Gender dimension in the conservation and sustainable use of agro-biodiversity in West Asia

The Journal of Socio-Economics 37 (2008) 365–383

Gender dimension in the conservation and sustainable use of agro-biodiversity in West Asia Malika Abdelali-Martini a,∗ , Ahmed Amri a , Mohammed Ajlouni b , Raghed Assi c , Younes Sbieh d , Ali Khnifes e a

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria b Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbed, Jordan c United Nations Development Programme, Beirut, Lebanon d United Nations Development Programme, Jerusalem, Palestine e General Commission for Scientific and Agricultural Research, Damascus, Syria Received 2 August 2006; received in revised form 29 April 2007; accepted 20 June 2007

Abstract West Asia region encompasses plant and animal biodiversity of global importance for sustaining agricultural production and food security. This agro-biodiversity continue to provide the basis of the livelihoods of local communities in the drylands and high elevation areas. Any strategy for the in situ/on-farm conservation of this local agro-biodiversity requires the empowerment of its main custodians and its valorization for poverty reduction and for sustainable livelihoods. A study to assess gender roles in agro-biodiversity conservation and management, investigating the contribution of women was conducted within the West Asia Dryland Agro-biodiversity project implemented in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and Syria. In 2004, households’ surveys were conducted in two target areas per country with, 147 farms in Syria, 138 in Lebanon, 145 in Jordan and 140 in the Palestinian Authority. Women and men of different ages contribute to agricultural activities and agro-biodiversity conservation. The traditional farming systems prevalent in the target areas are predominantly using landraces for various field crops and fruit trees. Women are involved mainly in weeding, harvesting and food processing and transformation, while men are responsible for land preparation and planting. Their knowledge of the quality attributes of landraces and of the uses of medicinal, herbal and aromatic plants is an important driving force which sustain the use of these species at the farm level and contribute therefore to the on-farm/in situ conservation of the dryland agro-biodiversity. Off-farm income is as important as agricultural activities in sustaining the livelihoods of rural communities in the target areas. More empowerment actions of women, through adding-value and alternative sources of income options are needed to enhance their role in the conservation and sustainable use of this agro-biodiversity of global significance. © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Agro-biodiversity; Gender; In situ conservation; West Asia; Syria; Lebanon; Jordan; Palestinian Authority ∗

Corresponding author. Tel.: +963 944 317273; fax: +963 21 2213490. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Abdelali-Martini).

1053-5357/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.socec.2007.06.007

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1. Introduction Due to the alarming rate and extent of the loss of biodiversity during recent decades, attention raised at both national and international levels to the need for preserving the genetic diversity, which represents a key component of sustainable agricultural development and food security in the world. In order to reach this objective, the direct involvement of local communities became a pre-requisite for the design and conduct of research on various aspects of added-value technology development, policy and legislation reforms and in increasing public awareness. The West Asia region includes the Fertile Crescent which is known as the center of origin and megadiversity of major food and pasture species as well as fruit crops that are of global significance, such as wheat, barley, lentil, pea, forage legumes, olive, fig, pistachio, vetch, and several medicinal and horticultural crops have been domesticated over the past 10,000 years (Harlan, 1992). This represented an appropriate venue for the West Asia Dryland Agro-biodiversity Project where due to the dominance of traditional agriculture systems many wild relatives are still found and landraces have are still much in used, although severe genetic erosion has been observed. The native species are important genetic resources that are crucial for sustainable agricultural development and global food security. They provide genes for improvement of crops and continue to contribute significantly to the livelihoods of local communities in the dry areas and mountainous regions (Jaradat, 1998). Because of the rapid increase in population and expansion of intensive agriculture combined with the degradation of natural habitats, wild relatives and landraces are confined actually to limited areas under harsh environments (Jaradat, 1998 and Harlan, 1992). The domestication and evolution of crops have been of continuous interest to scientists and farming communities in this region and elsewhere (Harlan, 1975, 1995). However, the genetic diversity is degrading at an alarming rate. Overexploitation, overgrazing, agricultural encroachment, and the introduction of new crop varieties are the main threats to agro-biodiversity (Amri et al., 2005). The loss of biodiversity will affect critically the livelihoods of local communities living under harsh environment as well as food security and environmental health at the national, regional, and global levels. Biodiversity conservation has become one of the most important challenges to sustainable development globally since it was emphasized in the Rio de Janeiro and Johannesburg meetings held in 1992 and 2002, respectively. There is an increasing emphasis on in situ and on-farm conservation internationally following the establishment of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNEP, 1992), which allows the dynamic conservation of large genetic base with associated local knowledge. Such conservation will require full involvement of the key stakeholders, including farmers and herders, who are the main custodians of local agrobiodiversity. More than 185 countries and parties have ratified the CBD since 1993. Women contribute significantly to the conservation of agro-biodiversity (Swaminathan, 1998), but they are often among the poorest in the region. This is mainly because of illiteracy and their economic dependency within the household and the society (UNDP, 2004). The contribution of women to the maintenance and enhancement of crop diversity is very important. Therefore, an analysis of their role is an important factor in understanding agro-biodiversity management (Padmanabhan, 2004). This contribution aims at assessing the role of women in conserving agro-biodiversity in Jordan, Lebanon, the Palestinian Authority and Syria and in proposing add-value and alternative sources of income for their empowerment and for enhancing this role.

