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Familial influences on Mexican American and Euro-American preadolescent boys' and girls' body dissatisfaction
Eating Behaviors 4 (2003) 245 – 255
Familial influences on Mexican American and Euro-American preadolescent boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction Andrea J. Ericksena,*, Charlotte N. Markeyb, Barbara J. Tinsleyc a
Department of Psychology, San Juan College, Farmington, NM, 87402, USA b Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Camden, NJ, USA c Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
Abstract This study examines multiple influences on preadolescent boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction over time. Mexican American and Euro-American preadolescents (n = 105) completed measures addressing their body dissatisfaction. In addition, preadolescents’ parents completed a measure assessing their own body dissatisfaction. Results indicate that boys’ body dissatisfaction was related to their body size (body mass index, BMI) and their fathers’ own body dissatisfaction; girls’ body dissatisfaction was related primarily to their own body size. Findings are discussed in terms of the importance of understanding boys’ increasing susceptibility to body dissatisfaction and the role fathers play in shaping boys’ feelings about their bodies as they approach adolescence. D 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Body dissatisfaction; Parental influence; Boys; Preadolescents; Ethnicity
1. Introduction Body image disturbances have become increasingly common among children in recent decades and are frequently conceptualized as normative among preadolescent and adolescent girls (Koff & Rierdan, 1991; Thompson, Corwin, & Sargent, 1997). Even young girls (as young as 5 years of age) express body image and weight concerns (Davison, Markey, &
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-909-787-3851. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.J. Ericksen). 1471-0153/03/$ – see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S1471-0153(03)00025-4
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Birch, 2000). Although previous research indicates that girls are more likely than boys to report body dissatisfaction and weight concerns, recent reports suggest that these concerns are also prevalent among males (Braun, Sunday, Huang, & Halmi, 1999; Cohane & Pope, 2001; Field et al., 2001). Approximately 30–40% of preadolescent boys express body dissatisfaction with a desire to be thinner (Collins, 1991; Gustafson-Larson & Terry, 1992) compared with about 50% of their female counterparts who demonstrate similar concerns (Ericksen, Tinsley, & Markey, 2002; Schur, Sanders, & Steiner, 2000; Thompson et al., 1997). Recent reports further suggest that among adolescent boys, body image concerns are influenced by both intrapersonal and sociocultural factors, including their body mass index (BMI) and parental influences (Field et al., 2001). Specifically, researchers have highlighted fathers’ beliefs about the importance of thinness and dieting as a factor affecting adolescent boys’ body image concerns (Field et al., 2001; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001; Vincent & McCabe, 2000). For example, studies indicate that fathers influence their sons’ body dissatisfaction and dieting strategies through comments about their bodies, encouragement to lose weight, discussions about dieting, and modeling paternal dieting strategies (Schur et al., 2000; Vincent & McCabe, 2000). However, these studies examined youths’ perceptions of their fathers’ body image concerns and did not examine the relation between fathers’ own body dissatisfaction and the development of their sons’ body image concerns. While most research suggests that girls’ body dissatisfaction continues to increase with age, the developmental patterns of boys’ body dissatisfaction are not as clear (Smolak & Levine, 2001). Studies with preadolescent youth have been inconsistent, with some studies suggesting that many young boys prefer body ideals that are thinner than their own (Collins, 1991). Other studies, however, suggest that many young boys are satisfied with their bodies (Gardner, Friedman, & Jackson, 1999; Wood, Becker, & Thompson, 1996). Research examining older adolescent boys’ body dissatisfaction suggests that boys are either satisfied with their bodies or desire to be heavier, preferring ideal figures that are bigger than their current bodies (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Because findings from these studies regarding the prevalence and direction of boys’ body dissatisfaction have been conflicting, a developmental approach examining the prevalence and early patterns of body image concerns among young boys is critical for understanding and preventing the negative developmental consequences associated with body dissatisfaction. One of the primary consequences of negative body image among youth is disordered eating, which is increasingly problematic among U.S. girls of diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds (Crago, Shisslak, & Estes, 1996; Markey, 2003; Pike & Walsh, 1996; Schur et al., 2000). Additionally, body dissatisfaction has been associated with unhealthy dieting strategies (French, Perry, Leon, & Fulkerson, 1995) and males’ use of physically damaging drugs such as anabolic steroids (Epperley, 1993), which render youth at risk for various growth disturbances (National Institute of Health, 1992). Due to these documented negative implications of body image concerns on girls’ health and the increasing acknowledgement of the prevalence of boys’ body image concerns, it is important to explore the differential and unique influences involved in the etiology of body dissatisfaction among preadolescent boys and girls.
