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How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
CHAPTER EIGHT
How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment Working with the media—old and new—is core to effective disaster and emergency management communications. And working with the media has become increasingly important in these times of 24/7 news gathering and dissemination. The news hole will be filled—if not by official information channels, then by others. The information provided by citizen journalists and eyewitnesses armed with smartphones using Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and other social media platforms has proven to be profuse, mainly accurate, and occasionally inaccurate. But the bottom line is, disaster information is now broadly accessible and not controlled by the government agencies in charge of managing an event or the mainstream media charged with covering it. It is time for emergency managers at every level, especially at the local level, to integrate social media and the Internet into their communications plans and to capitalize on the opportunities created by open, two-way exchanges with the public and the media.
SOCIAL MEDIA AS A CRITICAL AND INDISPENSABLE ELEMENT IN DISASTER AND CRISIS COMMUNICATIONS Today’s suite of social media tools—Twitter, Facebook,YouTube, Google maps— is already shaping how crises are communicated and response and relief efforts are coordinated. According to Axel Bruns, Queensland University of Technology professor, social media is “a key component of every emergency response effort—as much part of the ‘equipment’ as the fire truck or chopper” (ARC, 2011). Government agencies have been slow to embrace social media tools and culture— but now the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA,) and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) are among the hundreds of U.S. government agencies that have multiple Facebook and Twitter accounts and FEMA, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) have all implemented social strategies into their emergency-management plans. It has taken time for agencies accustomed to being information gatekeepers, in control of the release of information, to overcome their concerns about the accuracy of content generated by the public and their ability to be heard over what they considered cacophony coming from on the ground witnesses, victims in need of help, bloggers, TV and radio outlets, first responders, utility companies, nongovernment agencies,
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and relief volunteers. Disaster sociologist Dr. Jeannette Sutton works with Project H.E.R.O.I.C., which is funded by the National Science Foundation with the goal of “better understand[ing] the dynamics of informal online communication in response to extreme events.” She believes “there is still a great deal of skepticism and concern about rumor and misinformation. That is what holds them back” (Sutton, 2013). A 2013 survey by the CNA and the National Emergency Management Association confirms her observation: “Of those surveyed, 59 percent of state emergency management agencies, 55 percent of county emergency management agencies and 41 percent of local response agencies trust social media less than traditional media” (Su et al., 2013). According to the survey “penetration of social media in state, county and local emergency management agencies remains incomplete….” The survey found that all state emergency management agencies use social media in some capacity; 68 percent of county emergency management agencies, and 85 percent of local response agencies. But that “many aspects of social media are still new to many emergency management professionals, especially when it comes to using social media to support real-world events … agencies are primarily treating social media as another means to push information out” (Su et al., 2013). The report concluded that while concerns about the reliability of information communicated through social media have kept emergency managers from fully integrating these tools into their communication planning and practices, “the main barrier to social media use in emergency management agencies is the lack of personnel to take on these additional responsibilities. Less than one in six agencies surveyed that use social media have dedicated social media personnel” (Su et al., 2013). The public has integrated social media into their lives. The fruits of that integration are demonstrated during every disaster. Digital Journalism Professor Sean Mussenden predicts, “Government reluctance to use social media tools is going to change. As more people make this part of their information diet, use traditional channels less, and mobile consumption of news becomes even more popular, they will have to adapt” (Mussenden, 2013). According to Jim Garrow, disaster planner with the Philadelphia Health Department, “Ignoring the state of the world is, for an emergency manager, tantamount to malfeasance. Our greatest lesson learned this year is that we can no longer ignore social media or keep it out of our planning” (Garrow, 2012). The good news is that it looks like that integration is happening: Hurricane Sandy—which devastated the northeast in October 2012—marked a shift in the use of social media by government agencies—an acknowledgement and embrace of social media’s critical role in disasters in disseminating information, connecting people, and controlling rumors. In Sandy, more than ever before, government agencies turned to mobile and online technologies to communicate with the public and response partners (Cohen, 2013).