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2. Methodology The West Asia Dryland Agro-biodiversity Project recognized the importance of gender in the conservation and management of local agro-biodiversity and therefore, paid special attention to promoting women’s participation in most of the project activities. The main objective of the project is to promote community-driven in situ conservation of landraces and wild relatives of crops of global importance originating from the Fertile Crescent. Selected sites in each participating country were used for the in situ conservation of 16 target crops or crop groups of global significance, and their wild relatives. Among the field crops these are wheat, barley, lentil, vetch, lathyrus, medics, clovers and Allium species, almonds, apricots, olive, figs, grapes, cherry, plum, pears, pistachio and wild onions and garlic (Appendix A). The biggest challenge for the conservation of these species depends to a large extent on the sustainable use of agro-biodiversity by the local communities. Therefore, based on a holistic approach, the project’s goals aimed at demonstrating appropriate technologies for increasing productivity, establishing markets and developing ways to add value to local agro-biodiversity, and increasing public awareness on the importance of conserving landraces and wild relatives of plant species originating from West Asia. Therefore, local farmers (men and women) were involved in the project to assist in the actual conservation and management, and to contribute to local knowledge on the plants, their cultivation and usage. We hypothesize that due to the nature of women and the different benefits they gather from the ecosystems where they live, women, on average, more than their male counterparts (on average) perhaps put more stock in this unity with connection with, the ecosystem. The specific objectives of this study are, to: • identify gender roles, including children, in agricultural production and agro-biodiversity conservation; • analyze the knowledge associated with the different responsibilities of production and its relationship with agro-biodiversity conservation; • investigate the add-values and alternative sources of income that can further promote the conservation and sustainable use of agro-biodiversity. This study is part of the regional project on “conservation and sustainable use of dryland agro-biodiversity in West Asia” funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and coordinated by the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). The project was implemented in two target areas each in Jordan (Muwaqqar and Ajloun), Lebanon (Aarsal and Baalabeck), the Palestinian Authority (Jenin and Hebron), and Syria (Sweida and Al-Haffeh). The ecosystems in the target areas range from semi-desert to high rainfall-high elevation. Twenty-six communities are involved in the project activities. Household survey and a rapid rural appraisal were conducted in 2004 to assess the prevailing farming systems and existing local knowledge with particular reference to the management of local agro-biodiversity and identification of major threats. Household surveys were conducted in the same target areas, and included 147 farms in Syria, 138 in Lebanon, 145 in Jordan, and 140 in the Palestinian Authority. There were approximately 70 farms in each of the eight target communities. The samples included three groups: farmers collaborating with the project and hosting its activities; farmers who were aware of the project activities through attendance in field

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days and workshops; and farmers who did not know about the project. They included a few women, as well as poor and better-off farmers. There were indicators on household composition, farmers’ assets, livelihood strategies, and impact assessment of project activities. Additional qualitative data was collected in 2004 using gender analysis tools such as the activity analysis, benefits analysis, and gender distribution for activities related to agro-biodiversity and their management. Because in most societies women and men have different responsibilities related to work, possess knowledge of different things, and have different perspectives and priorities in their daily lives, many such differences become crucial to issues of biodiversity use and management. Gender disaggregation of data is therefore a critical component of any sound research methodology, as it facilitates comparative/gender analysis of difference (IDRC, 1998). However, this is only the first step of research as the outcomes will unable researchers to further identify which gender differences are significant in order to establish a set of research priorities regarding which gender issues are to be pursued in greater depth. Gender refers to the social construction of the roles of women and men in a given society, not to their biological differences. It is the society which assigns different roles to women and men according to the rules and sanctions of that society. This situation has led to assigning different roles to women and men in agricultural production such as the division of labor, or the decisionmaking process. These roles differ from one society to another, which explains the importance of such a process, and gender analysis is used to understand these roles. Gender analysis is a guide intended to help better understand the social and economic set up of livelihoods through understanding of the gender roles, differences and relationships. It provides valuable insights to understand specific demands for specific groups in the society. Recognition that male and female responsibility for production and reproduction tasks vary among societies, races, classes has encouraged the understanding that such activities are socially or gender defined, and are mutable and responsive to other changes in the farming systems (Feldstein and Poats, 1990a). Recording and using these gender differences in the analysis constitutes a platform for better designing and testing improved technologies. In most societies, men and women differ in the activities they undertake, in access and control over resources, and in participation in decision-making. This project was aware from its initial stages about the importance of incorporating these differences into research analysis. However, it should be noted that the concept is relatively new to the research area, and the understanding about the involvement of women in research activities has evolved through the workshops and training activities that were provided to rural communities in general and to women in particular. Despite the scarcity of women investigators in the research sites, the limited collected data both through qualitative and quantitative investigations has been compiled in this paper with an aim to get the outmost of it for further designing research and development actions. Gender disaggregation of responsibilities, work, and knowledge is considered as a starting point in examining and explaining the multiple roles of women and men as resource users and custodians of local agro-biodiversity. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Empowerment of women The GEF-funded project undertook many activities aimed at empowering the communities in general and women on the conservation of local agro-biodiversity. Women who benefited from