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1.1. Influences on youths’ body image concerns The development of youths’ maladaptive body perceptions and concerns have been found to be influenced by several intrapersonal factors, including individuals’ body size and degree of concern reported about their weight (Birch & Fisher, 1998; Davison et al., 2000; Ericksen et al., 2002; Field et al., 2001). Specifically, studies have indicated a positive relation between body size and dieting behaviors, with heavier individuals of all ages tending to diet more often (Birch & Fisher, 1998; Davison et al., 2000). Latino youth are most at risk for obesity compared with other U.S. youths. Due to this increasing risk for overweight and obesity among Mexican American children and the vast number of Mexican American children currently residing in the United States (Tinsley, Markey, Ericksen, Kwasman, & Ortiz, 2002), it is particularly important to explore the relations between weight status and body image concerns among Latino youth. While patterns of overweight and obesity provide a basis for exploring body image concerns among youths of different ethnic backgrounds, sociocultural factors concerning eating behaviors and body image preferences may also be influencing youths’ body dissatisfaction. Intrapersonal factors provide a basis from which body image concerns are derived, especially among females; however, patterns associated with youths’ social and cultural contexts may also influence their body ideals and body dissatisfaction. Although body image concerns were traditionally believed to be a Euro-American phenomena, research suggests that they are also prevalent among other ethnic groups residing in the United States (Crago et al., 1996; Striegel-Moore & Smolak, 2000). Recent research suggests that Mexican American girls display similar levels of body image concerns as their Euro-American counterparts (Ericksen et al., 2002; Gardner et al., 1999). However, no studies to date have explored the prevalence and unique influences on Mexican American boys’ body dissatisfaction. In addition to ethnicity, research suggests that weight-related issues of parents are transmitted to children and are influential in the emergence of body image concerns and dieting practices among both boys and girls (Birch & Fisher, 1998; Field et al., 2001; Pike & Rodin, 1991; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Specifically, studies indicate that mothers play an important role in directly and indirectly influencing girls’ body image and weight concerns (Abramovitz & Birch, 2000; Davison et al., 2000; Steinberg & Phares, 2001). Further, boys and girls have been found to report hearing and learning information about dieting from their mothers (Schur et al., 2000). Although a majority of research has overlooked the roles of fathers in the development of body image concerns, some recent reports suggest that fathers may play an important role in influencing their sons’ eating behaviors and body image concerns. Studies indicate that fathers directly and indirectly influence their sons’ body dissatisfaction and dieting strategies through discussions about dieting and modeling of dieting behaviors (Schur et al., 2000; Vincent & McCabe, 2000). However, the indirect influence of paternal modeling of body dissatisfaction on their sons’ body image concerns has not been thoroughly explored. Furthermore, as previously mentioned, fathers’ self-reports of their body image concerns have not been included in other research. Because the family is the most integral socialization agent of youths’ health-related behaviors (Tinsley, 2003; Tinsley et al., 2002), it is important to understand the unique contribution of parents as well as other
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sociocultural and intrapersonal factors that influence the emergence and development of body dissatisfaction among youth, particularly those that uniquely influence boys. Thus, a developmental, multi-influence approach is necessary for the examination of the prevalence and influences of body image concerns of preadolescent boys and girls of diverse ethnic backgrounds. 1.2. Aims of the current study The aim of this study goes beyond that of previous research by examining the (1) prevalence of body image concerns among Mexican American boys, (2) Mexican American and Euro-American preadolescent boys’ body image concerns viewed from a developmental perspective using longitudinal data, (3) influences on boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction including weight status and familial factors (i.e., parental self-reports of body dissatisfaction), and (4) gender differences in preadolescent girls’ and boys’ body dissatisfaction.
2. Method 2.1. Participants Participants were 105 preadolescent boys (n = 58) and girls (n = 47) and their parents in an ongoing longitudinal study examining cultural and familial influences on children’s healthy development. All children were healthy and cognitively functioning at their approximate grade level at the time of assessment. Only families with both a mother and a father participating were included in the present analyses. At the first year of participation, the mean age of the participating preadolescents was 9.76 years (S.D. = 0.47; boys mean age = 9.84, S.D. = 0.48; girls mean age = 9.67, S.D. = 0.43), the mean age of fathers was 38.08 (S.D. = 6.25), and the mean age of mothers was 35.87 (S.D. = 5.37). Families’ second year of participation took place 1 year later. Approximately half of the sample was Euro-American (n = 47) and half was Mexican American (n = 58). 2.2. Measures 2.2.1. Preadolescents’ weight status Weight and height were measured during preadolescents’ first year of participation and used to calculate BMI scores (weight (kg)/height2 (m)). Based on the recommendations of Lohman, Roche, and Martorell (1988), three height and weight measurements were collected for each participant, and each individual’s average weight and height were used to calculate their BMI. 2.2.2. Mothers’ and fathers’ body dissatisfaction Parents’ body dissatisfaction was assessed using the Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS) (Thompson & Gray, 1995). This scale depicts nine adult male/female figures that
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range from very thin to obese. Parents selected (a) the figure that looked most like them and (b) the figure they thought was the most attractive. Body dissatisfaction was calculated as the discrepancy between the ‘‘figure most like them’’ and the ‘‘most attractive figure.’’ Possible dissatisfaction scores ranged from 8 to + 8. No discrepancy (a score of 0) indicated parents’ satisfaction with their body, positive scores indicated parents’ preference to be thinner, and negative scores indicated that parents are dissatisfied and prefer to be heavier. Consistent with previous use of pictorial measures (Davison et al., 2000) to interpret body dissatisfaction scores as continuous, the CDRS is viewed as the extent to which parents are dissatisfied with their bodies and want to be thinner, with positive scores indicating an increasing desire to be thinner. In previous research, the reliability coefficient for this measure was 0.79 (Thompson & Gray, 1995). 2.2.3. Preadolescents’ body dissatisfaction Preadolescents’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 (when participants were 10 years old) and Time 2 (when participants were 11 years old) was assessed using a pictorial instrument developed by Collins (1991). This measure is similar to the adult measures of body dissatisfaction used (e.g., CDSR) but displays body figures of developmentally appropriate pictures for preadolescents. The scale depicts of a series of seven girls/boys figures that range from very thin to obese. At Time 1, preadolescents selected (a) the figure that looked most like them and (b) the figure they thought members of the opposite sex would find the most attractive. At Time 2, preadolescents selected (a) the figure that looked most like them and (b) the figure they thought was the most attractive looking. At both time points, body dissatisfaction was calculated as the discrepancy between the ‘‘figure most like them’’ and the ‘‘most attractive figure.’’ Possible dissatisfaction scores ranged from 6 to + 6. No discrepancy (a score of 0) indicated preadolescents’ satisfaction with their body, positive scores indicated preadolescents’ preference to be thinner, and negative scores indicated that preadolescents are dissatisfied and prefer to be heavier. Similar to the parents’ measure, scores were conceptualized as the extent to which preadolescents are dissatisfied with their bodies and want to be thinner. In previous research, reliability coefficients for use of the original instrument have ranged from 0.59 to 0.71 (Collins, 1991). 2.3. Procedures During the first year of this study, preadolescents and their parents completed all questionnaires and other measures during a 3 h session in a laboratory setting. Each preadolescent was interviewed in a confidential setting; parents completed questionnaires on their own with assistance from trained research assistants as requested. All participants (preadolescents and parents) chose to complete the assessments in either Spanish or English. All Spanish measures were translated and backtranslated from English versions to assure their comparable meaning (Ma´rin & Ma´rin, 1991). Measurements of the participants’ height and weight were also made by a trained researcher during the participants’ laboratory visit.
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Table 1 Descriptive information for constructs evaluated Construct
Instrument
Weight status at Time 1 Boys BMI Girls BMI
n 57 47
Body dissatisfaction at Time 1 Boys Collins’ Pictorial 58 Measure Girls Collins’ Pictorial 45 Measure Mothers CDRS 104 Fathers CDRS 105 Body dissatisfaction at Time 2 Boys Collins’ Pictorial 50 Measure Girls Collins’ Pictorial 43 Measure
Mean (S.D.)