How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
The Boston Marathon bombings were also considered a watershed event; a moment that marked forever the changed role of social media and the fully participatory public in breaking news events and coverage. The New York Times wrote, “It is America’s first fully interactive national tragedy of the social media age” (Kakutani, 2013). From marathon runners giving their accounts on Facebook, to law enforcement officials using Twitter to give real-time updates and asking for help identifying and capturing the suspects, to The Boston Globe converting its homepage to a live blog that pulled in tweets from Boston authorities, news outlets, and ordinary citizens, social media showed itself to be an indispensable tool with a unique role to play and contribution to make in response to a terrorist attack. Finally, social media tools, including Twitter, Facebook, and photo sharing platforms, were used during both the above events to verify information and dispel rumors. For example, when false reports and images began circulating on the Internet, including a photo of the New York Stock Exchange under 3 feet of water, first responder agencies such as the New York City Fire Department posted messages on Twitter and other social media sites to correct misinformation. FEMA launched a Hurricane Sandy: Rumor Control page, which helped to distinguish the truth from false information about contractors, cash cards, food stamps, and shelters (Cohen, 2013). In Boston, the police used Twitter aggressively to counteract the false claims that were spreading across social networks. For example, on April 17, when, according to Bloomberg Businessweek, “The online news ecosystem was in the midst of a misinformation disaster, with rumors gleaned from the official police scanner and from inaccurate sources on major TV networks … the Boston PD tweeted: “Despite reports to the contrary there has not been an arrest in the Marathon attack.” The department’s tweet clarifying that there was no arrest shortly after the bombings saw more than 11,000 retweets (Keller, 2013). Clearly, social media has proven itself to be a powerful force in shaping and controlling the flow of information during a disaster. So how can social media be best harnessed to benefit emergency management agencies and institutions?
BEST SOCIAL MEDIA PRACTICES FOR EMERGENCY MANAGERS Have active social media accounts in place before the event: People in charge of the organization’s social media during attacks or disasters should have active Twitter, Facebook, and other social media accounts already in place before a crisis occurs. Networks of public followers, organizations, and media allies need to exist before the event: Connections between organizations need to exist ahead
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of time. “From what we can learn from public response to alerts and warnings— theme, style, existing network are all predictors of whether a message will be retweeted” and reach the largest numbers of people possible (Sutton, 2013). Connections to media outlets and journalists are key: They have a team of people to monitor and verify information and send it out to a larger audience. “Not until information gets to someone with a ton of followers does the information reach a broad audience,” according to T. J. Ortenzi at The Washington Post. Newsrooms add value—observed news agencies have more retweets. “They have a broader reach. There is a close correlation between the number of followers as a predictor of retweets” (Sutton, 2013). Be the official source: New technology should not affect this most-essential of Public Information Officer (PIO) functions. “Think of it this way: The PIO’s job hasn’t changed in light of what social media can do, it has simply expanded. Social media is just another tool that the communications professional can use to reach his or her target audience” (Poirier, 2013). Create a joint strategy with other emergency agencies and with media hubs that have many followers to achieve a broader reach: Dr. Sutton advises emergency managers to coordinate and assign agency roles, “Determine who will be tweeting from the scene—who will be retweeting and adding health and safety information, for example.” Tweets during a disaster should come from “cascading messengers” (Sutton, 2013). Have a dedicated person manning the Twitter and Facebook accounts during the disaster and be sure they have clear authority to operate on behalf of their organization: “Take some time to look at how your organization handles information flow. You may find that it’s not your tools, but your processes that need to be improved” (Poirier, 2013). In the Colorado Springs Waldo Canyon Fire, government and emergency agencies worked together—using the same hashtag, consistent messaging, and the same person to manage all accounts, tweeting for the city of Colorado Springs’ mayor, sheriff, county health, police and fire departments—all reaching different followers and creating the broadest network possible (Anderson, 2013). Jacob Anderson, Innovation Analyst for the city of Colorado Springs, who was responsible for managing those accounts during the fire, had this advice for other social media managers: Get a dashboard in place: “Throughout the fire, we used Hootsuite to control the multiple official Colorado Springs Twitter accounts … Having a central dashboard allowed us to post a message simultaneously across all accounts and manage their status all in one location. Many dashboards include analytics to keep track of which posts are having the greatest impact and reaching the most people.” ●
