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Firewood consumption along an altitudinal gradient in mountain villages of India
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Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
Firewood consumption along an altitudinal gradient in mountain villages of India B.P. Bhatt∗ , M.S. Sachan Agroforestry Division, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya 793103, India Received 7 April 2003; received in revised form 24 October 2003; accepted 24 October 2003
Abstract The rural population of the Himalayas has been using /rewood as the only source of energy for generations. Increasing population coupled with decreasing forest resources have led to strict environmental protection laws in the area. This paper analyses the fuelwood consumption pattern for households along an altitudinal gradient in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Firewood consumption was 2.80, 2.00, 1.42, 1.10 and 1:07 kg=capita=day, respectively, above 2000, 1500 –2000, 1000 –1500, 500 –1000 and below 500 m altitude. The energy expenditure for fuelwood collection was 60.77, 62.57, 76.70, 87.23 and 85:14 MJ=capita=year, accordingly. Firewood consumption was in7uenced by climate and season of the year. On average, the fuelwood consumption was 2.0 –3.0-fold higher in winter than summer (considering 265 days as winter and 100 days as summer). The present information on fuelwood consumption pattern by di9erent altitude could form the basis for designing appropriate technologies for energy plantations in the region. The biomass consumption rate has also been discussed in environmental perspective in the Himalayan region. ? 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Fuelwood; Garhwal Himalaya; Energy
1. Introduction The consumption of biomass as fuel has been identi/ed as one of the most signi/cant causes of forest decline in many developing countries and according to one estimate, woodfuel accounts for over 54% of all global wood harvests per annum, suggesting a signi/cant and direct role of woodfuel in forest degradation [1]. Biomass is the main source of energy in Indian mountain villages and about half of all energy (commercial and biogas) consumed in India is used for ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-364-570301; fax: +91-364570257. E-mail address: [email protected] (B.P. Bhatt).
0961-9534/$ - see front matter ? 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2003.10.004
cooking food. This is nearly double the energy (fossil, fuel, electricity) consumed by agriculture and the industrial sector combined [2]. Data about rural energy supply and consumption patterns are lacking and prejudices rural energy planning. At the same time, energy planners overlook this most essential energy use and planning priorities are usually set in favour of the industrial and agricultural sector’s commercial energy demand rather than for domestic cooking. In the case of cooking, non-commercial sources of energy are even more crucial providing as much as 87% of the country’s cooking energy requirements [3]. Technically and economically sound means exist both for reforestation and for improving the eGciency with which wood and other biomass fuels are burnt [4].
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B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sachan / Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
Traditionally, people of the Himalayan region have been ful/lling their energy needs almost entirely from forests. But with dwindling forest resources and enforcement of new environmental laws by Government agencies has restricted fuelwood collection without provision of alternative sources of energy. Thus the very existence of the local people is being threatened [5]. A /eld survey was undertaken to study the fuelwood consumption pattern of rural communities across an altitudinal gradient with a view to identify (a) major tree species, which are being used and preferred by the rural population for fuel, (b) quantify the fuelwoods consumed by households at di9erent altitudes, and (c) quantify the human energy spent and distance travelled to collect fuelwood. 2. Study area and climate The study was conducted in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal, India (situated between 30◦ 7 –30◦ 35 N latitude and 78◦ 23 –79◦ 42 5 E longitude). Permanent settlement in this area occurs from 380 to 2500 m. The climate is sub-montane with an average rainfall of 1550 –2700 mm. The average maximum temperature during the summer season is 35◦ C and the average minimum temperature 21:8◦ C, with a maximum and minimum of 22◦ C and 7:9◦ C, respectively, during winter. The forest changes with altitude; the distribution of chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) occurs in the tropical and the subtropical region of the area, but oaks (Quercus spp.) dominate the higher hills. Although forests dominate the landscape in the Garhwal region, agriculture is the main occupation of the hill people. Villagers cultivate a variety of crops on the hill slopes, e.g., Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Eleusine coracana and Echinochloa frumentacea are the major crops, with Setaria italica, Zea mays and Amaranthus spp. the staple food crops. Brassica spp., Cleome viscosa and Glycine max are the major oil crops. Various pulses and vegetables are also cultivated in rainfed agricultural land. Solanum tuberosum, Fagopyrum spp. and beans are important crops of the more temperate parts (Up to 2500 m). Agricultural land cover about 4196 km2 in six districts of Garhwal; the valleys are more productive than the upland /elds but the
area under valley cultivation is less than 20% of the total agricultural land. Though irrigation facilities are meager, valley land in cultivated for rice and wheat production, but at the high altitudes only rainfed agriculture is practised. 3. Data collection The study began with a preliminary survey conducted in the villages at di9erent altitudes to count the number of families and members in each household. At each altitude, three villages were selected randomly to represent the villages of that particular altitude. A minimum of 15 families in each village was used for the fuelwood consumption study. The /eldwork was conducted during July 2000 –June 2001. The quantity of fuelwood consumed was measured over a period of 24 h using a weight survey method [5,6]. The wood was weighed using 50 kg spring balance and then left in the kitchen of each household with instructions to burn wood only from the bundle. On the next day the authors returned to each household and the remaining wood was weighed to calculate the actual consumption per day. Time spent for fuelwood collection was noted when the members of the household went to the forest. The distance travelled and the time spent for fuelwood collection was crosschecked by the authors who visited the forest along with the villagers during the period of /rewood collection. Based on Gopalan et al. [7], the time and labour spent for fuelwood collection by the household members was measured in hours and then converted into energy (MJ). Total fuel energy consumed was apportioned to each activity [8] according to relative duration on the basis of sedentary, moderate or heavy work. Per hour energy expenditure of 0:418 MJ for sedentary work, 0:488 MJ for moderate work and 0:679 MJ for heavy work for an adult male; 0.331, 0.383 and 0:523 MJ for an adult female; and 0:412 MJ for heavy work for a child of the age category of 9 –12 years were used for the calculation of the energy input into fuelwood and other fuel collection. Overall rank sum index (ORSI) of the major /rewood species was assessed on the basis of fuelwood production, /rewood properties like calori/c value, wood density, moisture percentage, biomass to ash ratio, ash percentage and availability. For each
B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sachan / Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
attribute, the rating was made using 0.25 –1.0 scale (0:25 = poor; 0:50 = fair; 0:75 = good; and 1.0 excellent). Based on these estimates, the total score of each species was then divided by number of species evaluated, i.e., 33 species, to present the pooled value of ORSI [9].