Range
Percent
19.14 (3.8) 20.15 (4.3)
14.06 – 28.89 14.27 – 34.75
Overweight 17 28
.12 (1.04)
2 to 3
Dissatisfied 53
Obese 16 13 Percent who desire to be: Thinner Same Heavier 31.0 46.6 22.4
.67 (1.54)
3 to 5
76
59.5
23.4
12.8
2.67 (1.79) 1.19 (1.3)
2 to 8 2 to 4
96 83
91.3 72.4
3.8 17.1
3.8 10.5
.14 (1.1)
3 to 2
58
32.8
36.2
17.2
.65 (1.51)
3 to 5
63
46.8
34.0
10.6
To assess body dissatisfaction during the second year of this study, preadolescents were interviewed by trained research assistants during a laboratory visit or over the telephone. Preadolescents who participated by phone were mailed the pictorial measure to examine while being interviewed.
3. Results For descriptive purposes, the percentages of preadolescents who were overweight and obese were calculated as was the percentage of preadolescents, mothers, and fathers who were dissatisfied with their bodies and desired to be thinner, heavier, or the same as their present body size (see Table 1). Additionally, the means, S.D., and ranges of scores for each construct investigated are presented in Table 1. Table 2 Correlations among constructs investigated among boys (n = 58) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Boys’ body dissatisfaction, Time 2 Boys’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Boys’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Father’s body dissatisfaction, Time 1 * P < .05. ** P < .01.
1
2
3
–
.40** –
.63** .49** –
4
5 .01 .03 .03 –
.37** .32 * .25 .14 –
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Table 3 Correlations among constructs investigated among girls (n = 47) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Girls’ body dissatisfaction, Time 2 Girls’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Girls’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
1
2
3
4
5
–
.52* * –
.45* * .26 –
.16 .01 .10 –
.02 .16 .21 .11 –
* P < .05. ** P < .01.
Cole et al. (2000) provide recommendations for appropriate, international criteria (based on data sets from six countries) for classifying overweight and obesity among children. Using these criteria (for girls age 10 years), participating girls were classified as overweight if their BMI 19.9 and obese if their BMI 24.1. Participating boys (age 10 years) were classified as overweight if their BMI 19.8 and obese if their BMI 24.0. Preadolescents and parents with a discrepancy score greater than or less than 0 on their respective pictorial measures of body dissatisfaction were classified as dissatisfied with their bodies (see Table 1). Results from t test analyses suggested that girls were significantly more dissatisfied with their bodies than boys at Time 1 (t = 2.14, P < .05) and marginally more dissatisfied than boys at Time 2 (t = 1.88, P < .10). Thus, additional analyses exploring relations among body dissatisfaction, BMI, and parental body image concerns were completed separately for boys and girls. Results from t test analyses indicated similar levels of body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2 among both Mexican American and Euro-American boys (t = 1.43, P > .10 and t = 0.16, P>.10, respectively) and girls (t = 0.07, P>.10 and t = 0.81, P>.10, respectively). Because there were no differences in Mexican American and Euro-American boys’ or girls’ body image concerns and due to the modest sample of participants in this study, additional
Table 4 Multiple regression indicating unique contributions of predictor variables to boys’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2 Predictor
B
S.E. B
Time 1 Boys’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
0.09 0.13 0.16
0.04 0.13 0.09
0.33 * 0.15 0.21 +
Time 2 Boys’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
0.16 0.08 0.22
0.04 0.14 0.09
0.52** 0.08 0.27 *
* P < .05. **P < .01. + P < .10.
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Table 5 Multiple regression indicating unique contributions of predictor variables to girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2 Predictor
B
S.E. B
Time 1 Girls’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
0.14 0.27 0.16
0.10 0.46 0.20
0.36 0.15 0.13
Time 2 Girls’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
0.30 0.44 0.02
0.08 0.37 0.19
0.73** 0.26 0.02
* P < .05. ** P < .01.
analyses exploring unique influences on boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction examined the two ethnic groups together. Tables 2 and 3 display correlations among all constructs investigated in this study for preadolescent boys and girls. Boys’ body dissatisfaction at Time 2 was significantly related to their (1) body dissatisfaction at Time 1 (r=.40, P < .01), (2) BMI at Time 1 (r=.63, P < .01), and (3) fathers’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 (r=.37, P < .01) (see Table 2). Girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 2 was significantly related to both their body dissatisfaction (r=.52, P < .01) and their BMI at Time 1 (r=.45, P < .01) (see Table 3). In order to evaluate the unique variance explained by each construct in predicting boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2, simultaneous regressions were conducted separately for boys and girls. For boys, a significant amount of unique variance in Time 1 body dissatisfaction was accounted for by their BMI and fathers’ body dissatisfaction (see Table 4). Boys’ Time 2 body dissatisfaction was also accounted for by their Time 1 BMI and fathers’ body dissatisfaction (Table 4). Unique variance in girls’ Time 1 body dissatisfaction was not explained by the constructs measured in this study. However, a significant amount of unique variance in girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 2 was accounted for by their Time 1 BMI (Table 5).