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the training activities were identified through the different workshops held by the project in the different sites. This was further supplemented by an initial study on the main determinants of livelihoods in these areas. The workshops have helped identifying the different interests and thus the different beneficiaries from the training as well as from rural development activities. Due to similarities of the training activities in the four countries, the following trainings are not exhaustive, they are rather illustrative. 3.1.1. Establishment of cooperatives and groupings Among the community empowerment actions undertaken by the project in Lebanon, the project undertook several activities in this regard such as (1) supporting the communities to establish cooperatives;1 (2) identifying priority needs of local NGOs and municipality of target communities.2 (4) helping organize young women’s group in the village of Nabha. The group of young women (aged 13–18) was interested in better knowing their environment and wild plants, teaching fellow students about the environment and its national and global importance, developing awareness and educational activities with their fellow students in school and using the wild plants around them for generating family income. In contact with the agro-food women’s cooperative in Aarsal (Lebanon), cooperation started processing wild fruits in the fall 2002. In collaboration with the Aarsal Rural Development Association the project established a local wild fruit tree nursery for the production of seedlings of wild and local varieties of specific local trees. Training in seed collection, labeling, nursery practices and management (in cooperation with ACSAD3 experts) was organized by the project. Training of farmers included the “establishment and management of fruit tree nurseries using international expertise”. 3.1.2. Improvement of locally processed products The project provided training to local communities on the improvement of the quality of locally processed products and alternative sources of income. These include home gardening, cultivation of medicinal plants, mushroom and dairy production, nursery development, and food processing with emphasis on food hygiene, packaging, and labeling. More than 1480 women from the target areas were trained over a period of 5 years (Amri et al., 2005). This might help them better interact with the wild versions, and ensure some of them will remain. The trainees included individual women, women NGOs, groups, and unions (in Syria). Women cooperatives were established in Nabha and Ham/Maaraboun in Lebanon and financial resources were secured through the YMCA (YMCA: Young Men’s Christian Association. See http://www.ymca.net/about the ymca/) to initiate food processing and handicraft units on technologies to add value to local products. Two female groups, Banat al Jord in Lebanon and Friends of Biodiversity in Jordan, were established to encourage activities conserving local agro-biodiversity. The project provided in-kind incentives to women in the form of seedlings of medicinal and herbal plants, technical backstopping, containers for local processed products, and initiated the creation of new business-oriented activities. 1 The establishment of cooperatives was made through several visits and discussions on the advantages of cooperatives and local organizations, and providing information on procedures needed and support in completing forms. As a result, one cooperative was officially established in the project sites of Ham and Maaraboun. 2 Priority needs were identified through meetings undertaken with members of the established or already present local NGOs and the municipality (in the case of Aarsal) to set priorities within the arc of natural resources management and agriculture for possible development of proposals for funding. 3 ACSAD is the Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands. It was established in Damascus Syria in 1968.

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Women are already enjoying the financial benefits from the training. The distribution of 278,000 seedlings in the Palestinian Authority has made 2240 households to be self-sufficient in the production of medicinal plants. They now sell the excess production in the local market. The Shinglish (a type of dried cheese processed in a form of small balls, covered with spices and dried herbs. The balls are then dried into a wooden cage) cheese production was introduced in Jordan and the Palestinian Authority. The project distributed seedlings of medicinal plants to women and provided technical backstopping to establish a specialized agro-biodiversity nursery. The women now earn additional income from these. In Lebanon, the processing units will enhance synergy among the groups and add value to local products, including the processing of wild prunes initiated by the project (Amri et al., 2005). The integration of gender analysis into research on agro-biodiversity also has an important focus on strategic livelihood issues and sustainable conservation of the resource base. Rapid appraisals and socio-economic surveys conducted previously in the four countries have indicated the involvement of women in agriculture and agro-biodiversity conservation. However, there is still a need to conduct specific investigations on the level of involvement and the related impact in terms of activities and knowledge. 3.1.3. Importance of agro-biodiversity conservation and its benefits on rural livelihoods In the Palestinian Authority, the particular political situation suggests difficulties in setting plans for conservation of the environment as many farmers have no access to their land. However, activities of education and training raising the awareness of children and the other members of the population about who is at stake was emphasized as one activity of the program for the conservation of agricultural diversity. Women in the area of Tayssir have ancestral skills useful for conserving the local natural wealth, and they have been encouraged by the project to increase the production of local products from cultivated and wild species of fruits and vegetables. This initiative goes hand in hand with the marketing of these products. By increasing the incomes of their producers, the sale of these local natural products ensures sustainability for the plants used in making them. The market demand for quality products of this kind is rapidly growing. The project was aware that safeguarding the agro-biodiversity of the Middle East and the biological heritage associated with it involves substantial changes in farming habits, and working towards the empowerment of rural communities (men and women) who work on this land and make their living from it, and that it had to appeal to their pride, their skills, and their commitments (DAN, 2002). In the Palestinian Authority, a 1-day workshop was organized – for more than 30 women – to initiate women of the Business and Professional Women Club about the importance of agrobiodiversity conservation and the benefits it can provide for the improvement of rural women’s livelihoods. Three training courses were organized for the benefit of farmers: (1) a training on the principles of pruning fruit trees and the importance of pest control was held at Ebeen for 11 farmers; (2) a second training was on pruning the grape vines for 13 farmers; and (3) a third was on Oyster mushroom production provided to more than 13 women of Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar. This last training course was also provided to 14 women from Sakhra village. Other trainings provided included a course on apiculture for 25 women in Tayseer, and in Deir Abu Deif for 22 women in cooperation with the Palestinian NGO “Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committee (PARC). Training on compost production for home gardening was conducted for the benefit of 40 women, and in collaboration with An-Najah National University, 50 women