Table 1 Major /rewood species at di9erent altitudes in Garhwal Himalaya, India Altitudinal range
Vernacular name Scienti/c name
Up to 500 m asl
Aseen Dhauda Gutel Jamun Kanju Kusum Ruina Sal Sandan
Terminalia tomentosa Woodfordia frulticosa Trewia nudi>ora Eugenia jambolana Holoptelia integrifolia Sapindus mukorossi Mallotus philippinensis Shorea robusta Ougeinia dalbergioides
500 –1000 m asl
Chir Dainken Guiral Haldu Khair Siris Toon Tung
Pinus roxburghii Melia azadirachta Bauhinia retusa Adina cordifolia Acacia catechu Albizia lebbek Toona ciliata Rhus parvi>ora
4. Results The major tree species used for fuelwood at different altitudes are presented in Table 1. Almost any species is used as /rewood depending on occurrence at di9erent altitudes. Firewood consumption was 1.07, 1.10, 1.42, 2.00 and 2:80 kg=capita=day, respectively, at 500, 500 – 1000, 1000 –1500, 1500 –2000 and above 2000 m. Firewood consumption was 2.61-fold higher at high altitude (above 2000 m) compared to fuelwood used at low (up to 500 m) altitude. At each altitude, the fuelwood consumption was highest in winter, followed by the spring. High altitude populations use fuel for space heating, boiling water and lighting as well as cooking and this is the reason for the higher rate of /rewood demand at high altitudes (Table 2). Fuelwood collection is mainly done by the women, particularly at high altitudes. On average, irrespective of altitudinal gradient, women use 55% of the total labour energy expenditure for /rewood collection. Men and children contribute the rest. Total energy expenditure for /rewood collection is highest (85:14 MJ=capita=yr) at low (up to 500 m) altitude as the villagers have to walk long distances in search of /rewood (2.0 to 3:0 km daily). At high altitudes, due to plentiful resources and comparatively low population pressure, they walk 1.3–1:5 km in search of /rewood. Thus less labour energy (60:77 MJ=capita=yr) is required for /rewood collection. On average, there was a 1.4-fold higher energy expenditure at low altitude (up to 500 m) compared to high (above 2000 m) altitude (Table 3). Liquid petroleum gas (LPG), kerosene and cow dung are also used to meet energy requirements but only at low altitudes. On average, LPG, kerosene and cow dung contribute 23% of the energy requirement up to 1000 m; 2.6% at 1000 –1500 m and below 2.0% above 1500 m altitude. Thus, /rewood is the major source of energy at all altitudes. In spite of the higher
71
1000 –1500 m asl Banj Chir Khainda Painya
Quercus leucotrichophora Pinus roxburghii Ficus cunia Prunus cerasoides
1500 –2000 m asl Anyar Alder Banj Burans Chir Harinj Kafal
Lyonia ovalifolia Alnus nepalensis Quercus leucotrichophora Rhododendron arboreum Pinus roxburghii Quercus glauca Myrica esculenta
Above 2000 m asl Alder Kanjula Kapasi Kharsu Pangar Rag Surai Thuner
Alnus nepalensis Acer caesium Cornus macrophylla Quercus semicarpifolia Aesculus indica Abies pindrow Cupressus torulosa Taxus baccata
energy consumption of fuelwood collection at low altitudes the total fuel energy consumption increased with increasing altitude as /rewood consumption increased markedly with increasing altitude (Table 4). Abies pindrow, Adina cordifolia, Aesculus indica, Cornus macrophylla, Holoptelia integrifolia, Myrica esculenta, Rhodendron arboreum, Pinus roxburghii,
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B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sachan / Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
Table 2 Firewood consumption (kg=capita=yr ± SD) across an altitudinal gradient in Garhwal Himalaya, India Season
Rainy Winter Spring Summer Average/yr Average/day
Altitudinal range (m asl) Up to 500
500 –1000
1000 –1500
1500 –2000
Above 2000
313:90 ± 51:10 605:90 ± 92:00 430:70 ± 84:70 219:00 ± 31:10 392.38 1.07