4. Discussion This study sought to investigate multiple predictors of Mexican American and EuroAmerican preadolescents’ body dissatisfaction. Consistent with previous studies suggesting that Mexican American and Euro-American girls express similar levels of body image concerns (Crago et al., 1996; Ericksen et al., 2002; Gardner et al., 1999), findings from the current study suggest that Mexican American preadolescent boys demonstrate similar levels of body dissatisfaction to those of their Euro-American counterparts. Although unique patterns in body dissatisfaction were not found in the current sample, the findings from this
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study are important because they generalize to more than one ethnic group. It is possible that early accounts reporting ethnic discrepancies in body dissatisfaction (Smith & Krejci, 1991) are either based on (1) assumptions made about cultural differences, (2) biased sampling practices, with researchers tending to focus on primarily Euro-American samples, or (3) a secular trend accounting for earlier reports of ethnic differences in body dissatisfaction and recent reports of no such differences. By investigating a multiethnic sample of preadolescents, these results contribute to our understanding of the relevance of cultural influences on body dissatisfaction. Findings suggest that preadolescent girls demonstrate greater levels of body dissatisfaction than do preadolescent boys. Although girls demonstrate higher levels of body dissatisfaction, the current study suggests that many preadolescent boys are also dissatisfied with the appearance of their bodies. Descriptive analyses suggest that approximately one-third of preadolescent boys prefer thinner figures than their own. While preadolescent girls were more dissatisfied with their bodies, the substantial number of young boys who were also concerned with how their bodies appear highlights the importance of including boys in body image research as well as further understanding the mechanisms influencing the development of boys’ body image concerns. Research suggesting that mothers are important socializing agents in their children’s body image concerns has been well established; however, fathers are often given little attention in youths’ eating-related research. The current study suggests that fathers also play an important role in socializing their sons’ concerns about their bodies. Recent reports have suggested that fathers directly influence their sons’ body dissatisfaction through comments and discussions about their bodies and dieting (Field et al., 1999; Vincent & McCabe, 2000; Schur et al., 2000). However, findings from the current study suggest that fathers indirectly influence their sons’ body dissatisfaction as well. Specifically, after controlling for boys’ actual body size, fathers’ self-reported body dissatisfaction was positively associated with their sons’ body dissatisfaction, both concurrently and 1 year later. These data suggest that it is possible that father’s feelings about their own bodies, particularly feelings of discontent, may be indirectly transmitted to their sons who are learning that it is normative to be unhappy with their bodies. These findings again underscore the importance of further understanding fathers’ role as socializing agents in the development of their children’s health beliefs and behaviors.
5. Conclusions These data indicate unique gender-specific influences related to boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction. However, findings from this study are somewhat limited by the variable used to assess boys’ and girls’ ideal body figure at Time 1. At Time 1, youth were asked their perceptions of what they thought the opposite sex would choose as an attractive ideal figure, and at Time 2, they were asked which figure they themselves thought was the most attractive. Although these variables were worded somewhat differently, results indicated that both boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2 were highly correlated, suggesting only a minor, if any, impact on the responses across the two data collection time points.
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Theoretically, these findings increase our understanding of the patterns associated with the onset and development of boys’ body dissatisfaction. This study enhances our models of the etiology of body image concerns among youth by illuminating the importance of including both boys and fathers in research. Additionally, this study was an initial attempt to include Mexican American boys in body image research. From an applied perspective, this research suggests that prevention and intervention programs directed at reducing youths’ body image concerns and the consequential unhealthy behaviors associated with body dissatisfaction must be tailored differently for boys and girls. Further investigations of family processes and cultural beliefs associated with ethnic group membership may enhance the understanding of developmental influences on body dissatisfaction. Understanding the nature of body image concerns among Mexican American and other ethnic youth remains a challenge to researchers invested in preventing the deleterious health consequences associated with these perceptions and attitudes among all U.S. youth. Acknowledgements This research was conducted at the University of California at Riverside and funded by grant HD 32465-02 from the National Institute of Child Health and Development awarded to Barbara J. Tinsley. References Abramovitz, B. A., & Birch, L. L. (2000). Five-year-old girls’ ideas about dieting are predicted by mother’s dieting. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. Birch, L. L., & Fisher, J. O. (1998). Development of eating behaviors among children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 101, 539 – 549. Braun, D. L., Sunday, S. R., Huang, A., & Halmi, K. A. (1999). More males seek treatment for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 415 – 424. Cohane, G. H., & Pope Jr., H. G. (2001). Body image in boys: A review of the literature. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 373 – 379. Cole, T. J., Bellizzi, M. C., Flegal, K. M., & Dietz, W. H. (2000). Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: International survey. British Medical Journal, 320, 1240 – 1243. Collins, M. E. (1991). Body figure perceptions and preferences among preadolescent children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 10, 199 – 208. Crago, M., Shisslak, C. M., & Estes, L. S. (1996). Eating disturbances among American minority groups: A review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19, 239 – 248. Davison, K. K., Markey, C. N., & Birch, L. L. (2000). Etiology of body dissatisfaction and weight concerns among 5-year-old girls. Appetite, 35, 143 – 151. Epperley, T. (1993). Drugs and sports. In W. Lillegard, & K. S. Rucker (Eds.), Handbook of sports medicine ( pp. 249 – 258). Stoneham, MA: Andover. Ericksen, A., Tinsley, B., & Markey, C. (2002). Ethnic patterns in girls’ perceptions healthy appearances: Implications for Body Dissatisfaction (Tech Rep.). University of California, Riverside, Healthy Families Project. Field, A. E., Camargo, C. A., Taylor, C. B., Berkey, C. S., Roberts, S. B., & Colditz, G. A. (2001). Peer, parent and media influences on the development of weight concerns and frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls and boys. Pediatrics, 107, 54 – 60.