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attended a workshop in Tayseer project target site. The workshop focused also on women’s role in conserving agro-biodiversity, management of home gardens, and apiculture and seed storage. Another set of farmer’s workshops were held in Tayseer and Deir Abu Deif in cooperation with Tubas and Jenin Departments of Agriculture where more than 75 women and men farmers participated. They focused on the importance of local varieties and the means to enhance community seed production. In Syria, training focused on alternative sources of income and food processing. 3.2. Motivations, household characteristics, and financial capital 3.2.1. Motivations behind biodiversity One of the main motivations behind agro-biodiversity use, management and conservation is its contribution to sustainable food security, thus reducing poverty. In harsh environments where crop landraces and livestock raising are the main activities, the use of local agro-biodiversity remains the basis of rural livelihoods. Furthermore, the awareness from the project to preserve landraces and wild relatives of agricultural crops native to the region has enhanced motivations for biodiversity. Also, the establishment of markets and linkages of local communities to these markets, and the development of ways to add-value to local biodiversity and increased income generation from local biodiversity has greatly contributed to the enhancement of the community members’ well-being. Women are more involved in preserving and enhancing biodiversity because by nature, they feel more responsible about the livelihoods of their children; therefore, they exploit their surrounding environments and were more responsive about the growth of these species as recommended and taught by the project. Because landraces are predominant in the traditional farming systems, still prevailing in the dry lands and mountainous areas of the research sites, and because these landraces are adapted to low input conditions harsh environment and to food requirements where special local dishes are made, the interest of women about the possibility of reviving the wild relatives was greater than that of men because they are the ones who remain on site in harsh environments while their male relatives migrate to seek additional income for their households from neighboring cities and abroad. Education has proven to have the potential to change the behavior of people towards biodiversity. The more educated people in these communities have been the drivers and the co-organizers of the activities of the project in terms of training, sketches aiming at raising the people’s awareness, agricultural fairs where biodiversity products from different regions were exposed and served as motivators for local communities to use and also to preserve and regenerate the different species of their respective regions. Wild relatives and medicinal herbal plants were highly used in the target sites for curative and preventive traditional medicine, and for both types of germplasm women are the main knowledgeable and transmitters of the associated knowledge on the benefits of and attributes of landraces and wild relatives. The human dimension in this regard is that due to land fragmentation, consumption, migration, agriculture in general and agro-biodiversity in particular can be sustained and maintained only with alternative sources of income and off-farm remittances. The main decisions come from male heads of households, but women still decide about the different varieties used, especially those used for syrup for freekeh. The survey identified that the main crops in the research sites are wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and forage crops. Fruit trees are grown by all the households surveyed in the research sites, differing

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Table 1 Main crops identified by the survey in the study area Country

Crop Cereals

Legumes

Fruit trees

Lebanon

Wheat, barley

Apricot, apple, cherry, fig, pear, plum, grapes

Jordan Syria Palestinian Authority

Wheat, barley Wheat, barley Wheat, barley

Lentil, chickpea and forage legumes Lentil and chickpea Lentil and chickpea Lentil and chickpea, clover, Lathyrus, vetch

Olive, apricot, apple, fig, plum, grapes Olive, apple, apricot, fig, plum, cherry, grapes Olive, apricot, apple, grapes, plum

from one area to the area but still showing close commonalities between the sites (Table 1). This shows the wide range of activities and benefits generated from these ecosystems and the role these can play in the livelihoods of rural communities. 3.2.2. Household composition The household composition includes: average household size, gender, level of education, and family and hired labor. These household parameters varied within and between countries (Table 2). The highest variability was observed in the level of education between countries. It was as low as 13.7% in Lebanon and up to 57.3% in Jordan. Variability within the same country was less significant. The level of education could be an indicator of poverty. The lowest levels of tertiary education were found in Baalabek (13.8%), Lebanon, and in Sweida (25.7%), Syria. The highest proportions of respondents that had tertiary education in the rural areas were found in Ajloun, Jordan (57.3%), and Jenin, Palestinian Authority (48.6%). The education could allow the adoption of new technologies favoring the replacement of landraces by improved varieties or introduced species unless the inherited local knowledge has accumulated enough evidence of the adaptation of landraces to harsh conditions. However, the education could play an important role in increasing the awareness on the importance of conserving the environment in general and the biodiversity in particular. The households hire agricultural labor in addition to family labor when necessary. Availability of hired labor varied from 62.5% in Haffeh, Syria, to 92% in Ajloun, Jordan. Farmers in Muwaqqar, Jordan, reported that only 22.9% of their required hired labor is usually available, because Muwaqqar is located in the steppe and mainly family labor is used for livestock and crop production. Hired labor comprises mainly women for manual and men for mechanized activities. In case of hired shepherds, unless they are knowledgeable about the grazing routes and the grazing arrangements within the community, they could cause more overgrazing to natural vegetation. 3.2.3. Household financial capital Household financial capital in all the research sites comprised on-farm income, off-farm income in terms of remittances, income from government employment, and credits. The average annual income varied from country to country and it depended on the standard of living in the country. Off-farm income accounted for 63% of household income in Ajloun and 67.5% in Muwaqqar, Jordan because of the availability of government employment and remittances. Most of the farmers in these areas hire Egyptian workers to manage their farms. More than half of the total income in Baalabak (64%) and Jenin (57%) was from off-farm work. However, households in the two target areas in Syria had more income from on-farm (56% and 54%, respectively) than off-farm work.

Jordan Ajloun Family size Household members holding a university degree (%) Household members who have work opportunities outside the target area (%) Availability of wage labor when needed (%)

Lebanon Muwaqar

Aarsal

Palestinian Authority Baalabak

Hebron

Jenin

Syria Sweida

Haffeh

7 57.3 30.7

9 52.9 14.3

9 24.7 13.7

7 13.8 26.2

13 47.1 5.7

9 48.6 32.9

8 25.7 32.0

8 31.9 44.4

92.0

22.9

94.5

78.5

85.7

95.7

85.3

62.5

Households’ perceptions about their livelihood status (%) Very poor 4.0 Poor 10.7 Moderately well-off 41.3 Well-off 44.0 Average annual income per household (US$) 5550 Average expenditure per household (US$) 2124 Balance per household (US$) 3426 Access to credit sources (%) 27.6 Cash savings last year (%) 5.5