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How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
Respect the community: “In social media, the community decides everything. As the official account, you are a part of the conversation, but you are only one participant. Want to change the hashtag? Good luck—you can’t force people to use your vocabulary. The city is but one source of information in the social media community. Social media has natural hubs and key influencers: Use them well as these can be your greatest asset. If key influencers are misinformed, focus on engaging them. This will provide maximum impact in spreading better information. The community can naturally self-correct: There were several times during the fire when members of the Twitter community corrected erroneous tweets before we (as the “official” Twitter accounts) could get to them. Everyone had a stake in communicating truthfully, so we were all on the same team” (Anderson, 2013). Take advantage of the two-way street: “Gone are the days when the job of a PIO was simply to push information. With today’s technology, PIOs can act as a conduit for information to and from the public. Opening up this two-way dialog during an emergency allows PIOs to get the important, validated information out while taking in new information from their target audience” (Poirier, 2013). Be your own publisher and emergency broadcast system: “Organizations can be their own best advocates. Craig Fugate at FEMA does a fantastic job,” according to The Washington Post’s Ortenzi. Correct rumors: There are consequences if organizations leave them uncountered. Be honest: “Before social media, it was more difficult for PIO organizations to be completely open and transparent during disaster situations. This older model encouraged communications professionals to release only 100 percent confirmed information, while remaining silent on unresolved or unconfirmed issues. Platforms like Facebook and Twitter make it easier for PIOs to quickly obtain, validate, and disseminate information directly to the public. One of the best ways to gain trust and establish authority is to be as honest as possible” (Poirier, 2013). Recruit volunteers: “PIOs and their teams tend to be dramatically understaffed. Many shops don’t have the personnel required to sift through the social media noise that floods in when disaster strikes. Fortunately, there are volunteer organizations that exist purely to fill in the gaps during emergencies, and it’s time more PIOs begin making use of such resources. If you train these individuals on the basics of emergency management and your organization’s unique processes, then you can put them in front of computers and let them help organize information as it comes in. This not only relieves pressure from the PIO, but also ensures that the public is heard and that answers are provided. Volunteers are crucial when it comes to staffing the manpower necessary to ensure the two-way communications street doesn’t become one-way” (Poirier, 2013).
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Lessons from the Waldo Canyon Fire As part of Project H.E.R.O.I.C, a National Science Foundation initiative “to better understand the dynamics of informal online communication in response to extreme events,” researchers at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs and the University of California-Irvin did an analysis of tweets surrounding the June 23, 2012 Waldo Canyon Fire. The fire forced the evacuation of over 32,000 residents from Colorado Springs, Manitou Springs, and Woodland Park and destroyed more than 346 homes. The research team collected over 100,000 tweets that used the hashtag #Waldocanyonfire from more than 25,000 unique Twitter users. As Kim Stephens reported in iDisaster 2.0, “They examined the data based on several factors: time of day Tweets were posted, content, who was posting (citizens or government organizations connected to the response effort) and who was following those accounts. Specifically they asked: Did these accounts have an increase in followers, and if so, what Tweeting behavior led to the greatest increase? Not surprisingly, they found that the more information an organization provides, the more people follow them” (Stephens, 2012). In terms of content, the word “evacuation” was the most often mentioned, as shown in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Infographic showing the frequency of words in tweets during the emergency. Researchers assumed that government information would be retweeted most often during the emergency—what they learned was it was local organizations that saw the largest increase. Source: Project H.E.R.O.I.C.
