisheries and aquaculture, Mar. Pol. 91 (2018) 58–65. [61] X. Yan, L. Yan, X.L. Yao, The marine industrial competitiveness of blue economic regions in China, Mar. Pol. 62 (2015) 153–160. [62] E.C. Lagares, F.G. Ordaz, J.J.G.D. Hoyo, Innovation, environmental commitment, internationalization and sustainability: a survival analysis of Spanish marine aquaculture firms, Ocean Coast Manag. 151 (2018) 61–68. [63] M. Fabinyi, N. Liu, The Chinese policy and governance context for global fisheries, Ocean Coast Manag. 96 (2014) 198–202. [64] K. Ounanian, E. Carballo-Cárdenas, J.P. Tatenhove, et al., Governing marine ecosystem restoration: the role of discourses and uncertainties, Mar. Pol. 96 (2018) 136–144. [65] H.M. Li, X.M. Li, Q. Li, et al., Environmental response to long-term mariculture activities in the Weihai coastal area, China, Sci. Total Environ. 601–602 (2017) 22–31.
(2012) 246–257. [52] S. Mackinson, D.C. Wilson, P. Galiay, et al., Engaging stakeholders in fisheries and marine research, Mar. Pol. 35 (2011) 18–24. [53] S.G. Liu, S. Ji, Study of theory of stakeholder analysis participation in marine spatial planning, Chin. Fish. Econ. 33 (2015) 51–59 (In Chinese). [54] K. Soma, J.R. Nielsen, N. Papadopoulou, et al., Stakeholder perceptions in fisheries management - sectors with benthic Impacts, Mar. Pol. 92 (2018) 73–85. [55] G.M. Shen, M. Heino, An overview of marine fisheries management in China, Mar. Pol. 44 (2014) 265–272. [56] Q. Chen, W.T. Shen, B. Yu, Assessing the vulnerability of marine fisheries in China: towards an inter-provincial perspective, Sustainability 10 (2018) 4302. [57] T. Gjedrem, N. Robinson, M. Rye, The importance of selective breeding in aquaculture to meet future demands for animal protein: a review, Aquaculture 350–353 (2012) 117–129. [58] D. Yi, T. Reardon, R. Stringer, Shrimp aquaculture technology change in Indonesia: are small farmers included? Aquaculture 493 (2018) 436–445. [59] R. Hernandez, B. Belton, T. Reardon, et al., The “quiet revolution” in the
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Marine Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol
Exploring stakeholder engagement in mariculture development: Challenges and prospects for China
T
Jinkai Yu∗, Wang Yin College of Economics, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, PR China
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Mariculture Stakeholder engagement Challenge and prospect China
China has a long history of mariculture and is host to abundant marine bioresources. The annual output of China's mariculture industry has ranked first worldwide. However, the unsustainable development of mariculture in China has caused many problems in terms of marine environmental protection, utilization of marine resources and coordinated development of marine industries. This paper starts by describing the current situation of China's mariculture and the potential for promoting mariculture and then proposes that sustainable development of mariculture requires all relevant stakeholders' engagement involving government, aquaculture farmers, mariculture enterprises and related associations. This paper reviews the main challenges in stakeholder engagement in mariculture, including the pressure of industrial transformation, backward technology, risks of extending the industrial chain, and the lack of discursive power. Recommendations are proposed for a division of roles among the stakeholders in mariculture management for promoting the sustainable development of mariculture in China.