4.3 15.7 67.1 12.9 8337 4241 4096 42.8 8.7

4.2 12.7 74.6 8.5 7193 6800 393 25.0 29.3

6.2 23.1 53.8 16.9 7037 4277 2760 61.7 5.5

2.9 14.5 76.8 5.8 9070 9187 −117

1.4 22.9 60.0 15.7 8742 11942 −3200

2.7 21.3 65.3 10.7 3670 3601 69

8.7 15.5 65.5 10.3 2146 3420 −1274

59 41 5 31 5

36 64 15 34 15

Income sources (%) Off-farm income On-farm income Field crop production Fruit tree production Livestock production

63.2 36.8 4.2 25.2 7.4

67.5 32.5 3 2.4 27.1

59 41 18 10 13

43 57 33 12 12

44 56 13 31 12

46 54 5 46 3

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Table 2 Household characteristics and income sources (%), 2004

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This indicates that agriculture provides an important part of the income for rural communities (Table 2). The off-farm income, mainly from government employment and remittances has allowed the sustaining of agricultural activities and therefore contributes to the conservation of local agrobiodiversity. Income from on-farm activities represented 35% of the total income in Jordan, but it had the highest off-farm income because of the income from government jobs. The rural communities usually seek government employment because of the higher income, and the younger ones consider it as a secure source of livelihood. Although on-farm income is as important as offfarm income in Lebanon (52% versus 48%), there are important migration patterns to the urban areas in search of better income. In the Palestinian Authority, both on-farm and off-farm income were almost of equal importance (51% versus 49%). However, agriculture was the most important source of income in Syria (55%), although off-farm income from government jobs and other sources was also important (45%) (Table 2). Haffeh had a peculiar mountainous area that permits only small agricultural holdings, which cannot provide enough income to sustain the households. Crop production was the most important source of on-farm income in Jenin, while livestock produced the highest income in Muwwaqar, located in dry rangelands. However, the highest onfarm income in Ajloun, Aarsal, Baalabak, Sweida, and Al-Haffeh was from fruit tree production, because they are mainly located in the mountainous areas with relatively more favorable conditions (Table 2). The difference between the annual income and average expenditure was negative in Hebron (−$117), Jenin (−$3200), and (−$1274) Haffeh. This indicates that households in these communities were poor even though they classified themselves (66–77%) as moderately better-off. However, households in the other sites had considerable saving potentials, as their average annual incomes far exceed their annual spending. Respondents in all the sites, except Ajloun in Jordan, perceived themselves as moderately well-off. Only a few of the households classified themselves as very poor even though many of them were poor (Table 2). This reflects the apparent influence of local customs and traditions – similar in the research sites – which consist of considering richness as a relative concept. It represents for many of these local people that having a good heath is a kind of given richness, and that financial richness becomes minor besides health conditions. Respondents in the Palestinian Authority reported 29.3% cash savings, higher than in the other three countries. The Syria households had the lowest cash savings of 5.5%. Access to credit facilities was highest in Syria because government provides credit to farmers who grow their crops according to the 5-year plan of the Ministry of Agriculture. In Lebanon, 43% of the household farm capital consisted of credits (Table 2). The average annual income differs among the four countries, depending also on the standards of living in each country. Income from on-farm activities represented an average of 35% of the total income in Jordan, but it had the highest off-farm income because of the income from government jobs. The rural communities usually seek government employment because of the higher income, and the younger ones consider it as a secure source of livelihood. Although the average on-farm income is as important as off-farm income in Lebanon (52% versus 48%), there are important migration patterns to the urban areas in search of better income. In the Palestinian Authority, both on-farm and off-farm income were almost of equal importance (51% versus 49% on average). However, agriculture was the most important source of income in Syria (55%), although off-farm income from government jobs and other sources was also important (45%) (Table 2). Haffeh had a peculiar mountainous area that permits only small agricultural holdings, which cannot provide enough income to sustain the households.

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Table 3 Management of farm in the absence of the household head (%) Individual managing the farm

Jordan

Lebanon

Palestinian Authority

Syria

Wife Elder son Other relatives

35 37 28

51 31 18

33 50 17

43 30 27

3.2.4. Women’s contribution to farm management Some 51%, 43%, 35%, and 33% of respondents in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and the Palestinian Authority, respectively, reported that the wife takes over management of the farm in the absence of the household head. In some cases, the eldest son plays the role of household head; 50% in the Palestinian Authority and 37% in Jordan (Table 3). This indicates the involvement of household members including women in farm responsibilities and decision-making. 3.2.5. Women’s contribution to household income Women contribute significantly as family labor to agricultural production even though their work is often not quantified financially. Women’s contribution to crop production was 19% in Jordan, 18.5% in Lebanon, 35% in the Palestinian Authority, and 10% in Syria. The highest contribution by women to livestock production was in Palestine 19%, followed by Jordan 13.4%, Syria 11%, and Lebanon 4.7%. Women contributed 7.3% to household income from live animals in Palestine, 1.6% in Jordan, 1.4% in Lebanon, and 0.6% in Syria. Women’s contribution to household income from off-farm work was particularly important in the Palestinian Authority (25%). Their contribution was 3.5% in Lebanon and 3.3% in Syria (Table 4). Women were also involved in other income-generating activities such as bee keeping and collection of medicinal plants in the Palestinian Authority, Lebanon, and Syria. Household decision-making in the eight project target areas is shared among household members including women and adult children. Both the adult women and men control cash income expenditure. Household income is mainly used to meet the needs of household members and for investment in agriculture. Income from agriculture is not large enough to permit important investments. However, agricultural households invest their remittances mainly in agriculture, especially Table 4 Women’s contribution to household income, by income sources (%), 2004 Enterprise

Crop production Livestock production Live animals Off-farm agriculture Off-farm non agriculture Government job Remittances Other sources