How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
Based on their findings they drew some conclusions: When an event occurs, local organization gain large numbers of followers. In establishing a social media strategy, a pre-event is important. Organizations should not judge attention-demand for social media during a nonevent periods. Content generation on Twitter varies in a predictable way based on the time of day. Interpreting changes in attention needs to take this diurnal cycle into account. Original content tends to be produced by local organizations, while retweeted content tends to come from nonlocals. Low rates of directed messaging indicate a trend to use Twitter as a broadcast channel more than a conversational channel. The inclusion of URLs may show that these organizations recognize the limitations of information shared via Twitter—perhaps due to the character lengths—requiring links be used to get additional information. Hashtag use indicates these organizations are developing a sophistication in how to participate effectively during a disaster event. ● ●
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Excerpt from: Stephens (2012).
MEDIA RELATIONS 101 Clearly, the infrastructure of news operations and the tools and tactics used to research, build, verify, and tell a story have changed dramatically in the last decade, but the basic rules of engaging and working with the media have not. It is imperative that emergency operation centers (EOCs) and all government and nongovernmental organizations involved in disaster response understand the needs of the media and how to fulfill those needs as an ongoing and well-thought-out part of the response plan that now includes the media and the public as main players in the response.
Tips for Interacting with the Media and the Public To be effective, communicate early and often. Be right and be right there. Be proactive and do not wait to be asked. Be accurate and open. Put what you know—and can sustain factually—out there. Tell the truth and be transparent—admit what you do not know yet—and explain how you plan to get answers to their questions. Do not hold back bad news. Get it out fast—nothing damages credibility faster than not sharing the negative news. No matter what the issue, positive or negative, being open and responsive to the public’s need for accurate information is a priority. Be available—in person or as an office—at all times to answer questions and meet requests. ●
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Let the medium be the message. Use tools that reach the most people the fastest— Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr, Instagram, whatever. Go where the people—and the media—are already. Remember old media can give your tweets, posts, and pictures a much bigger audience. Have accounts and networks already in place before a disaster hits.You cannot build a network in a day or a make a friend when flames are crackling in your ears. Be the trusted, reliable source.
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Getting Emergency Information to—and from—the Media Research has shown that the public’s belief that an emergency response was effective correlates with how much access to information they had during the crisis. The fundamental challenge is speed versus accuracy where both are important. Social Media Hundreds of national and local government agencies—including FEMA and the CDC—have social media accounts and networks. Make sure you have active accounts, and a plan to build your likes and retweets to maximize the reach of your network. Social media is used to: Communicate in real-time, immediate situational awareness. That works to the advantage of first responders, relief providers, the media, and the public. Reach a large number of already connected people who have other networks they will inform. Facilitate interactive communications and community. Build and maintain relationships with the media. Dispel rumors by providing accurate information quickly. Provide website links where reporters and the public can go to get more information. A brief reminder as to why social media should be used to push out information: Mobile use is on the rise. Over 90 percent of Americans have cellphones; 56 percent have smart phones (Ranie, 2013). It is the fastest way to reach the most people. It can be used to push out content and pull in new information. Even though monitoring can be a daunting task, millions of new—and many of them useful— posts, pictures, and videos are added to YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, and other social media platforms every day. So how can a public health, first responder, or emergency management agency sort through all of that data? It can be especially overwhelming, when “less than one in six agencies surveyed that use social media have dedicated social media personnel” (Su ●
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How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
et al., 2013). The first step is to establish objectives: determine why you are listening and what is the expected outcome? Your emergency management organization might decide to specify a number of objectives.