237:45 ± 43:80 620:50 ± 44:90 441:65 ± 58:40 310:25 ± 69:35 402.41 1.10
427:05 ± 43:80 733:65 ± 78:55 558:45 ± 84:60 350:40 ± 58:40 517.39 1.42
591:30 ± 56:95 1109:60 ± 63:56 722:70 ± 41:50 496:40 ± 56:70 730.00 2.00
934:40 ± 61:50 1376:05 ± 88:20 1065:80 ± 69:45 700:80 ± 32:85 1019.26 2.80
Table 3 Labour energy expenditure (MJ=capita=yr ± SD) for collection of fuelwood at di9erent altitudes by the households in Garhwal Himalaya, India Consumer
Male Female Child Total energy d− (km)
Altitudinal range (m asl) Up to 500
500 –1000
1000 –1500
1500 –2000
Above 2000
40:73 ± 2:11 32:92 ± 1:73 11:49 ± 0:98 85.14 2.5
35:48 ± 1:50 41:35 ± 1:78 10:40 ± 1:54 87.23 3.0
30:22 ± 1:53 35:19 ± 2:37 11:29 ± 0:97 76.70 2.0
— 54:34 ± 3:14 8:23 ± 0:92 62.57 1.50
21:78 ± 1:00 33:86 ± 2:11 5:13 ± 3:00 60.77 1.33
d− average distance of forest from village.
Table 4 Total energy consumption (MJ=capita=yr ± SD) at di9erent altitudes in Garhwal Himalaya, India Application
Fuelwood Kerosene LPG Cow dung Total energy
Altitudinal range (m asl) Up to 500
500 –1000
1000 –1500
1500 –2000
Above 2000
21:08 ± 1:54 0:14 ± 0:02 0:58 ± 0:11 5:74 ± 0:57 27.54
21:67 ± 1:83 0:16 ± 0:07 0:38 ± 0:25 5:68 ± 0:51 27.89
27:97 ± 2:70 0:32 ± 0:20 0:43 ± 0:26 — 28.72
39:94 ± 3:81 0:36 ± 0:25 — — 40.30
55:16 ± 3:94 0:38 ± 0:09 — — 55.54
Quercus spp., Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa and Toona ciliata are suitable /rewood species judged by their ORSI, assessed on the basis of fuelwood production, the characteristics of the /rewood and its availability. However, the procurement of these preferred species is becoming increasingly diGcult and all kinds of woods are used as /rewood, even inferior shrubs and trees (Table 5).
5. Discussion A large part of the third world depends primarily on biomass fuel (low-energy sources), as opposed to fossil fuels (high-energy sources), relied upon in the developed world. The entire Himalayas primarily use biofuels and where the people are still at the subsistence economy level and faced with the problem of
B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sachan / Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
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Table 5 Over-all Rank Sum Index (ORSI) of major /rewood species based on /rewood production, characteristics and availability Species
pindrowa
Abies Acacia catechua Acer caesiuma Adina cordifoliaa Aesculus indicaa Albizia lebbek A. stipulataa Alnus nepalensis Bauhinia retusa Cornus macrophyllaa Cupressus torulosaa Eugenia jambolanaa Ficus cunia Holoptelia integrifoliaa Lyonia ovalifoliaa Mallotus philippinensis Melia azadirachta Myrica esculentaa Ougeinia dalbergioidesa Pinus roxburghiia Prunus cerasoidesa Quercus leucotrichophoraa Q. glaucaa Q. semicarpifoliaa Rhododendron arboreuma Rhus parvi>ora Sapindus mukorossia Shorea robustaa Taxus baccataa Terminalia tometosaa Toona ciliataa Trewia nudi>ora Woodfordia fruticosa
Altitude (m asl)
ORSI
up to 500
500 –1000
1000 –1500
1500 –2000
Above 2000
No No No Yes No Yes No No No No No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No No Yes No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes No No No Yes No Yes
No No No No No No Yes No No No No No Yes No No No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No No No No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No
Yes No Yes No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No No Yes Yes No No No No Yes No No No No
0.034 0.032 0.034 0.031 0.036 0.023 0.027 0.017 0.018 0.034 0.034 0.024 0.019 0.026 0.034 0.027 0.017 0.035 0.031 0.033 0.032 0.038 0.036 0.037 0.032 0.029 0.028 0.037 0.036 0.032 0.036 0.021 0.020
a Excellent /rewood; Yes—popular /rewood in the area and/or regularly purchased; No—not popular, may not found in the area (Source: /eld data).