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French, S. A., Perry, C. L., Leon, G. R., & Fulkerson, J. A. (1995). Dieting behaviors and weight change history in female adolescents. Health Psychology, 14, 548 – 555. Gardner, R., Friedman, B., & Jackson, N. (1999). Hispanic and White children’s judgments of perceived and ideal body size in self and others. Psychological Record, 49, 555 – 564. Koff, E., & Rierdan, J. (1991). Perceptions of weight and attitudes toward eating in early adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 12, 307 – 312. Lohman, T. G., Roche, A. F., & Martorell, M. (1988). Anthropometric standardization reference manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Ma´rin, G., & Ma´rin, B. V. (1991). Translation of data collection instruments. In L. Bickman, & D. J. Rog (Eds.), Applied social research methods series: Vol. 23. Research with Hispanic populations ( pp. 82 – 99). Newbury Park: Sage. Markey, C. N. (2003). A Reconceptualization of Culture and the Development of Eating Disorders: A Tripartite Model. Manuscript submitted for publication. McCreary, D., & Sasse, D. (2000). An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls. Journal of American College Health, 48, 297 – 304. National Institute of Health (1992). Methods for voluntary weight loss and control. Bethesda, MD: Office of Medical Applications of Research. Pike, K. M., & Rodin, J. (1991). Mothers, daughters, and disordered eating. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 198 – 204. Pike, K. M., & Walsh, B. T. (1996). Ethnicity and eating disorders: Implications for incidence and treatment. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 32, 265 – 274. Ricciardelli, L. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2001). Self-esteem and negative affect as moderators of sociocultural influences on body dissatisfaction, strategies to decrease weight, and strategies to increase muscles among adolescent boys and girls. Sex Roles, 44, 189 – 206. Schur, E. A., Sanders, M., & Steiner, H. (2000). Body dissatisfaction and dieting in young children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 74 – 82. Smolak, L., & Levine, M. (2001). Body image in children. In J. K. Thompson, & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: Assessment, prevention, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Steinberg, L., & Phares, V. (2001). Family functioning, body image, and eating disturbances. In J. K. Thompson, & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: Assessment, prevention, and treatment (pp. 127 – 143). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Smolak, L. (2000). The influence of ethnicity on eating disorders in women. In R. M. Hersen, & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of gender, culture, and health ( pp. 227 – 253). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Thompson, M. A., & Gray, J. J. (1995). Development and validation of a new body-image assessment scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 258 – 269. Thompson, S. H., Corwin, S. J., & Sargent, R. G. (1997). Ideal body size beliefs and weight concerns of fourthgrade children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 21, 279 – 284. Tinsley, B. J. (2003). How children learn to be healthy. New York: Cambridge University Press. Tinsley, B. J., Markey, C. N., Ericksen, A. J., Kwasman, A., & Ortiz, R. (2002). Health promotion for parents. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting, vol. 5 (2nd ed.) ( pp. 311 – 328). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Vincent, M. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2000). Gender differences among adolescents in family, and peer influences on body dissatisfaction, weight loss, and binge eating behaviors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 205 – 221. Wood, K. C., Becker, J. A., & Thompson, J. K. (1996). Body image dissatisfaction in preadolescent children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 17, 85 – 100.
Familial influences on Mexican American and Euro-American preadolescent boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction Andrea J. Ericksena,*, Charlotte N. Markeyb, Barbara J. Tinsleyc a
Department of Psychology, San Juan College, Farmington, NM, 87402, USA b Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Camden, NJ, USA c Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
Abstract This study examines multiple influences on preadolescent boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction over time. Mexican American and Euro-American preadolescents (n = 105) completed measures addressing their body dissatisfaction. In addition, preadolescents’ parents completed a measure assessing their own body dissatisfaction. Results indicate that boys’ body dissatisfaction was related to their body size (body mass index, BMI) and their fathers’ own body dissatisfaction; girls’ body dissatisfaction was related primarily to their own body size. Findings are discussed in terms of the importance of understanding boys’ increasing susceptibility to body dissatisfaction and the role fathers play in shaping boys’ feelings about their bodies as they approach adolescence. D 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Body dissatisfaction; Parental influence; Boys; Preadolescents; Ethnicity
1. Introduction Body image disturbances have become increasingly common among children in recent decades and are frequently conceptualized as normative among preadolescent and adolescent girls (Koff & Rierdan, 1991; Thompson, Corwin, & Sargent, 1997). Even young girls (as young as 5 years of age) express body image and weight concerns (Davison, Markey, &
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-909-787-3851. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.J. Ericksen). 1471-0153/03/$ – see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S1471-0153(03)00025-4
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Birch, 2000). Although previous research indicates that girls are more likely than boys to report body dissatisfaction and weight concerns, recent reports suggest that these concerns are also prevalent among males (Braun, Sunday, Huang, & Halmi, 1999; Cohane & Pope, 2001; Field et al., 2001). Approximately 30–40% of preadolescent boys express body dissatisfaction with a desire to be thinner (Collins, 1991; Gustafson-Larson & Terry, 1992) compared with about 50% of their female counterparts who demonstrate similar concerns (Ericksen, Tinsley, & Markey, 2002; Schur, Sanders, & Steiner, 2000; Thompson et al., 1997). Recent reports further suggest that among adolescent boys, body image concerns are influenced by both intrapersonal and sociocultural factors, including their body mass index (BMI) and parental influences (Field et al., 2001). Specifically, researchers have highlighted fathers’ beliefs about the importance of thinness and dieting as a factor affecting adolescent boys’ body image concerns (Field et al., 2001; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001; Vincent & McCabe, 2000). For example, studies indicate that fathers influence their sons’ body dissatisfaction and dieting strategies through comments about their bodies, encouragement to lose weight, discussions about dieting, and modeling paternal dieting strategies (Schur et al., 2000; Vincent & McCabe, 2000). However, these studies examined youths’ perceptions of their fathers’ body image concerns and did not examine the relation between fathers’ own body dissatisfaction and the development of their sons’ body image concerns. While most research suggests that girls’ body dissatisfaction continues to increase with age, the developmental patterns of boys’ body dissatisfaction are not as clear (Smolak & Levine, 2001). Studies with preadolescent youth have been inconsistent, with some studies suggesting that many young boys prefer body ideals that are thinner than their own (Collins, 1991). Other studies, however, suggest that many young boys are satisfied with their bodies (Gardner, Friedman, & Jackson, 1999; Wood, Becker, & Thompson, 1996). Research examining older adolescent boys’ body dissatisfaction suggests that boys are either satisfied with their bodies or desire to be heavier, preferring ideal figures that are bigger than their current bodies (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Because findings from these studies regarding the prevalence and direction of boys’ body dissatisfaction have been conflicting, a developmental approach examining the prevalence and early patterns of body image concerns among young boys is critical for understanding and preventing the negative developmental consequences associated with body dissatisfaction. One of the primary consequences of negative body image among youth is disordered eating, which is increasingly problematic among U.S. girls of diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds (Crago, Shisslak, & Estes, 1996; Markey, 2003; Pike & Walsh, 1996; Schur et al., 2000). Additionally, body dissatisfaction has been associated with unhealthy dieting strategies (French, Perry, Leon, & Fulkerson, 1995) and males’ use of physically damaging drugs such as anabolic steroids (Epperley, 1993), which render youth at risk for various growth disturbances (National Institute of Health, 1992). Due to these documented negative implications of body image concerns on girls’ health and the increasing acknowledgement of the prevalence of boys’ body image concerns, it is important to explore the differential and unique influences involved in the etiology of body dissatisfaction among preadolescent boys and girls.