Jordan

Lebanon

Palestinian Authority

Syria

Muwaqqar

Ajloun

Aarsal

Baalabak

Hebron

Jenin

Sweida

Lattakia

30.7 5.9 2.5 0.33 3.1 15.4 0.6 0

6.7 21.4 0.6 0 3.5 8.5 0 0

20.2 6.1 2 0.5 4 2 0 4.5

16.4 3.1 0.8 1.5 3 0 0 6.3

34 11.4 7.4 0.7 0.1 0.6 0 1.7

36 26.3 7.3 0.4 50 0 0 1.3

5.5 17.3 0.1 0.1 0 2.3 1.3 0

15.4 3.8 1.0 0.3 0 0.8 0 0

Note: Due to the unity of the rural households in the region, the impact of women’s income is reflected on the household level, but provides a means of decision-making to women who then contribute to decisions related to the different expenditures at the household level.

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in Jordan where a large proportion of the agricultural household members, including the women, have government jobs. The improvement of off-farm income will play a major role in sustaining agricultural activities and in conserving local agro-biodiversity. 3.3. Involvement of women in field crops and agro-biodiversity conservation activities 3.3.1. Involvement in crop activities The women, men and children are involved in field crop management, performing different activities according to their expertise and availability. There are similarities in the cropping patterns of the four countries. The crops are divided into four categories in Jordan, Syria and the Palestinian Authority; namely cereals, legumes, olive and other fruit trees. The same crops are grown in Lebanon except olive trees. Wheat and barley are grown in all project sites but with variations in the sizes of the cultivated areas. The legumes cultivated are mainly lentil, chickpea (grown in all sites) and some legume forages, mainly in Lebanon and the Palestinian Authority. The fruit trees include olive, apricot, cherry, apple, grape, fig, and other fruit trees that cover smaller areas. 3.3.2. Gender distribution of activities in the study area The participation of women and men in different crop management activities is important in the study areas. The type and extent of activities they participate in vary (Feldstein and Poats, 1990a,b). Women are responsible for a range of domestic and agricultural activities, including the collection and cultivation of indigenous vegetables for home consumption and market sale. However, men migration is an important indicator of the type of activities in which women are engaged in the absence of the men, and this is apparent from the proportion of off-farm income in the research sites (Table 2). More men are involved in cereal production than women in all the sites: 82.3% in Lebanon, 62.3% in Syria, 75% in Jordan, and 84.3% in the Palestinian Authority. However, women are more involved in weeding in Lebanon, Syria, and the Palestinian Authority. In Jordan, the women are more involved in cereal production (25%), especially in the mountainous area of Ajloun, where mechanization for most of the cropping operations is limited. Abdelali-Martini et al. (2003) reported that men perform mechanized activities while the women are more involved in manual operations. Mechanized agriculture has reduced women’s involvement in some operations such as harvesting of cereals. They are now involved in new activities such as herbicide spraying and roguing. However, women and men share crop management activities in the mountainous areas (Haffeh in Syria, Aarsal in Lebanon, Ajloun in Jordan), where mechanization is difficult either because of the reduced plot sizes or topography of the area. Women are more involved in legume, olive and fruit tree production, where they perform some activities alone or with the men. They concentrate mostly on weeding fruit trees (67.5% in the Palestinian Authority) and harvesting (47.5% in Lebanon), but also planting and chemical application in some areas (50% in Jordan for legumes and 40% for fruit trees in Lebanon) (Table 5). Both women and men are involved in legume production. The men are mainly responsible for land preparation and irrigation, while women do the harvesting. Responsibilities are shared equally because the produce is commonly used for family consumption, as opposed to fruit trees and cereals, which are often produced mainly for the market. In Jordan, about 50% of women handle nursery activities in annual horticultural vegetables, while in Lebanon about 40% are involved in perennial horticultural crops (fruit trees). Women

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Table 5 Analysis of agricultural labor based on gender (%) Crop

Gender

Women’s contribution (average/crop) women alone and/or with mena

Women

Men

Women and men togetherb

Total

Planting

Harvesting

Weeding

Fertilizer application

Cereals Lebanon Jordan Syria Palestinian Authority

1.5 25 0 13.1

82.3 75 62.3 84.3

16.2 0 37.7 2.6

100 100 100 100

3 0 6.8 0

34 25 34 72

16.5 0 7.5 70

0 0 4.3 49.5

Legumes Lebanon Jordan Syria Palestinian

0 50 0 16

74.3 50 58.3 62

25.7 0 41.7 22

100 100 100 100

3 50 3.3 12

33.5 50 33.8 21

50 50 0 80

50 50 0 12

Olive trees Lebanon Jordan Syria Palestinian Authority

– 5.7 1.7 15

– 80.9 72.3 64

– 13.4 26 21

100 100 100 100

– 29 0 4.5

– 16 23.3 56

– 30 14.3 61

– 2 3.3 2

Fruit trees Lebanon Jordan Syria Palestinian Authority

13.18 24.14 3 7

74.50 12.32 71.14 4.72 75.7 21.3 61 32

100 100 100 100

40 10.5 0 0

47.5 19 33.5 50

4.5 11.5 16.3 67.5

9.5 11.5 9.3 0

Authority

a Depending on their gender and whether the work is performed on-farm as family labor or off-farm as hired labor, the gender distribution of activities differ. Women contribute to planting, harvesting, weeding and fertilizer application either alone such as in legume harvesting or together with men such as in olive harvesting. b Depending on the type of activities, women work either alone or together with their men relatives as family labor, whereas when hired to work on other farms, they perform different types of activities and are not allowed to work with males from other households on the same field.