1. Introduction China has a long history of mariculture1 and is host to abundant mariculture resources. The nation's vast coastline spans 18,400 km and provides good conditions for the cultivation of marine animals and plants.2 Mariculture plays an important role in China's marine industry. In the past decade, mariculture output in China has grown at an average annual rate of over 19.70%, which exceeds the annual GDP growth rate of China as a whole [2]. Mariculture can not only optimize people's diets by providing high-protein foods but can also adjust marine fishery structures to improve fishermen's incomes and promote social conditions in coastal rural areas [4–6]. However, the rapid development of mariculture and its large-scale operations put enormous pressure on the natural environment [7]. With the increases in environmental consciousness [5,8,9], China is paying more attention to the sustainable development of its mariculture economy instead of traditional and extensive exploitation of marine aquaculture resources. A series of marine policies have been introduced by the Chinese government to protect the marine environment while developing marine aquaculture [10]. Recent polices attempting to
address environmental issues in marine aquaculture from different perspectives, such as “National Marine Functional Zoning (2011–2020)” and the “Marine Ecological Red Line”,3 constitute the basic strategic framework for the future development of marine aquaculture in China [11]. Although the scale and yield of mariculture in China already rank first worldwide and the marine authority is actively optimizing mariculture, mariculture in China still faces several difficulties and challenges [12–14]. In particular, the unrestrained and unscientific development of mariculture causes many problems in terms of marine environmental protection, utilization of marine resources and coordinated development of marine area. Therefore, how to promote the sustainable development of mariculture in China has become a priority problem that needs to be solved [15,16]. Here, sustainable development of mariculture means enhancing growth of marine aquaculture while reducing negative impacts on the marine environment at the same time [6,17]. Due to the need for systematic and comprehensive ocean management, promoting the sustainable development of mariculture requires the engagement of various stakeholders [18,19]. The challenges of
∗
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Yu). Mariculture is the farming of marine organisms for food and other products, either in the natural marine environment, or in land- or sea-based enclosures, such as cages, ponds, or raceways [1]. 2 All data are compiled by State Oceanic Administration (SOA) of China [2] and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations [3]. 3 The MFZ policy is focus on the economic values, and the MERL policy emphasizes values of ecological service [11]. 1
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.02.036 Received 5 September 2018; Received in revised form 21 February 2019; Accepted 21 February 2019 Available online 01 March 2019 0308-597X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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mariculture in China cannot be solved only by the government but by multi-stakeholders from private sector or non-governmental organizations [20,21]. The sustainable development of mariculture can be performed smoothly only with the full consideration of all stakeholders’ interests. Therefore, stakeholder analysis is an effective tool for defining function of each stakeholder and building a comprehensive management framework for mariculture development [22]. Taking into consideration the challenges and prospects of the sustainable development of Chinese mariculture from a stakeholder engagement perspective, the objectives of this study were to (1) understand the current situation of mariculture in China, (2) identify the roles of stakeholders in Chinese mariculture, (3) identify the challenges in creating stakeholder engagement, (4) develop a comprehensive framework of stakeholder engagement for optimizing mariculture management; and (5) analyze countermeasures for promoting sustainable maritime development.
Fig. 2. Composition of China's mariculture products in 2016. Data source: MOA in 2016
2. Overview of the development of mariculture in China in China does not make full use of potential mariculture space, and instead excessively exploits near inshore resources, ignoring the use of deep and remote sea space [16]. With the rapid development of mariculture, the unsustainable mariculture has caused many environmental problems such as eutrophication of seawater, outbreaks of diseases in mariculture and deterioration of marine ecosystems [24–26]. According to the “Report on the state of the fishery eco-environment in China” [27], the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Environmental Protection monitored 760 thousand hectares of key mariclture areas in China, and found that area proportions of inorganic nitrogen, active phosphate and petroleum indicators exceeding national standards were 68.1%, 52.1% and 36.3% respectively. To settle the conflicts between mariculture development and marine environmental damage, the “Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)” method which is intended for planning the spatial layout of mariculture is gaining increasing attention from China [28]. Marine spatial planning, as a key form of ocean management, was first applied to the Australian Great Barrier Reef National Marine Park Project in 1978 [29]. Afterward, MSP gradually gained the favor of developed coastal countries, which tried to ease the conflicts between the development of mariculture and the use of ocean space [30]. Under the guidance of EU's ocean policies, EU member countries developed programs of marine spatial planning, such as Belgium's Master Plan of Territorial Sea, the North Sea 2015 Integrated Ocean Management Plan of the Netherlands and the EEZ part of the German Federal Space Planning Act, which had enriched the theoretical and practical
2.1. Development status of mariculture in China According to the data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations [3], China's mariculture industry has been well developed since 1985, and its aquacultural area and output rank first among the world's nations. With continuous growth in the past 10 years, China's mariculture production has reached 19.63 million tons by 2016 (Fig. 1). At the same time, over 3 million traditional fishermen created a mariculture output valued at RMB 314.04 billion using 2166.72 thousand hectares of farmed sea area [2]. However, large-scale mariculture is not same as sustainable mariculture. In 2016, the production of raft culture, cage culture and bottom-sowing aquaculture in shallow-water areas accounted for 60% of total mariculture production [2]. Due to its lack of three-dimensional use of mariculture space, this traditional method is regarded as a backward mode of production [23]. In addition, 62.73% of China's mariculture area is used to farm shellfish such as scallops, clams and oysters, and aquaculture of high-end seafood which has high requirements for breeding environment and low survival rate [6], such as abalone, sea cucumber and sea urchin, is not being promoted (Fig. 2). Deep and remote sea areas have not been fully exploited, with only 119.30 thousand tons output of offshore cage aquaculture [2]. 2.2. Development method of mariculture-MSP Due to aquaculture tradition and technical limitations, aquaculture
Fig. 1. Mariculture production in China during the 2007–2016 period. Data source: MOA from 2007 to 2016 85
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3. Stakeholders in China's mariculture
framework of MSP [30–32]. In general, MSP is a strategic, forward-looking and comprehensive management tool for the sustainable development and utilization of marine resources. It is widely used to solve multiple cumulative or potential conflicts regarding ocean use via a rational layout of marine space. With the guidance of MSP, marine space can be utilized scientifically. Accordingly, Chinese government pays attention to MSP in the sustainable development of China's mariculture.