Excerpt from Strategically Monitoring Social Media A post by Kim Stephens, who is the lead blogger on iDisaster 2.0, recommends monitoring social media: To determine if the organization’s message is getting across or if conflicting information (rumors) is being conveyed. To determine public sentiment regarding the organization or, during a crisis, about the overall government’s response effort. To determine the most commonly asked questions and concerns. To quickly answer direct questions, or questions directed at the community political leadership on topics that involve your organization: To determine what other organizations are saying in order to both ensure messages are coordinated and to amplify mission-related content. To determine the extent of damage and impact of the disaster event. The following simple steps for operationalizing your social media monitoring are based on processes described by emergency managers who have made the most of the free tools at their disposal. 1. Create lists and like pages of response partners. 2. Read. 3. Actively ask for information. ●
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Excerpt from: Stephens (2013).
Working with Reporters What Do Reporters Want? Reporters want and need the following: Timely answers to their questions. Access to experts. Visuals to support their news stories. These needs are the same in an emergency, only the time pressure is much greater. When a story is seen as “breaking news,” time becomes paramount. Anticipating questions from the media can help you prepare and respond. ●
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This list of “77 Questions Commonly Asked by Journalists during a Crisis” (Covello, 2002) is included in the Center for Disease Control’s social media tool kit, “SocialMediaWorks.” Journalists are likely to ask six questions in a crisis (who, what, where, when, why, how) that relate to three broad topics: (1) what happened; (2) what caused it to happen; (3) what does it mean. Specific questions include: 1. What is your name and title? 2. What are your job responsibilities? 3. What are your qualifications? 4. Can you tell us what happened? 5. When did it happen? 6. Where did it happen? 7. Who was harmed? 8. How many people were harmed? 9. Are those that were harmed getting help? 10. How certain are you about this information? 11. How are those who were harmed getting help? 12. Is the situation under control? 13. How certain are you that the situation is under control? 14. Is there any immediate danger? 15. What is being done in response to what happened? 16. Who is in charge? 17. What can we expect next? 18. What are you advising people to do? 19. How long will it be before the situation returns to normal? 20. What help has been requested or offered from others? 21. What responses have you received? 22. Can you be specific about the types of harm that occurred? 23. What are the names of those that were harmed? 24. Can we talk to them? 25. How much damage occurred? 26. What other damage may have occurred? 27. How certain are you about damages? 28. How much damage do you expect? 29. What are you doing now? 30. Who else is involved in the response? 31. Why did this happen? 32. What was the cause? 33. Did you have any forewarning that this might happen? 34. Why wasn’t this prevented from happening? 35. What else can go wrong? 36. If you are not sure of the cause, what is your best guess?
How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
37. Who caused this to happen? 38. Who is to blame? 39. Could this have been avoided? 40. Do you think those involved handled the situation well enough? 41. When did your response to this begin? 42. When were you notified that something had happened? 43. Who is conducting the investigation? 44. What are you going to do after the investigation? 45. What have you found out so far? 46. Why was more not done to prevent this from happening? 47. What is your personal opinion? 48. What are you telling your own family? 49. Are all those involved in agreement? 50. Are people over-reacting? 51. Which laws are applicable? 52. Has anyone broken the law? 53. How certain are you about whether laws have been broken? 54. Has anyone made mistakes? 55. How certain are you that mistakes have not been made? 56. Have you told us everything you know? 57. What are you not telling us? 58. What effects will this have on the people involved? 59. What precautionary measures were taken? 60. Do you accept responsibility for what happened? 61. Has this ever happened before? 62. Can this happen elsewhere? 63. What is the worst-case scenario? 64. What lessons were learned? 65. Were those lessons implemented? 66. What can be done to prevent this from happening again? 67. What would you like to say to those that have been harmed and to their families? 68. Is there any continuing the danger? 69. Are people out of danger? Are people safe? 70. Will there be inconvenience to employees or to the public? 71. How much will all this cost? 72. Are you able and willing to pay the costs? 73. Who else will pay the costs? 74. When will we find out more? 75. What steps need to be taken to avoid a similar event? 76. Have these steps already been taken? If not, why not? 77. What does this all mean? Source: Covello (2002).