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1.1. Influences on youths’ body image concerns The development of youths’ maladaptive body perceptions and concerns have been found to be influenced by several intrapersonal factors, including individuals’ body size and degree of concern reported about their weight (Birch & Fisher, 1998; Davison et al., 2000; Ericksen et al., 2002; Field et al., 2001). Specifically, studies have indicated a positive relation between body size and dieting behaviors, with heavier individuals of all ages tending to diet more often (Birch & Fisher, 1998; Davison et al., 2000). Latino youth are most at risk for obesity compared with other U.S. youths. Due to this increasing risk for overweight and obesity among Mexican American children and the vast number of Mexican American children currently residing in the United States (Tinsley, Markey, Ericksen, Kwasman, & Ortiz, 2002), it is particularly important to explore the relations between weight status and body image concerns among Latino youth. While patterns of overweight and obesity provide a basis for exploring body image concerns among youths of different ethnic backgrounds, sociocultural factors concerning eating behaviors and body image preferences may also be influencing youths’ body dissatisfaction. Intrapersonal factors provide a basis from which body image concerns are derived, especially among females; however, patterns associated with youths’ social and cultural contexts may also influence their body ideals and body dissatisfaction. Although body image concerns were traditionally believed to be a Euro-American phenomena, research suggests that they are also prevalent among other ethnic groups residing in the United States (Crago et al., 1996; Striegel-Moore & Smolak, 2000). Recent research suggests that Mexican American girls display similar levels of body image concerns as their Euro-American counterparts (Ericksen et al., 2002; Gardner et al., 1999). However, no studies to date have explored the prevalence and unique influences on Mexican American boys’ body dissatisfaction. In addition to ethnicity, research suggests that weight-related issues of parents are transmitted to children and are influential in the emergence of body image concerns and dieting practices among both boys and girls (Birch & Fisher, 1998; Field et al., 2001; Pike & Rodin, 1991; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Specifically, studies indicate that mothers play an important role in directly and indirectly influencing girls’ body image and weight concerns (Abramovitz & Birch, 2000; Davison et al., 2000; Steinberg & Phares, 2001). Further, boys and girls have been found to report hearing and learning information about dieting from their mothers (Schur et al., 2000). Although a majority of research has overlooked the roles of fathers in the development of body image concerns, some recent reports suggest that fathers may play an important role in influencing their sons’ eating behaviors and body image concerns. Studies indicate that fathers directly and indirectly influence their sons’ body dissatisfaction and dieting strategies through discussions about dieting and modeling of dieting behaviors (Schur et al., 2000; Vincent & McCabe, 2000). However, the indirect influence of paternal modeling of body dissatisfaction on their sons’ body image concerns has not been thoroughly explored. Furthermore, as previously mentioned, fathers’ self-reports of their body image concerns have not been included in other research. Because the family is the most integral socialization agent of youths’ health-related behaviors (Tinsley, 2003; Tinsley et al., 2002), it is important to understand the unique contribution of parents as well as other
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sociocultural and intrapersonal factors that influence the emergence and development of body dissatisfaction among youth, particularly those that uniquely influence boys. Thus, a developmental, multi-influence approach is necessary for the examination of the prevalence and influences of body image concerns of preadolescent boys and girls of diverse ethnic backgrounds. 1.2. Aims of the current study The aim of this study goes beyond that of previous research by examining the (1) prevalence of body image concerns among Mexican American boys, (2) Mexican American and Euro-American preadolescent boys’ body image concerns viewed from a developmental perspective using longitudinal data, (3) influences on boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction including weight status and familial factors (i.e., parental self-reports of body dissatisfaction), and (4) gender differences in preadolescent girls’ and boys’ body dissatisfaction.
2. Method 2.1. Participants Participants were 105 preadolescent boys (n = 58) and girls (n = 47) and their parents in an ongoing longitudinal study examining cultural and familial influences on children’s healthy development. All children were healthy and cognitively functioning at their approximate grade level at the time of assessment. Only families with both a mother and a father participating were included in the present analyses. At the first year of participation, the mean age of the participating preadolescents was 9.76 years (S.D. = 0.47; boys mean age = 9.84, S.D. = 0.48; girls mean age = 9.67, S.D. = 0.43), the mean age of fathers was 38.08 (S.D. = 6.25), and the mean age of mothers was 35.87 (S.D. = 5.37). Families’ second year of participation took place 1 year later. Approximately half of the sample was Euro-American (n = 47) and half was Mexican American (n = 58). 2.2. Measures 2.2.1. Preadolescents’ weight status Weight and height were measured during preadolescents’ first year of participation and used to calculate BMI scores (weight (kg)/height2 (m)). Based on the recommendations of Lohman, Roche, and Martorell (1988), three height and weight measurements were collected for each participant, and each individual’s average weight and height were used to calculate their BMI. 2.2.2. Mothers’ and fathers’ body dissatisfaction Parents’ body dissatisfaction was assessed using the Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS) (Thompson & Gray, 1995). This scale depicts nine adult male/female figures that
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range from very thin to obese. Parents selected (a) the figure that looked most like them and (b) the figure they thought was the most attractive. Body dissatisfaction was calculated as the discrepancy between the ‘‘figure most like them’’ and the ‘‘most attractive figure.’’ Possible dissatisfaction scores ranged from 8 to + 8. No discrepancy (a score of 0) indicated parents’ satisfaction with their body, positive scores indicated parents’ preference to be thinner, and negative scores indicated that parents are dissatisfied and prefer to be heavier. Consistent with previous use of pictorial measures (Davison et al., 2000) to interpret body dissatisfaction scores as continuous, the CDRS is viewed as the extent to which parents are dissatisfied with their bodies and want to be thinner, with positive scores indicating an increasing desire to be thinner. In previous research, the reliability coefficient for this measure was 0.79 (Thompson & Gray, 1995). 2.2.3. Preadolescents’ body dissatisfaction Preadolescents’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 (when participants were 10 years old) and Time 2 (when participants were 11 years old) was assessed using a pictorial instrument developed by Collins (1991). This measure is similar to the adult measures of body dissatisfaction used (e.g., CDSR) but displays body figures of developmentally appropriate pictures for preadolescents. The scale depicts of a series of seven girls/boys figures that range from very thin to obese. At Time 1, preadolescents selected (a) the figure that looked most like them and (b) the figure they thought members of the opposite sex would find the most attractive. At Time 2, preadolescents selected (a) the figure that looked most like them and (b) the figure they thought was the most attractive looking. At both time points, body dissatisfaction was calculated as the discrepancy between the ‘‘figure most like them’’ and the ‘‘most attractive figure.’’ Possible dissatisfaction scores ranged from 6 to + 6. No discrepancy (a score of 0) indicated preadolescents’ satisfaction with their body, positive scores indicated preadolescents’ preference to be thinner, and negative scores indicated that preadolescents are dissatisfied and prefer to be heavier. Similar to the parents’ measure, scores were conceptualized as the extent to which preadolescents are dissatisfied with their bodies and want to be thinner. In previous research, reliability coefficients for use of the original instrument have ranged from 0.59 to 0.71 (Collins, 1991). 2.3. Procedures During the first year of this study, preadolescents and their parents completed all questionnaires and other measures during a 3 h session in a laboratory setting. Each preadolescent was interviewed in a confidential setting; parents completed questionnaires on their own with assistance from trained research assistants as requested. All participants (preadolescents and parents) chose to complete the assessments in either Spanish or English. All Spanish measures were translated and backtranslated from English versions to assure their comparable meaning (Ma´rin & Ma´rin, 1991). Measurements of the participants’ height and weight were also made by a trained researcher during the participants’ laboratory visit.