3.1. Definition of stakeholders The term ‘stakeholder’ originated in management science and means individuals and teams who can influence a company's goals or be affected by a company's goal-fulfillment process [48]. In the field of natural resource management, stakeholders are defined as users and managers of natural resources [49]. And stakeholders in marine fishery refer to individuals, groups and organizations that are involved in or affected by a certain marine fishery resource project or activity [50]. Due to the public-goods properties of marine fishery resources, marine fishery management involves economic, ecologic, social and other aspects, which makes it difficult to achieve management goals [51]. Accordingly, stakeholders' engagement plays an indispensable role in the management of marine fishery. Here, stakeholders are defined as people or organizations with direct interests and rights to provide input in mariculture development [52]. Stakeholders would be expected to increase their engagement in the exploitation of marine aquaculture resources in China, which would make contributions to sustainable development of mariculture.
2.3. Development policies of mariculture in China To implement MSP in China's mariculture, the Chinese government has developed a series of marine management policies. Among these policies, “National Marine Functional Zoning (2011–2020)” and the “Marine Ecological Red Line” are the key ways in which the MSP approach is applied to mariculture in China [11]. The “Marine Functional Zoning (MFZ) of China” policy was approved by the State Council in 2012, and it is expected by the marine authority to resolve the conflicts between marine exploitation and ocean management [33]. In the MFZ, the agriculture and fishery zone comprises the spatial range of marine aquaculture, and the MFZ coordinates the conflicts of sea area uses and mariculture development by guiding the delineation of aquaculture areas. The “Marine Ecological Red Line (MERL)” was introduced to better protect marine fishery resources by delineating key protected sea areas that prohibit or limit any exploitation activity that may affect marine ecosystems [34]. For example, in 2012, the State Oceanic Administration (SOA) introduced “Several Opinions on Establishing the Marine Ecological Red Line System in the Bohai Sea” to strictly limit the exploitation of mariculture resources in the Bohai Sea, based on the local marine aquaculture functional zoning. Compared with the MFZ policy, the MERL policy emphasizes values of ecological service instead of economic values [11]. Under the guidance of mariculture policies framework, Chinese government attempts to establish a harmonious relationship between marine aquaculture activities and marine environment, thus maintaining the sustainable development of mariculture on the basis of scientific marine space management [35].
3.2. The identification of stakeholders From July 2016 to May 2017, field researches in 11 coastal provinces of China were performed with the goal of determining the current mariculture situation, and the key stakeholders were identified through government seminars, visiting enterprises and holding discussions with local households engaged in mariculture. According to the investigation and previous research results [53,54], the key stakeholders in Chinese mariculture can be divided into four groups, based on a qualitative analysis: government, aquaculture farmers, mariculture enterprises and mariculture associations.4 3.3. The role of stakeholders Stakeholders have many rights in the management of marine aquaculture, such as demarcating the development scope of aquaculture space, selecting aquaculture species, and establishing standardization system for aquaculture products. These stakeholders differ in terms of their interests and goals and thus play different roles in the management framework of mariculture development in China. The further development of mariculture not only relies on each stakeholder alone, but also requires that all relevant parties play their roles.