play a vital role in the selection of cereal crop varieties for different purposes because they are more involved in seed selection and cleaning, particularly with landrace cultivars. Activities in olive and fruit production are shared between the men and women. Olive picking is usually paid for in-kind and it involves all family members including the children. Gender roles in agricultural production are different when hired labor is involved. Important similarities were found among the four countries. Involvement of women and men differ according to the customs of the countries; women and men work together as family labor but work separately when hired to work on other farms. This is an important aspect to take into consideration when addressing issues related to the introduction of technologies, agro-biodiversity conservation, land degradation, and environmental protection. Landraces are widely used in case of barley, lentil, chickpea, olive, fig, grape in all target areas. Landraces of wheat are also predominant except in Palestine where their acreage is reduced by the adoption of imported cultivars. The predominance of the landraces is justified by their better adaptation to harsh conditions prevailing in the farming systems. Women are maintaining these landraces because of their quality attributes fitting local dishes. All women agreed that the landraces of wheat are better suited for

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Burghul 4 and Freekeh 5 than improved varieties. Similarly, women appreciate the quality of transformed and processed products from landraces and they hold important knowledge on the best products from various landraces within each species. They know better the landraces of fruit trees for compotes, jams and syrups production. This knowledge contributes significantly to conservation and sustaining the genetic diversity within the farm. 3.3.3. Involvement of women in activities related to wild species and medicinal plants Women and children are mainly responsible for the collection of medicinal plants; 100% in Lebanon, 88% in Syria, and 87.5% in Jordan (Table 6). Food processing is almost completely performed by women. This is a valuable opportunity for added-value from crop and livestock production as well as from medicinal plants and wild species, a dimension the project has encouraged. Marketing of agricultural products is shared between men and women. Up to 87.5% of women in Jordan, 65% in Syria, and 60% in Lebanon sell their products, while only 42% of women do so in the Palestinian Authority, probably because of the security situation in the West Bank. Since women are involved in seed selection, cleaning and storage, their knowledge would be useful in improving and multiplying crop species to generate more income. 3.4. Benefits analysis of wild species in the four countries Benefits analysis provides in-depth examination and analysis of different kinds of knowledge related to local agro-biodiversity and its management. It reveals crucial information about who is responsible for the collection, processing, use, and sale of different products, such as medicinal plants, and the related types of local knowledge among women and men. This is used for the identification of different types of biological, chemical, and environmental knowledge of different species and varieties, and knowledge of the potential use, processing and market value of such resources that different individuals possess. The different forms of knowledge need then to be situated within local/cultural perceptions of the environment (and perhaps forests in particular), and the ways in which individuals perceive their role as collectors and providers of food and medicines. Also examining the extent to which local people rely upon natural habitats mainly forests for survival and the different products and by-products that collectors use/sell is a critical issue (IDRC, 1998; Fernandez et al., 2000). The information in Table 7 on the benefits from wild species is not exhaustive; it represents an indicator for women’s involvement in the management and use of biodiversity species. The project has provided women with capacity building in this regard 6 . Women and children, especially girls, are the most active in the collection of wild species in Jordan and Syria, whereas both women and men are active in collecting crop species in Lebanon and to a lesser extent in the Palestinian Authority. Children are involved in the collection of wild species in all countries, but more girls are involved because they accompany their mothers to the farm. All the species are used as herbal tea for medicinal purposes or as hot drink. They are consumed as salad (e.g., Silypum marianum and Raphanus sp.) in Syria, and as a part of main dishes in the four countries (e.g., “khobbayzeh” or Malva sylvestris from the Malvaceae family). They are also

4 5 6

Burghul is crushed wheat to use in cooking like rice. Freekeh is crushed wheat at a green stage and has a special smoky taste to use in special dishes. Some examples of this capacity building are illustrated in the earlier section related to women’s empowerment.

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Table 6 Gender responsibility for the collection, processing, and preparation of plants for food and medicinal uses (%) Activities

Countries Jordan

Remarks Lebanon

Palestinian Authority

Collection of edible and medicinal plants Women and children 87.5 100 Men 12.5 0

75.5 24.5

Preparing food Women

Syria

88 13

98

100

96

100

2

0

4

0

Processing and use of wild plants into edible food Women 100 100 92

70

Men

Men

0

0

8

30

87.5

60

42

65

12.5

40

58

35

75

100

86

10

25

0

14

90

50

100

60

100

50

0

30

0

75

100

40

50

25

0

60

50

100

–

40

0

0

–

60

100

Selling medicinal plants Women and children Men Seed selection Women Men Seed drying Women Men Seed storage Women Men Seed exchange Women Men

Usually collection is made out of their own lands

Some leaves are used fresh in salad, others are used after cooking

Leaves are dried before storing. Women prepare medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are mainly sold by women except in Palestinian Authority

Knowledge of women is particularly important in seed selection

Seeds are cleaned/treated far from insects and dust

Storage is made in conditions that include good air exchange and sun

Seed exchange takes place mainly inside same village with neighboring farmers

Adapted from IDRC, 1998.

used as spices (e.g., “summaq” or Rhus coriaria) in Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. Marketing of these species is done by men and women. This indicates that knowledge about them is shared between men, women, and children. Therefore, any research or development activity should include all the stakeholders who can provide the necessary information on the protection and sustainable use of agro-biodiversity. Access to the market is an important indicator of poverty especially for women (DFID, 1999) who need to sell their products at the closest markets. In Lebanon, 50% of the respondents sell their products at the village market, and more than one-third (35%) sell theirs at their village markets in the Palestinian Authority, while nearly 26% use the city market. Most of the respondents in Syria use the city market or a combination of markets that are close to the vil-