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Table 1 Descriptive information for constructs evaluated Construct
Instrument
Weight status at Time 1 Boys BMI Girls BMI
n 57 47
Body dissatisfaction at Time 1 Boys Collins’ Pictorial 58 Measure Girls Collins’ Pictorial 45 Measure Mothers CDRS 104 Fathers CDRS 105 Body dissatisfaction at Time 2 Boys Collins’ Pictorial 50 Measure Girls Collins’ Pictorial 43 Measure
Mean (S.D.)
Range
Percent
19.14 (3.8) 20.15 (4.3)
14.06 – 28.89 14.27 – 34.75
Overweight 17 28
.12 (1.04)
2 to 3
Dissatisfied 53
Obese 16 13 Percent who desire to be: Thinner Same Heavier 31.0 46.6 22.4
.67 (1.54)
3 to 5
76
59.5
23.4
12.8
2.67 (1.79) 1.19 (1.3)
2 to 8 2 to 4
96 83
91.3 72.4
3.8 17.1
3.8 10.5
.14 (1.1)
3 to 2
58
32.8
36.2
17.2
.65 (1.51)
3 to 5
63
46.8
34.0
10.6
To assess body dissatisfaction during the second year of this study, preadolescents were interviewed by trained research assistants during a laboratory visit or over the telephone. Preadolescents who participated by phone were mailed the pictorial measure to examine while being interviewed.
3. Results For descriptive purposes, the percentages of preadolescents who were overweight and obese were calculated as was the percentage of preadolescents, mothers, and fathers who were dissatisfied with their bodies and desired to be thinner, heavier, or the same as their present body size (see Table 1). Additionally, the means, S.D., and ranges of scores for each construct investigated are presented in Table 1. Table 2 Correlations among constructs investigated among boys (n = 58) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Boys’ body dissatisfaction, Time 2 Boys’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Boys’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Father’s body dissatisfaction, Time 1 * P < .05. ** P < .01.
1
2
3
–
.40** –
.63** .49** –
4
5 .01 .03 .03 –
.37** .32 * .25 .14 –
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Table 3 Correlations among constructs investigated among girls (n = 47) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Girls’ body dissatisfaction, Time 2 Girls’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Girls’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
1
2
3
4
5
–
.52* * –
.45* * .26 –
.16 .01 .10 –
.02 .16 .21 .11 –
* P < .05. ** P < .01.
Cole et al. (2000) provide recommendations for appropriate, international criteria (based on data sets from six countries) for classifying overweight and obesity among children. Using these criteria (for girls age 10 years), participating girls were classified as overweight if their BMI 19.9 and obese if their BMI 24.1. Participating boys (age 10 years) were classified as overweight if their BMI 19.8 and obese if their BMI 24.0. Preadolescents and parents with a discrepancy score greater than or less than 0 on their respective pictorial measures of body dissatisfaction were classified as dissatisfied with their bodies (see Table 1). Results from t test analyses suggested that girls were significantly more dissatisfied with their bodies than boys at Time 1 (t = 2.14, P < .05) and marginally more dissatisfied than boys at Time 2 (t = 1.88, P < .10). Thus, additional analyses exploring relations among body dissatisfaction, BMI, and parental body image concerns were completed separately for boys and girls. Results from t test analyses indicated similar levels of body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2 among both Mexican American and Euro-American boys (t = 1.43, P > .10 and t = 0.16, P>.10, respectively) and girls (t = 0.07, P>.10 and t = 0.81, P>.10, respectively). Because there were no differences in Mexican American and Euro-American boys’ or girls’ body image concerns and due to the modest sample of participants in this study, additional
Table 4 Multiple regression indicating unique contributions of predictor variables to boys’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2 Predictor
B
S.E. B
Time 1 Boys’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
0.09 0.13 0.16
0.04 0.13 0.09
0.33 * 0.15 0.21 +
Time 2 Boys’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
0.16 0.08 0.22
0.04 0.14 0.09
0.52** 0.08 0.27 *
* P < .05. **P < .01. + P < .10.
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Table 5 Multiple regression indicating unique contributions of predictor variables to girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2 Predictor
B
S.E. B
Time 1 Girls’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
0.14 0.27 0.16
0.10 0.46 0.20
0.36 0.15 0.13
Time 2 Girls’ BMI, Time 1 Mothers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1 Fathers’ body dissatisfaction, Time 1
0.30 0.44 0.02
0.08 0.37 0.19
0.73** 0.26 0.02
* P < .05. ** P < .01.
analyses exploring unique influences on boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction examined the two ethnic groups together. Tables 2 and 3 display correlations among all constructs investigated in this study for preadolescent boys and girls. Boys’ body dissatisfaction at Time 2 was significantly related to their (1) body dissatisfaction at Time 1 (r=.40, P < .01), (2) BMI at Time 1 (r=.63, P < .01), and (3) fathers’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 (r=.37, P < .01) (see Table 2). Girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 2 was significantly related to both their body dissatisfaction (r=.52, P < .01) and their BMI at Time 1 (r=.45, P < .01) (see Table 3). In order to evaluate the unique variance explained by each construct in predicting boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2, simultaneous regressions were conducted separately for boys and girls. For boys, a significant amount of unique variance in Time 1 body dissatisfaction was accounted for by their BMI and fathers’ body dissatisfaction (see Table 4). Boys’ Time 2 body dissatisfaction was also accounted for by their Time 1 BMI and fathers’ body dissatisfaction (Table 4). Unique variance in girls’ Time 1 body dissatisfaction was not explained by the constructs measured in this study. However, a significant amount of unique variance in girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 2 was accounted for by their Time 1 BMI (Table 5).