2.4. Development potential of mariculture in China According to the MFZ, the functional area of marine aquaculture will be maintained at over 2.6 million hectares by 2020 [36]. The abundance of mariculture bioresources means that there is a great potential for the further development of mariculture [37]. China is a country with a traditional mariculture industry, i.e. with a low aquaculture proportion of high-end seafood, and the highest proportion of marine aquaculture products in China consists of shellfish and algae. Compared with countries with highly developed mariculture industry, such as Norway, Japan and Canada, the major mariculture species produced in China are lower in value [38–40]. Accordingly, successful experience of other countries' marine aquaculture, such as Salmo salar farming in Norway [41], shows that there may be a development potential in China's mariculture by improving aquaculture species and methods of breeding. Better development of mariculture requires a three-dimensional space utilization pattern. In addition to inshore aquaculture, offshore aquaculture and industrial aquaculture are also needed [42,43]. With the development of aquaculture technology, it is possible to make full use of deep-sea space instead of developing extensive inshore aquaculture. In particular, the emergence of modern marine aquaculture equipment such as intelligent deep-sea cages and aquaculture working vessels [44,45] has promoted the conversion of traditional mariculture to intelligent, automated and ecological marine aquaculture [46,47].
3.3.1. Government In China, the government plays a dominant role in the management of mariculture. It controls the overall direction of mariculture development [55]. The Chinese government launched a series of ocean policies aimed at assuring the sustainable development of mariculture. First, the government delineated the development scope of aquaculture space through the MZF and then promulgated the MERL, which further clarified the development principle of mariculture resources based on the MFZ. In addition, the government is accelerating the construction of marine ranching, an intensive mariculture development model, which represents the future of mariculture in China. At the micro-level, the government also makes contributions to reducing the vulnerability5 of mariculture. Local governments in China have been committed to introducing and promoting more economical 4
According to the MFZ policy, only mariculture activities are permitted in pre-defined breeding areas of the agriculture and fishery zone.Therefore, nonmariculture stakeholders are not be discussed in the article. 5 Vulnerability against large-scale environmental changes associated with climate change, marine pollution, and intensive aquaculture [56]. 86
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In addition, industry associations would be able to regulate market behavior by coordinating the interests of all parties. The supplies of mariculture products are sometimes unstable, which can easily cause the market mechanism to malfunction [60]. Industry associations could take measures to control market prices and supply the market with better information. Clearly, a stable market can promote the long-term development of mariculture.
breeding species for many years. For example, a new breed of abalone with better growth performance, i.e. a hybrid of Haliotis discus and the green abalone has been vigorously promoted since 2014, with funding and technical breeding guidance from fishery sectors at all levels. This method is expected to improve aquaculture production and economic value while reducing dependence on the marine environment [57,58]. The governments have also strengthened their capacity to provide marine public services. Relevant departments have taken effective measures to improve aquaculture through early warnings of marine natural disasters and prevention of mariculture diseases.
4. Challenges of stakeholders’ engagement 4.1. The pressure of industrial transformation
3.3.2. Aquaculture farmers Aquaculture farmers are the main executor of any mariculture project in China [5]. In 2016, there were over 5 million aquaculture farmers engaged full-time in mariculture [2], and this self-employed form of aquaculture is a major component of China's mariculture industry, while other component is the aquaculture activities managed by mariculture enterprises. These farmers have the right to select their own aquaculture species and methods of breeding, which forms the basis of mariculture in China. The environmental awareness possessed by farmers directly affects their use of breeding techniques, thus affecting the sustainability of mariculture [57]. Rational farmers will pay attention to protecting the marine environment while seeking economic benefits through mariculture [58]. In contrast, short-sighted farmers may increase their income by carelessly increasing aquaculture densities and cultivation areas. With the improvements in aquaculture farmers’ know-how, farmers are encouraged by local governments to make greater contributions to the upgrading of aquaculture technology. For example, new intelligent deep-sea cages, which are in trial operation in the Long Island area, were invented by an aquaculture farmer in Shandong province. In conclusion, the important role of aquaculture farmers should not be ignored.