dwindling availability of biomass energy sources. The continuous heavy consumption of fuelwood has contributed to deforestation of these hills. Past studies have witnessed that up to the beginning of 20th century, there was commercial exploitation of forests, which contributed signi/cantly in the destruction of forest resource in the region [10]. With the substantial increase in human and farm animal populations coupled with decreasing forests, the people of the region are facing acute scarcity of fuel [11]. The demand for /rewood is of the order of 300 –330 Mt as
against of 30 –40 Mt production of /rewood [12]. This gap between the demand and supply could be bridged through extensive farming of /rewood species. In Garhwal Himalaya, the only cost of fuelwood collection is physical e9ort and time taken. The present study showed that fuelwood consumption at /ve altitudes ranged from 1.1 to 2:8 kg=capita=day. The value recorded are in the range of those reported for the rural and tribal communities of the Western Himalayas (1:49 kg=capita=day) by Bhatt et al. [5], for Southern India (1.9 –2:2 kg=capita=day) by Reddy
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B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sachan / Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
[13] and Hegde [14], for South and South-East Asian countries (1.75 –2:5 kg=capita=day) by Donovan [15] and Wijesinghe [16], and Himalayan range of Nepal (1:23 kg=capita=day) by Mahat et al. [17]. The /rewood consumption was also in7uenced by the climate and the seasonal consumption per capita increased about 2-fold during winter. On the basis of the fuelwood consumption pattern at di9erent altitudes, it is important to seriously consider the problem of deforestation. It is important to note that if the current trends of fuelwood consumption continue in the region, there will be a scarcity of fuelwood supply in the near future. Most of the poor families use fuelwood also for lighting because of the paucity of kerosene and electricity. Low-altitude populations expend more energy for collecting /rewood because of the shortage of fuelwood in lower Himalayan region. In addition to a low percentage of forests (39.7% vs. the prescribed 66% for the hills), the forest density is also low in the study area. Of the 39.7% forested areas 40 –50% of forests are of poor density. Moreover, nearly 8% of the total geographical area has severe soil erosion problems. About 80% of the non-forested area has slopes greater than 50%. A further factor is the higher concentration of grazing animals in the region [18]. In the /ve districts of Garhwal Himalaya there are cattle, bu9alos, sheep and goats, which range free and on the pasture in the forest. Lopping of broad-leaved trees in the forest for fodder complicates the situation. Under the present circumstances there is no viable alternative to /rewood as a source of basic energy for people living at the subsistence level. Although mini/micro hydroelectric schemes are said to be particularly suitable for these areas due to suitable terrain and water resources [19], it is a high-cost technology and is unlikely to be economically viable. Thus /rewood remains the main source of energy in the region. Although /rewood consumption of northwestern Himalayan region is signi/cantly lower [5] than that of tribal communities in northeastern Himalayan region [20], extensive fuelwood farming is needed coupled with mass popularization of improved chullahs. Species with high calori/c value high-density wood, low ash and moisture content should be encouraged to be grown on abandoned or degraded lands, community lands or private land. It will serve the twin pur-
poses of forest conservation and fuelwood supply. The promising /rewood species have already been documented for di9erent altitudes [21–26]. Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to Prof. C.P. Mitchell, editor of the journal and to an anonymous referee for reviewing the manuscript. References [1] Osei WY. Woodfuel and deforestation—answers for a sustainable environment. Journal of Environmental Management 1993;37:51–62. [2] Anonymous, The state of India’s environment, a citizen report. New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment; 1982. [3] Hall DO, Barnard GW, Moss PA. Biomass for energy in developing countries. Oxford: Pergamon Press; 1982. [4] Negi AK, Todaria NP. Studies on the impact of local folk on forests of Garhwal Himalaya. 1: energy and biomass. Biomass and Bioenergy 1993;4(6):447–54. [5] Bhatt BP, Negi AK, Todaria NP. Fuelwood consumption pattern at di9erent altitudes in Garhwal Himalaya. Energy 1994;19(4):465–8. [6] Mitchell R. An analysis of Indian agroecosystem. India: Interprint New Delhi; 1979. p. 180. [7] Gopalan GB, Ramasastri V, Balasubraminiam SC. Nutritive value of Indian foods. Hyderabad, India: National Institute of Nutrition; 1978. p. 204. [8] Leach G. Energy and food production. Guilford, London: IPC Science and Technology Press; 1976. p. 137. [9] Simonne E, Simonne A, Boozer R. Yield, Ear characteristics and consumer acceptance of selected white sweet corn varieties in the southern United States. Horticulture Technology 1999;9(2):289–93. [10] Negi AK, Bhatt BP, Todaria NP, Saklani A. The e9ects of colonialism on forests and the local people in the Garhwal Himalaya, India. Mountain Research & Development 1997;17:159–68. [11] Negi AK, Bhatt BP, Todaria NP. Local population impacts on the forests of Garhwal Himalaya, India. The Environmentalist 1999;19:293–303. [12] Anonymous, Advisory board on energy, Towards a perspective on energy Demand and Supply in India, GOI, New Delhi, 1985. [13] Reddy AKN. An Indian village agricultural ecosystem case study of Ungra village. Part II. Discussion. Biomass 1981;1: 77–88. [14] Hegde MS. Fuel problems in villages: challenges and opportunities. Bulletin of Science 1984;8:8–13. [15] Donovan DG. Fuelwood: how much do we need? Hanover, NH: Institute of Current World A9airs; 1981. p. 23.