380

Table 7 Benefits analysis of wild species collection Local name

Mediterranean midlar

Sumaq Akkoub Wild mint Silifa Zoufa Mayramia Khobbayzeh Chamomile Milfoil Hindba Khetmiya Rashad Coriander Carob, locust tree Wild almond Germander Wild pistachio Khouzama

Thymus vulgaris, Thymus sp. Artemisia herba-alba, Artemisia glacialis L. Crataegus azarolus, Crataegus sp., Crataegus oxycantha L. Rhus coriaria Silypum marianum Mentha officinalis, Mentha sylvestris L, Menthe sp. Gundelia tourniforrti Micromeria rupestris L. Salvia syriaca Malva sylvestris Chamaemelum nobile, Matricaria chamomilla Achilea fragrantissima, Achillea millefolium L Cichorium sp. Althaea officinalis L. Raphanus sp. Coriandrum sativum L. Ceratonia siliqua Amygdalus sp Teucrium sp. Pistacia atlantica Lavandula officinalis L.

FC = food consumption. HT = herbal tea.

Jordan

Lebanon

Palestinian Authority

Syria

Marketing

Gender

Use

Gender

Use

Gender

Use

Gender

Use

♀♂ ♀ & Girls

HT HT

♀♂

HT

♀♂ ♀ & Girls

HT HT

♀♂ ♀ & Girls

HT HT

♂

♂ & Child.

FC

♀♂

FC

♀ ♂ & Girls Child.

FC

♂

♀♂

FC

♀♂ ♀♂ ♀♂

FC FC HT

♀ ♀ ♀ & Girls

FC FC HT

♂

♀♂

FC HT HT

♀♂

♀ & Girls ♀ ♀

♂

HT FC

♀ ♂ & Girls

HT

♂

♂

HT

♀ ♀ ♀ ♀

FC HT FC FC

♀

HT

♀ & Girls

♀♂ ♂ ♀ & Girls Men

♀♂

♀ ♀

FC

HT FC

FC FC HT FC

♂

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Wild thymes Artemisia

Scientific name

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Table 8 Access to the market (%) Location of market Village market Sell to individuals inside the village Neighboring village market City market Combinations of access Total

Jordan

Lebanon

Palestinian Authority

Syria

25 12 15 43 5

50 10 3 16 21

35 10 4 26 25

8 20 7 35 30

100

100

100

100

lage. Syria is the least advantaged in terms of the availability of a village market, as only 8% of the respondents sell their products in a city market. This situation affects women more than men by limiting the income from their products (Table 8). In addition, 10–20% of the sample households sell their products to individuals in the village at low prices due to the absence of competition.

4. Conclusion This study has analyzed the gender dimension in the division of labor in agricultural activities in selected target areas in the four countries. It analyzed gender involvement in the collection, processing and preparation of crops and plant species for food and medicinal uses. The results indicate that both women and men have distinct responsibilities in agricultural operations. However, further investigation in the four countries would be necessary to analyze income from the activities on the basis of gender differences. Findings from the study have indicated that local knowledge of agro-biodiversity conservation, management and use exist among both women and men, including the children. This project has improved the existing local knowledge through awareness creation and training in the use of various agricultural products. Hence, the communities have been empowered to protect species that are under threat and to make better use of natural resources in order to prevent further degradation. The governments of West Asia countries can take advantage of the local knowledge to assess the constraints and opportunities in agro-biodiversity and natural resources management in the region and plan suitable technological interventions. The training on the improvement of the quality of locally processed agricultural products and alternative sources of income has provided opportunity for communities in the project sites to improve their on-farm and off-farm incomes. Further training projects should be implemented to consolidate the gains of the project and make necessary improvements. The role of women as a driving force in these activities should be recognized and enhanced, as their welfare can influence economic growth in these countries. The governments of West Asia countries need to strengthen policies that encourage and support rural development. They should recognize the role of local institutions in the collection and preservation of agro-biodiversity and provide the needed incentives and technical backstopping for additional sources of income through adding value options. They can network with the local institutions and communities for the collective provision of services that will make small farming enterprises to flourish in the rural areas.

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Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their thanks to our collaborators from the National Agricultural Research Institutions (NARS), Ms Hanaa Chehabeddine, Mrs Nawaf Atawneh, Sameh Jarrar, Amjad Badr, Raed Badwan, Mohamed Monzer, Khaled Bshabsheh, Tayseer Aladwan, Adnan Saad, and Amani Al-Assaf for their involvement in the socio-economic surveys conducted, respectively, in the Palestinian Authority, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan. Appendix A Plant species targeted by the project in different research sites Crop

Germplasm

Jordan Muwaqqar

Wheat

Barley Lentil Vetch Lathyrus Medics Clovers Allium Olive Apricot Cherries Plum Almond Pear Pistachio Fig

Wild Ttriticum Aegilops spp. Landraces H. spontaneum Landraces Wild Lens Landraces Wild Vicia Wild Lathyrus Wild Medicago Wild Trifolium Wild Allium Local varieties Olea oleaster Local varieties Local varieties Local varieties Local varieties Wild Prunus Local varieties Wild Pyrus Local varieties Wild Pistachio Local varieties Local varieties

× ×

× ×

Lebanon Ajloun × × × × × × × × × × ×

×

×

×

× ×

× × ×

Aarsal × ×

× × × × ×

Palestinian Authority

Syria

Baalabek

Hebron

Jenin

Sweida

× × × × × × × × × × × ×

× × × × ×

× ×

× × × ×

× × × ×

× × × × × × × × × × × × × × × ×

×

× × × × × × × × ×

×

×

×

× × × × × × ×

× × ×

× × ×

Al-Haffeh × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × × ×

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