4. Discussion This study sought to investigate multiple predictors of Mexican American and EuroAmerican preadolescents’ body dissatisfaction. Consistent with previous studies suggesting that Mexican American and Euro-American girls express similar levels of body image concerns (Crago et al., 1996; Ericksen et al., 2002; Gardner et al., 1999), findings from the current study suggest that Mexican American preadolescent boys demonstrate similar levels of body dissatisfaction to those of their Euro-American counterparts. Although unique patterns in body dissatisfaction were not found in the current sample, the findings from this
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study are important because they generalize to more than one ethnic group. It is possible that early accounts reporting ethnic discrepancies in body dissatisfaction (Smith & Krejci, 1991) are either based on (1) assumptions made about cultural differences, (2) biased sampling practices, with researchers tending to focus on primarily Euro-American samples, or (3) a secular trend accounting for earlier reports of ethnic differences in body dissatisfaction and recent reports of no such differences. By investigating a multiethnic sample of preadolescents, these results contribute to our understanding of the relevance of cultural influences on body dissatisfaction. Findings suggest that preadolescent girls demonstrate greater levels of body dissatisfaction than do preadolescent boys. Although girls demonstrate higher levels of body dissatisfaction, the current study suggests that many preadolescent boys are also dissatisfied with the appearance of their bodies. Descriptive analyses suggest that approximately one-third of preadolescent boys prefer thinner figures than their own. While preadolescent girls were more dissatisfied with their bodies, the substantial number of young boys who were also concerned with how their bodies appear highlights the importance of including boys in body image research as well as further understanding the mechanisms influencing the development of boys’ body image concerns. Research suggesting that mothers are important socializing agents in their children’s body image concerns has been well established; however, fathers are often given little attention in youths’ eating-related research. The current study suggests that fathers also play an important role in socializing their sons’ concerns about their bodies. Recent reports have suggested that fathers directly influence their sons’ body dissatisfaction through comments and discussions about their bodies and dieting (Field et al., 1999; Vincent & McCabe, 2000; Schur et al., 2000). However, findings from the current study suggest that fathers indirectly influence their sons’ body dissatisfaction as well. Specifically, after controlling for boys’ actual body size, fathers’ self-reported body dissatisfaction was positively associated with their sons’ body dissatisfaction, both concurrently and 1 year later. These data suggest that it is possible that father’s feelings about their own bodies, particularly feelings of discontent, may be indirectly transmitted to their sons who are learning that it is normative to be unhappy with their bodies. These findings again underscore the importance of further understanding fathers’ role as socializing agents in the development of their children’s health beliefs and behaviors.
5. Conclusions These data indicate unique gender-specific influences related to boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction. However, findings from this study are somewhat limited by the variable used to assess boys’ and girls’ ideal body figure at Time 1. At Time 1, youth were asked their perceptions of what they thought the opposite sex would choose as an attractive ideal figure, and at Time 2, they were asked which figure they themselves thought was the most attractive. Although these variables were worded somewhat differently, results indicated that both boys’ and girls’ body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2 were highly correlated, suggesting only a minor, if any, impact on the responses across the two data collection time points.
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Theoretically, these findings increase our understanding of the patterns associated with the onset and development of boys’ body dissatisfaction. This study enhances our models of the etiology of body image concerns among youth by illuminating the importance of including both boys and fathers in research. Additionally, this study was an initial attempt to include Mexican American boys in body image research. From an applied perspective, this research suggests that prevention and intervention programs directed at reducing youths’ body image concerns and the consequential unhealthy behaviors associated with body dissatisfaction must be tailored differently for boys and girls. Further investigations of family processes and cultural beliefs associated with ethnic group membership may enhance the understanding of developmental influences on body dissatisfaction. Understanding the nature of body image concerns among Mexican American and other ethnic youth remains a challenge to researchers invested in preventing the deleterious health consequences associated with these perceptions and attitudes among all U.S. youth. Acknowledgements This research was conducted at the University of California at Riverside and funded by grant HD 32465-02 from the National Institute of Child Health and Development awarded to Barbara J. Tinsley. References Abramovitz, B. A., & Birch, L. L. (2000). Five-year-old girls’ ideas about dieting are predicted by mother’s dieting. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. Birch, L. L., & Fisher, J. O. (1998). Development of eating behaviors among children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 101, 539 – 549. Braun, D. L., Sunday, S. R., Huang, A., & Halmi, K. A. (1999). More males seek treatment for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 415 – 424. Cohane, G. H., & Pope Jr., H. G. (2001). Body image in boys: A review of the literature. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 373 – 379. Cole, T. J., Bellizzi, M. C., Flegal, K. M., & Dietz, W. H. (2000). Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: International survey. British Medical Journal, 320, 1240 – 1243. Collins, M. E. (1991). Body figure perceptions and preferences among preadolescent children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 10, 199 – 208. Crago, M., Shisslak, C. M., & Estes, L. S. (1996). Eating disturbances among American minority groups: A review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19, 239 – 248. Davison, K. K., Markey, C. N., & Birch, L. L. (2000). Etiology of body dissatisfaction and weight concerns among 5-year-old girls. Appetite, 35, 143 – 151. Epperley, T. (1993). Drugs and sports. In W. Lillegard, & K. S. Rucker (Eds.), Handbook of sports medicine ( pp. 249 – 258). Stoneham, MA: Andover. Ericksen, A., Tinsley, B., & Markey, C. (2002). Ethnic patterns in girls’ perceptions healthy appearances: Implications for Body Dissatisfaction (Tech Rep.). University of California, Riverside, Healthy Families Project. Field, A. E., Camargo, C. A., Taylor, C. B., Berkey, C. S., Roberts, S. B., & Colditz, G. A. (2001). Peer, parent and media influences on the development of weight concerns and frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls and boys. Pediatrics, 107, 54 – 60.
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