B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sachan / Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75 [16] Wijesinghe LCA Des. A sample study of biomass fuel consumption in Srilanka households. Biomass 1984;5: 261–82. [17] Mahat TBS, GrigGn DM, Shepherd KP. Human impacts on some forest of the middle hills of Nepal. Part 4: a detailed study in Southeast Sindhu Palanchock and Northeast Kabhere Palanchock. Mountain Research & Development 1987;7: 114–34. [18] Anonymous, Status of Himalaya, A project Report of the U.P. Govt. India, Submitted to World Bank by Watershed management, Lucknow, 1981. [19] Shah SL, Pant S. An assessment of wood fuel and biogas as potential source of energy in future in hill districts of Uttar Pradesh. In: Dhar TN, Sharma PN, editors. Himalayan energy system. Nainital, India: Gyanodaya Prakashan; 1987. [20] Bhatt BP, Sachan MS. Firewood consumption pattern of di9erent tribal communities in northeast India. Energy Policy 2004;32(1):1–6.
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[21] Bhatt BP, Badoni AK. Characteristics of some mountain /rewood shrubs and trees. Energy 1990;17:1069–70. [22] Bhatt BP, Todaria NP. Fuelwood characteristics of some mountain trees and shrubs. Biomass 1990;21:233–8. [23] Bhatt BP, Todaria NP. Fuel wood characteristics of some Indian mountain species. Forest Ecology and Management 1992;47:363–6. [24] Bhatt BP, Todaria NP. Firewood characteristics of some mountain trees shrubs. Commonwealth Forestry Review 1992;47:183–5. [25] Negi AK, Todaria NP. Fuelwood evaluation of some Himalayan trees and shrubs. Energy 1993;18:799–801. [26] Purohit AN, Nautiyal AR. Firewood value index of Indian mountain tree species. International Tree Crops Journal 1987;4:177–82.
Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
Firewood consumption along an altitudinal gradient in mountain villages of India B.P. Bhatt∗ , M.S. Sachan Agroforestry Division, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya 793103, India Received 7 April 2003; received in revised form 24 October 2003; accepted 24 October 2003
Abstract The rural population of the Himalayas has been using /rewood as the only source of energy for generations. Increasing population coupled with decreasing forest resources have led to strict environmental protection laws in the area. This paper analyses the fuelwood consumption pattern for households along an altitudinal gradient in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Firewood consumption was 2.80, 2.00, 1.42, 1.10 and 1:07 kg=capita=day, respectively, above 2000, 1500 –2000, 1000 –1500, 500 –1000 and below 500 m altitude. The energy expenditure for fuelwood collection was 60.77, 62.57, 76.70, 87.23 and 85:14 MJ=capita=year, accordingly. Firewood consumption was in7uenced by climate and season of the year. On average, the fuelwood consumption was 2.0 –3.0-fold higher in winter than summer (considering 265 days as winter and 100 days as summer). The present information on fuelwood consumption pattern by di9erent altitude could form the basis for designing appropriate technologies for energy plantations in the region. The biomass consumption rate has also been discussed in environmental perspective in the Himalayan region. ? 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Fuelwood; Garhwal Himalaya; Energy
1. Introduction The consumption of biomass as fuel has been identi/ed as one of the most signi/cant causes of forest decline in many developing countries and according to one estimate, woodfuel accounts for over 54% of all global wood harvests per annum, suggesting a signi/cant and direct role of woodfuel in forest degradation [1]. Biomass is the main source of energy in Indian mountain villages and about half of all energy (commercial and biogas) consumed in India is used for ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-364-570301; fax: +91-364570257. E-mail address: [email protected] (B.P. Bhatt).
0961-9534/$ - see front matter ? 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2003.10.004
cooking food. This is nearly double the energy (fossil, fuel, electricity) consumed by agriculture and the industrial sector combined [2]. Data about rural energy supply and consumption patterns are lacking and prejudices rural energy planning. At the same time, energy planners overlook this most essential energy use and planning priorities are usually set in favour of the industrial and agricultural sector’s commercial energy demand rather than for domestic cooking. In the case of cooking, non-commercial sources of energy are even more crucial providing as much as 87% of the country’s cooking energy requirements [3]. Technically and economically sound means exist both for reforestation and for improving the eGciency with which wood and other biomass fuels are burnt [4].