Although the Chinese government has realized the importance of protecting the marine environment, the government is still facing pressure to promote economic development [61]. To achieve goals of annual economic growth, local governments are required to pay attention to industries with better future prospect instead of focusing on the future of mariculture. In particular, industries with high added value occupy a more important position in the planning of local governments. With the rapid development of industrialization and urbanization in the coastal areas, the distribution of mariculture has been further compressed. Due to the limited availability of ocean space, there are spatial conflicts between marine industries such as marine aquaculture, marine equipment manufacturing, ocean chemical engineering and coastal tourism. Some large coastal cities such as Shanghai have already lost mariculture space because of space requirements for developing other marine industries [2]. However, mariculrture is closely related to local historical traditions, eating habits, employment of residents and other aspects of people's livelihoods. As a result, in view of the essential status of mariculture, the high-quality development of marine aquaculture cannot be ignored. It is also crucial for local governments to ensure the sustainable development of mariculture industry while accelerating the transformation of marine industries.
3.3.3. Mariculture enterprises As the exploiter in the aquaculture industry chain [59], mariculture enterprises can make contributions to the stability of mariculture. Large-scale mariculture enterprises, especially listed companies, can explore the extensive processing of marine aquaculture products and ensure the cultivation of improved varieties at the upper level of the industry chain. For example, the Shandong Homey Aquatic Development Co. Ltd., which started by breeding sea cucumbers, has already become a company involved in ocean food production, health-care food processing and marine medicine research and development, all based on the extensive processing of sea cucumbers. Mariculture enterprises prefer industrial aquaculture, because it yields greater production efficiency and saves environmental governance costs [43]. Industrial aquaculture is also conducive to centralized treatment of aquaculture wastewater to protect the marine environment and promote the sustainability of mariculture. Above all, mariculture enterprises can increase outreach to upstream and downstream parties in the mariculture industry chain and pay more attention to promoting industrial aquaculture, which can enhance the stability of mariculture.
4.2. Challenge posed by backward technology In terms of breeding methods and cultured varieties, mariculture in China has experienced five major changes [37]. The focus in mariculture has switched from marine algae such as kelp and seaweed to sea cucumber, abalone and other rare varieties. Breeding methods in mariculture have become more modern and intelligent. Marine ranching with comprehensive breeding methods and diverse cultured varieties has replaced traditional aquatic farms as new layout unit of mariculture [10]. Marine ranching has already become the future of mariculture development in China. However, the development of marine aquaculture in China raises the abilities required of aquaculture farmers. For example, the new intelligent offshore cage requires that fishermen can be proficient in the use of smartphones and related apps. Many fishermen are unable to operate new tools and facilities in marine fisheries for lack of higher education. As a result, low levels of scientific knowledge and education of farmers limit their ability to master new farming techniques and learn new breeding methods. Facing such a challenge, if some farmers, especially old fishermen, still adhere to traditional methods, they will lose their jobs in the modern mariculture industry.
3.3.4. Related industry associations In general, related industry associations consist of aquatic experts, corporate executives, government officials and farmer representatives. Professional industry associations ought to function as the standard setters in the mariculture industry. The related industry associations have the rights to set detailed industry standards for marine aquaculture, processing and marketing. Mariculture associations can give scientific guidance to mariculture enterprises and famers, such as science-based aquaculture density levels, suitable breeds and economic breeding methods. Under the guidance of science, marine aquaculture at the micro-scale can become more sustainable.
4.3. Risk of extending the industrial chain To enhance their competitiveness, mariculture enterprises need to extend their industrial chain. Some of them may choose to cultivate improved varieties to ensure the layout stability of upstream industry. Others would like to develop their enterprises’ presence in the downstream part of the industrial chain in the form of extensive processing of marine aquaculture products. Both of these methods require that enterprises invest enough money and time into extending the industrial 87
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Under the pressure of developing the local economy and increasing residents’ incomes, local governments are required to firmly adjust the scale of mariculture, especially in those areas dominated by marine aquaculture. Most importantly, governments at all levels must change the development concept of marine aquaculture, abandoning the development of traditional mariculture which occurs at the expense of the environment. Therefore, it is inevitable that marine authorities will promote the construction of modern marine ranching while protecting the marine environment. Marine authorities should also improve the function of public service, such as marine meteorological prediction, fishery stock enhancement, and mariculture disease prevention and treatment to enhance the sustainable development of marine ranching.