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During an unfolding emergency, media may not react as they usually do. Expect the following: Diminished information verification: Tentative, or even incorrect, information will be broadcast without the usual confirmation from multiple sources. Diminished adversarial role: Journalists are people too. They will have genuine concerns about what is occurring. They will want to help by providing important messages to the public. Do not expect the media to continue this throughout the entire crisis. In the beginning, however, the “them” versus “us” ratio diminishes. An Emergency Operations Center (EOC) for consolidated information is expected for some crises: The media still expects information and official briefings from government officials and agencies from a well-functioning media command center. Inadequate scientific expertise might be a concern: During an event involving technology or engineering (how levees fail, how bombs are built), most media personnel will not have the scientific background to quickly grasp new information or the nuances of that information. Be prepared to fill in the blanks. Do not assume that everyone knows the technical jargon. Use plain language. Start with the basics and bring reporters—and the public—along. Incorporate citizen journalists, eyewitness-generated tweets, postings, photos, and videos: These are very valuable and plentiful during the first moments of a crisis. These enrich and broaden coverage and should be monitored, verified, and integrated into your briefings. Acknowledge what people on the ground are seeing and contributing. Journalists interviewing other media personnel: This will be common throughout the event. The media has hired in-house experts to add dimension to their coverage—and they will use them (CDC, 2012). ●
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Press Conferences and Briefings The media will expect you to set up a command post and to hold press conferences and briefings. Be ready for the press conference to be different than you planned. The following tips may help: Reporters will ask whatever questions they please, despite your directions. Be sure the officials know who will respond to controversial questions. This is the person who will refer the reporter’s question back to the appropriate organization or the subject matter expert. Get agreement from all of the officials involved; if the answer does not fall within the scope of their responsibility, they cannot respond. This may be hard for some of them who may have a good answer to share. Have a backup plan for such glitches as the loss of sound equipment. ●
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How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
Either before the officials enter the room or at the end of the event, tell reporters how to get more information and additional answers. Decide ahead of time if officials are going to do standup media interviews for individual reporters following the event If you allow a standup interview after the press conference, expect radio and print media to surround the television reporter conducting the interview or vice versa. These interviews are really like another small, informal press conference (CDC, 2012). ●
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Using Visuals Make any presentation used in a news conference available to the media on multiple platforms. Try to agree on what will be presented downloadable. ●
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Handouts If possible, have copies of the presentations, useful fact sheets, and backgrounders available. Do not forget to provide background information on the organization, such as a simple mission statement, organizational chart, and basic facts. Have brief speaker bios to handout. This helps build their credibility for reporters and the public who may read about them (CDC, 2012). ●
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Reality Check Record press conferences (at least on audio) if at all possible. It will help with questions and answers after the fact, and is your record of what was said. Do not rely on memory, especially during a crisis. Consider the following tips: Arrange for media monitoring following your conference to see if your messages were clearly reported. Prepare the materials needed to push those messages out as clearly and concisely as possible (CDC, 2012). It is important to understand that reporters will not allow you to simply feed them headlines without asking questions. They will decide what to tell their viewers or listeners about what is occurring. Do not treat them like members of your staff. Offer suggestions, but do not dictate. This will help you establish a cooperative relationship. Keep in mind, reporters may seem sensitive to your needs and requirements. You may think reporters are eager to print only positive news about your organization or agency. The reality is that reporters have an obligation to report the facts objectively, even if they feel those facts are contrary to your organization’s goals. When an issue has national significance, reporters will probably show some distance: Reporters have a job to do, and they will do what it takes to get it done. The relationship between reporters and disaster communicators will be more serious. ●