70
B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sachan / Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
Traditionally, people of the Himalayan region have been ful/lling their energy needs almost entirely from forests. But with dwindling forest resources and enforcement of new environmental laws by Government agencies has restricted fuelwood collection without provision of alternative sources of energy. Thus the very existence of the local people is being threatened [5]. A /eld survey was undertaken to study the fuelwood consumption pattern of rural communities across an altitudinal gradient with a view to identify (a) major tree species, which are being used and preferred by the rural population for fuel, (b) quantify the fuelwoods consumed by households at di9erent altitudes, and (c) quantify the human energy spent and distance travelled to collect fuelwood. 2. Study area and climate The study was conducted in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal, India (situated between 30◦ 7 –30◦ 35 N latitude and 78◦ 23 –79◦ 42 5 E longitude). Permanent settlement in this area occurs from 380 to 2500 m. The climate is sub-montane with an average rainfall of 1550 –2700 mm. The average maximum temperature during the summer season is 35◦ C and the average minimum temperature 21:8◦ C, with a maximum and minimum of 22◦ C and 7:9◦ C, respectively, during winter. The forest changes with altitude; the distribution of chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) occurs in the tropical and the subtropical region of the area, but oaks (Quercus spp.) dominate the higher hills. Although forests dominate the landscape in the Garhwal region, agriculture is the main occupation of the hill people. Villagers cultivate a variety of crops on the hill slopes, e.g., Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Eleusine coracana and Echinochloa frumentacea are the major crops, with Setaria italica, Zea mays and Amaranthus spp. the staple food crops. Brassica spp., Cleome viscosa and Glycine max are the major oil crops. Various pulses and vegetables are also cultivated in rainfed agricultural land. Solanum tuberosum, Fagopyrum spp. and beans are important crops of the more temperate parts (Up to 2500 m). Agricultural land cover about 4196 km2 in six districts of Garhwal; the valleys are more productive than the upland /elds but the
area under valley cultivation is less than 20% of the total agricultural land. Though irrigation facilities are meager, valley land in cultivated for rice and wheat production, but at the high altitudes only rainfed agriculture is practised. 3. Data collection The study began with a preliminary survey conducted in the villages at di9erent altitudes to count the number of families and members in each household. At each altitude, three villages were selected randomly to represent the villages of that particular altitude. A minimum of 15 families in each village was used for the fuelwood consumption study. The /eldwork was conducted during July 2000 –June 2001. The quantity of fuelwood consumed was measured over a period of 24 h using a weight survey method [5,6]. The wood was weighed using 50 kg spring balance and then left in the kitchen of each household with instructions to burn wood only from the bundle. On the next day the authors returned to each household and the remaining wood was weighed to calculate the actual consumption per day. Time spent for fuelwood collection was noted when the members of the household went to the forest. The distance travelled and the time spent for fuelwood collection was crosschecked by the authors who visited the forest along with the villagers during the period of /rewood collection. Based on Gopalan et al. [7], the time and labour spent for fuelwood collection by the household members was measured in hours and then converted into energy (MJ). Total fuel energy consumed was apportioned to each activity [8] according to relative duration on the basis of sedentary, moderate or heavy work. Per hour energy expenditure of 0:418 MJ for sedentary work, 0:488 MJ for moderate work and 0:679 MJ for heavy work for an adult male; 0.331, 0.383 and 0:523 MJ for an adult female; and 0:412 MJ for heavy work for a child of the age category of 9 –12 years were used for the calculation of the energy input into fuelwood and other fuel collection. Overall rank sum index (ORSI) of the major /rewood species was assessed on the basis of fuelwood production, /rewood properties like calori/c value, wood density, moisture percentage, biomass to ash ratio, ash percentage and availability. For each
B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sachan / Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
attribute, the rating was made using 0.25 –1.0 scale (0:25 = poor; 0:50 = fair; 0:75 = good; and 1.0 excellent). Based on these estimates, the total score of each species was then divided by number of species evaluated, i.e., 33 species, to present the pooled value of ORSI [9].