chain, which means that the enterprises will need to take on some of the opportunity costs [62]. In addition, an enterprise decides its future direction based on its own judgment, thus there may be business risks associated with extending the industrial chain. An enterprise's own judgment may appear to be biased. If mariculture enterprises receive insufficient in returns after spending a great deal of capital and time, their industrial chain and future prospects will be negatively affected. Faced with the pressure of operating interests, companies will be very cautious about their decisions regarding the industrial chain. Some risk-avoidance decisions tend to delay the conversion of the industrial layout of mariculture in China. As a result, the risk of extending the industrial chain is a serious challenge associated with the engagement of mariculture enterprises.6
5.2. Improving the professionalism of aquaculture farmers 4.4. Lack of discursive power With the upgrading of China's marine aquaculture industry, many new types of breeding equipment, aquaculture species and culturing methods are appearing. The new breeding equipment requires that aquaculture farmers have greater knowledge of equipment operation instead of mastering the superficial use of traditional fishing gear. The culturing of new aquaculture species may differ from that of local traditional breeds, which requires that local aquaculture farmers master a higher level of culturing technology. In addition, the marketization of the marine aquaculture industry requires that aquaculture farmers in China have necessary knowledge of economics to maintain a clearheaded view of the market [60]. As operators of marine ranching projects, it is vital that Chinese aquaculture farmers improve their professionalism to keep up with the pace of mariculture change. Only highly qualified farmers can meet the challenge of industrial upgrading and seize the opportunity to operate modern mariculture facilities.
In China, many mariculture associations have limited influence on mariculture because of many constraints from the state [63]. These associations would not like to engage in their roles in the management of mariculture, which are advising aquaculture farmers about mariculture technology and setting standards in the mariculture industry [55]. There are even several associations that are merely symbolic and do not play any roles. Thus, these associations do not perform their proper functions in the management of China's mariculture because they lack discursive power [64]. Most of the related industry associations are loose non-governmental organizations. Some associations are operated and managed by large mariculture enterprises, and they ignore the interests of small enterprises. Thus, it is difficult for the related industry associations to make accurate claims in the discussion of promoting mariculture. Moreover, associations and scientific research institutions in mariculture are relatively independent and lack close cooperation and communication. Clearly, these associations are unable to recommend scientific breeding instructions and set reasonable industry standards without the guidance of scientific research institutions. In conclusion, defects in operational mechanisms have caused association stakeholders to face certain challenges.
5.3. Extending of the industrial chain and stabilizing the mariculture industry Market plays a leading role in China's mariculture. To bring the guiding role of the market into play, enterprises should take a more aggressive part in the management of mariculture. Mariculture enterprises should extend the industrial chain for the stability of mariculture by implementing company development strategies. Mariculture enterprises should ensure the stability of the upstream part of the chain by cultivating or introducing improved varieties. In general, improved varieties would significantly improve the productivity of mariculture, and promote the sustainable development of local mariculture [65]. Enterprises would like to develop their presence in the downstream part of the industry chain by extensive processing of marine aquaculture products, such as processing of marine food and producing marinederived drugs and other health products.
5. Prospects of stakeholder engagement Mariculture plays an important role in the blueprint of China's marine industry development. In view of the current defects in China's mariculture, further optimization of mariculture with key stakeholders' engagement will become the direction of sustainable development for China. As a result, it is necessary to establish a comprehensive management framework in which all of the stakeholders work in cooperation with a proper division of roles. On the one hand, all of the stakeholders should be able to identify their own functional position to fully harness their own advantages. On the other hand, the stakeholders should communicate and cooperate with one another instead of participating in the management of mariculture in isolation. A comprehensive management framework with effective engagement of government agencies, aquaculture farmers, mariculture enterprises and mariculture associations would promote the sustainable development of mariculture.