Table 1 Major /rewood species at di9erent altitudes in Garhwal Himalaya, India Altitudinal range
Vernacular name Scienti/c name
Up to 500 m asl
Aseen Dhauda Gutel Jamun Kanju Kusum Ruina Sal Sandan
Terminalia tomentosa Woodfordia frulticosa Trewia nudi>ora Eugenia jambolana Holoptelia integrifolia Sapindus mukorossi Mallotus philippinensis Shorea robusta Ougeinia dalbergioides
500 –1000 m asl
Chir Dainken Guiral Haldu Khair Siris Toon Tung
Pinus roxburghii Melia azadirachta Bauhinia retusa Adina cordifolia Acacia catechu Albizia lebbek Toona ciliata Rhus parvi>ora
4. Results The major tree species used for fuelwood at different altitudes are presented in Table 1. Almost any species is used as /rewood depending on occurrence at di9erent altitudes. Firewood consumption was 1.07, 1.10, 1.42, 2.00 and 2:80 kg=capita=day, respectively, at 500, 500 – 1000, 1000 –1500, 1500 –2000 and above 2000 m. Firewood consumption was 2.61-fold higher at high altitude (above 2000 m) compared to fuelwood used at low (up to 500 m) altitude. At each altitude, the fuelwood consumption was highest in winter, followed by the spring. High altitude populations use fuel for space heating, boiling water and lighting as well as cooking and this is the reason for the higher rate of /rewood demand at high altitudes (Table 2). Fuelwood collection is mainly done by the women, particularly at high altitudes. On average, irrespective of altitudinal gradient, women use 55% of the total labour energy expenditure for /rewood collection. Men and children contribute the rest. Total energy expenditure for /rewood collection is highest (85:14 MJ=capita=yr) at low (up to 500 m) altitude as the villagers have to walk long distances in search of /rewood (2.0 to 3:0 km daily). At high altitudes, due to plentiful resources and comparatively low population pressure, they walk 1.3–1:5 km in search of /rewood. Thus less labour energy (60:77 MJ=capita=yr) is required for /rewood collection. On average, there was a 1.4-fold higher energy expenditure at low altitude (up to 500 m) compared to high (above 2000 m) altitude (Table 3). Liquid petroleum gas (LPG), kerosene and cow dung are also used to meet energy requirements but only at low altitudes. On average, LPG, kerosene and cow dung contribute 23% of the energy requirement up to 1000 m; 2.6% at 1000 –1500 m and below 2.0% above 1500 m altitude. Thus, /rewood is the major source of energy at all altitudes. In spite of the higher
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1000 –1500 m asl Banj Chir Khainda Painya
Quercus leucotrichophora Pinus roxburghii Ficus cunia Prunus cerasoides
1500 –2000 m asl Anyar Alder Banj Burans Chir Harinj Kafal
Lyonia ovalifolia Alnus nepalensis Quercus leucotrichophora Rhododendron arboreum Pinus roxburghii Quercus glauca Myrica esculenta
Above 2000 m asl Alder Kanjula Kapasi Kharsu Pangar Rag Surai Thuner
Alnus nepalensis Acer caesium Cornus macrophylla Quercus semicarpifolia Aesculus indica Abies pindrow Cupressus torulosa Taxus baccata
energy consumption of fuelwood collection at low altitudes the total fuel energy consumption increased with increasing altitude as /rewood consumption increased markedly with increasing altitude (Table 4). Abies pindrow, Adina cordifolia, Aesculus indica, Cornus macrophylla, Holoptelia integrifolia, Myrica esculenta, Rhodendron arboreum, Pinus roxburghii,
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Table 2 Firewood consumption (kg=capita=yr ± SD) across an altitudinal gradient in Garhwal Himalaya, India Season
Rainy Winter Spring Summer Average/yr Average/day
Altitudinal range (m asl) Up to 500
500 –1000
1000 –1500
1500 –2000
Above 2000
313:90 ± 51:10 605:90 ± 92:00 430:70 ± 84:70 219:00 ± 31:10 392.38 1.07
237:45 ± 43:80 620:50 ± 44:90 441:65 ± 58:40 310:25 ± 69:35 402.41 1.10
427:05 ± 43:80 733:65 ± 78:55 558:45 ± 84:60 350:40 ± 58:40 517.39 1.42
591:30 ± 56:95 1109:60 ± 63:56 722:70 ± 41:50 496:40 ± 56:70 730.00 2.00
934:40 ± 61:50 1376:05 ± 88:20 1065:80 ± 69:45 700:80 ± 32:85 1019.26 2.80
Table 3 Labour energy expenditure (MJ=capita=yr ± SD) for collection of fuelwood at di9erent altitudes by the households in Garhwal Himalaya, India Consumer
Male Female Child Total energy d− (km)
Altitudinal range (m asl) Up to 500
500 –1000
1000 –1500
1500 –2000
Above 2000
40:73 ± 2:11 32:92 ± 1:73 11:49 ± 0:98 85.14 2.5
35:48 ± 1:50 41:35 ± 1:78 10:40 ± 1:54 87.23 3.0
30:22 ± 1:53 35:19 ± 2:37 11:29 ± 0:97 76.70 2.0
— 54:34 ± 3:14 8:23 ± 0:92 62.57 1.50
21:78 ± 1:00 33:86 ± 2:11 5:13 ± 3:00 60.77 1.33
d− average distance of forest from village.
Table 4 Total energy consumption (MJ=capita=yr ± SD) at di9erent altitudes in Garhwal Himalaya, India Application
Fuelwood Kerosene LPG Cow dung Total energy
Altitudinal range (m asl) Up to 500
500 –1000
1000 –1500
1500 –2000
Above 2000
21:08 ± 1:54 0:14 ± 0:02 0:58 ± 0:11 5:74 ± 0:57 27.54
21:67 ± 1:83 0:16 ± 0:07 0:38 ± 0:25 5:68 ± 0:51 27.89
27:97 ± 2:70 0:32 ± 0:20 0:43 ± 0:26 — 28.72
39:94 ± 3:81 0:36 ± 0:25 — — 40.30
55:16 ± 3:94 0:38 ± 0:09 — — 55.54
Quercus spp., Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa and Toona ciliata are suitable /rewood species judged by their ORSI, assessed on the basis of fuelwood production, the characteristics of the /rewood and its availability. However, the procurement of these preferred species is becoming increasingly diGcult and all kinds of woods are used as /rewood, even inferior shrubs and trees (Table 5).
5. Discussion A large part of the third world depends primarily on biomass fuel (low-energy sources), as opposed to fossil fuels (high-energy sources), relied upon in the developed world. The entire Himalayas primarily use biofuels and where the people are still at the subsistence economy level and faced with the problem of
B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sachan / Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69 – 75
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Table 5 Over-all Rank Sum Index (ORSI) of major /rewood species based on /rewood production, characteristics and availability Species
pindrowa
Abies Acacia catechua Acer caesiuma Adina cordifoliaa Aesculus indicaa Albizia lebbek A. stipulataa Alnus nepalensis Bauhinia retusa Cornus macrophyllaa Cupressus torulosaa Eugenia jambolanaa Ficus cunia Holoptelia integrifoliaa Lyonia ovalifoliaa Mallotus philippinensis Melia azadirachta Myrica esculentaa Ougeinia dalbergioidesa Pinus roxburghiia Prunus cerasoidesa Quercus leucotrichophoraa Q. glaucaa Q. semicarpifoliaa Rhododendron arboreuma Rhus parvi>ora Sapindus mukorossia Shorea robustaa Taxus baccataa Terminalia tometosaa Toona ciliataa Trewia nudi>ora Woodfordia fruticosa
Altitude (m asl)
ORSI
up to 500
500 –1000
1000 –1500
1500 –2000
Above 2000
No No No Yes No Yes No No No No No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No No Yes No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes No No No Yes No Yes
No No No No No No Yes No No No No No Yes No No No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No No No No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No
Yes No Yes No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No No Yes Yes No No No No Yes No No No No
0.034 0.032 0.034 0.031 0.036 0.023 0.027 0.017 0.018 0.034 0.034 0.024 0.019 0.026 0.034 0.027 0.017 0.035 0.031 0.033 0.032 0.038 0.036 0.037 0.032 0.029 0.028 0.037 0.036 0.032 0.036 0.021 0.020
a Excellent /rewood; Yes—popular /rewood in the area and/or regularly purchased; No—not popular, may not found in the area (Source: /eld data).
dwindling availability of biomass energy sources. The continuous heavy consumption of fuelwood has contributed to deforestation of these hills. Past studies have witnessed that up to the beginning of 20th century, there was commercial exploitation of forests, which contributed signi/cantly in the destruction of forest resource in the region [10]. With the substantial increase in human and farm animal populations coupled with decreasing forests, the people of the region are facing acute scarcity of fuel [11]. The demand for /rewood is of the order of 300 –330 Mt as
against of 30 –40 Mt production of /rewood [12]. This gap between the demand and supply could be bridged through extensive farming of /rewood species. In Garhwal Himalaya, the only cost of fuelwood collection is physical e9ort and time taken. The present study showed that fuelwood consumption at /ve altitudes ranged from 1.1 to 2:8 kg=capita=day. The value recorded are in the range of those reported for the rural and tribal communities of the Western Himalayas (1:49 kg=capita=day) by Bhatt et al. [5], for Southern India (1.9 –2:2 kg=capita=day) by Reddy
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[13] and Hegde [14], for South and South-East Asian countries (1.75 –2:5 kg=capita=day) by Donovan [15] and Wijesinghe [16], and Himalayan range of Nepal (1:23 kg=capita=day) by Mahat et al. [17]. The /rewood consumption was also in7uenced by the climate and the seasonal consumption per capita increased about 2-fold during winter. On the basis of the fuelwood consumption pattern at di9erent altitudes, it is important to seriously consider the problem of deforestation. It is important to note that if the current trends of fuelwood consumption continue in the region, there will be a scarcity of fuelwood supply in the near future. Most of the poor families use fuelwood also for lighting because of the paucity of kerosene and electricity. Low-altitude populations expend more energy for collecting /rewood because of the shortage of fuelwood in lower Himalayan region. In addition to a low percentage of forests (39.7% vs. the prescribed 66% for the hills), the forest density is also low in the study area. Of the 39.7% forested areas 40 –50% of forests are of poor density. Moreover, nearly 8% of the total geographical area has severe soil erosion problems. About 80% of the non-forested area has slopes greater than 50%. A further factor is the higher concentration of grazing animals in the region [18]. In the /ve districts of Garhwal Himalaya there are cattle, bu9alos, sheep and goats, which range free and on the pasture in the forest. Lopping of broad-leaved trees in the forest for fodder complicates the situation. Under the present circumstances there is no viable alternative to /rewood as a source of basic energy for people living at the subsistence level. Although mini/micro hydroelectric schemes are said to be particularly suitable for these areas due to suitable terrain and water resources [19], it is a high-cost technology and is unlikely to be economically viable. Thus /rewood remains the main source of energy in the region. Although /rewood consumption of northwestern Himalayan region is signi/cantly lower [5] than that of tribal communities in northeastern Himalayan region [20], extensive fuelwood farming is needed coupled with mass popularization of improved chullahs. Species with high calori/c value high-density wood, low ash and moisture content should be encouraged to be grown on abandoned or degraded lands, community lands or private land. It will serve the twin pur-
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