5.4. Establishing an effective engagement framework that includes related associations As an important stakeholder in mariculture, the function of related associations cannot be replaced by other stakeholders. Mariculture associations should strengthen their voices and dedicate effort to maintaining an effective engagement framework regarding the sustainable development of mariculture. In particular, mariculture associations should strengthen their cooperation with scientific research institutes to improve their abilities to provide technical guidance to mariculture, which can enhance the discursive power of associations significantly. Mariculture associations should also communicate more with aquaculture companies to deepen their understanding of the market. If these associations are able to provide scientific technical guidance to aquaculture and regulate market behavior, they will make a difference in the framework of engagement in mariculture. Clearly, it is necessary to establish an effective engagement framework in which the related associations can fully perform their roles.
5.1. Development of modern marine ranching on the basis of MERL The MERL policy of China established the basic principles of mariculture development. The unsuitable layout of mariculture needs to be changed to protect the marine environment according to the policy. 6 The discursive power refers to the control ability of mariculture associations in the development process of mariculture and the right to modify various mariculture rules [64].
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6. Conclusions
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Mariculture in China is at a critical stage, and its development model urgently needs to change. Although China already ranked first in terms of both production and area of marine aquaculture, mariculture in China lags far behind that of nations with developed mariculture industries. Traditional and extensive exploitation of marine aquaculture resources has caused a series of problems in the marine environment. Therefore, it is necessary to promote the sustainable development of mariculture in China. However, the problems in mariculture require the engagement of key stakeholders: government, aquaculture farmers, mariculture enterprises and relevant mariculture associations. Only a comprehensive engagement framework with all relevant stakeholders playing their roles can promote the sustainable development of mariculture. Stakeholder engagement in mariculture faces many challenges, such as the governmental pressure of industrial transformation, backward technology in mariculture operations, risks to enterprises from extending the industrial chain and the discursive power problem of mariculture associations. To promote a sustainable mariculture in China, the stakeholders in marine aquaculture should take targeted steps to fully play their own roles and to communicate well with other stakeholders. Conflicts of interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 71673259), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 71273247), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (201862004) and the Humanities and Social Science Project of the Ministry of Education (No. 15JJDZONGHE024; No.12YJA790020). References [1] J.H. Steele, Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, second ed., Academic press, 2009, pp. 537–544. [2] The State Oceanic Administration of the People's Republic of China, China Fishery Statistical Yearbook (2007-2016), China Ocean Press, Beijing, China, 2017. [3] The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), The state of world fisheries and aquaculture, Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/I9540EN.pdf. [4] The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), The future of mariculture: a regional approach for responsible development in the Asia-Pacific region, Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0202e/i0202e00.htm. [5] B. Xie, J. Qin, Organic aquaculture in China: a review from a global perspective, Aquaculture 414–415 (2013) 243–253. [6] L.L. Zou, S.L. Huang, Chinese aquaculture in light of green growth, Aquacult. Rep. 2 (2015) 46–49. [7] H. Liu, G. Su, Vulnerability of China's nearshore ecosystems under intensive mariculture development, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 10 (2015) 8957–8966. [8] A. Gough, Educating for the marine environment: challenges for schools and scientists, Mar. Pollut. Bull. 124 (2017) 633–638. [9] G.Q. Li, Q. He, S. Shao, et al., Environmental non-governmental organizations and urban environmental governance: evidence from China, J. Environ. Manag. 206 (2018) 1296–1307. [10] M. Su, Y. Yang, Evolution of district marine policies in China: the case of Shandong Province, Mar. Pol. 89 (2018) 124–131. [11] W.H. Lu, J. Liu, X.Q. Xiang, et al., A comparison of marine spatial planning approaches in China: marine functional zoning and the marine ecological red line, Mar. Pol. 62 (2015) 94–101. [12] R.L. Zhang, J.Y. Pei, R.J. Zhang, et al., Occurrence and distribution of antibiotics in mariculture farms, estuaries and the coast of the Beibu Gulf, China: bioconcentration and diet safety of seafood, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 154 (2018) 27–35. [13] P. Liang, X.F. Gao, Q.Z. You, et al., Role of mariculture in the loading and speciation of mercury at the coast of the East China Sea, Environ. Pollut. 218 (2016) 1037–1044. [14] Y. Han, F.Y. Wei, G.Q. Ye, et al., A study on evaluation the marine carrying capacity in Guangxi Province, China, Mar. Pol. 91 (2018) 66–74. [15] W. Xu, Y.E. Dong, X. Teng, et al., Evaluation of the development intensity of China's coastal area, Ocean Coast Manag. 157 (2018) 124–129.
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