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No favors should be expected from either side. Remember that it is the journalist’s job to provide balance by looking for alternative perspectives and interpretations of events, and ensuring that other points-ofview receive coverage. Make your points clearly and consistently. Keep it easy for journalists to do their jobs. This enhances the effectiveness of communication during a crisis. If the media present incorrect information, especially if it could be harmful to the public, you should quickly communicate correct information to the public and the media. Expect only limited success in influencing that part of the crisis coverage devoted to debate, discussion, and speculation. This is especially true in the 24-hour news arena. Remember that emergency managers and reporters or commentators see stories from different angles. What seem like facts to you might seem less black-and-white to reporters and commentators (CDC, 2012). Do not ignore the parameters of the journalist’s job; they have space and time to fill, and endless demands for content to meet. One way to destroy effective professional relationships with the media is to ignore their needs. It is imperative that you provide equal access to information and help journalists acquire that information: Distribute messages that are essential to the well-being or safety of the public equally. Use social media and teleconferencing so reporters in remote locations can participate. Give journalists a reasonable timeframe in which new information will be provided. Establish a schedule for information releases. Everyone involved will appreciate some ground rules. Base groundrules on the type and phase of the crisis Be available—if necessary, around the clock—to help reporters get the facts right, before their deadline (CDC, 2012). ●
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KEYS TO ALL SUCCESSFUL MEDIA OUTREACH 1. Relationship building. You will not be dealing with these news organizations just once. You have many stories to tell in many ways. You want to be able to call this reporter again—and you want the reporter to call you for comment on news stories or for background information. Never lie. When you do not know an answer, admit it and tell the reporter you will get back to them. Get back when you say you will. ●
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How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
Try to build personal relations—being followers on Twitter or friends on Facebook is necessary, but not sufficient. 2. Tell the tale well. Use compelling visuals—even for newspaper and magazines. Imagery, action. Use credible, prepared, and attractive messengers. 3. Get the message out. A few strategic rules will help you get the message out: Know the message. What one thing do you want the viewer to remember when you are finished? Say it out loud several times to get the words right before you are on camera. The goal is to go into an interview knowing the exact sound bytes you are going to get out. And no matter what is asked—get those sound bytes out. You are in control—they cannot make you say anything—they can only write/play what you say. Start with your conclusion—that is usually your message. Most of us have been taught to build the case and then reach the logical conclusion—you will not be given enough time in a television interview to do that - Wrong way: “The number of violent storms and extreme weather events are increasing. There are proven, inexpensive ways to save lives and property. That’s why you need to take steps now to prepare for the next natural disaster.” - Right way: “You need to take steps now to prepare for the next natural disaster.” Then if time allows, you can give specifics. But leading with your conclusion will help ensure that the media does not edit out or cut short your message. Keep it short - In the 1960s, the average sound bite was almost 40 seconds long. - In the 1980s, it was about 20 seconds long. - Now, it is about 6 seconds long. - Tweets are 140 characters. If you speak in sound bites longer than that, you increase the odds your message will be edited. The law of diminishing returns applies here too: the longer you talk, the less attention the viewer pays. People remember what they hear first. Remember people want to know what time it is, not how to build the watch. Craft your message with the time constraints of broadcast in mind. What you create for television and radio will work in print; but not the other way around. 4. Be consistent and disciplined. Seize all media opportunities as a chance to repeat yourself. You will be much more likely to cut through the clutter if you are consistent. Odds are people will remember a consistent message of “2222222” better than they will remember a random array of different numbers “3,12,15,99,62,7.” That is the heart of message discipline. ●
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5. Use value-laden language every day. Avoid jargon, acronyms, and talking about process. Use the language and tap into the values of your target audience. People want to protect their loved ones, their homes, and businesses from disasters. 6. Remember who you are talking to—and it is not the reporter. The reporter is not your friend or a debating partner to be convinced. Reporters are a means to an end—you must pass through them to have a conversation with a larger audience not normally available to you—people impacted by a disaster.
Interview Tips Television Interviews Whether you are on a live talk show or being taped for the local evening news, the following tips will help you make the most of a television interview: Pick the right spokesperson: Your spokesperson must first and foremost be somebody who knows the angles of your program and issue well, and has had some experience talking about and debating the topic. His/her belief and commitment to the issue should be immediately apparent. Master the sound byte: A sound byte is a quote or succinct one-liner that summarizes an opinion in a colorful but simple manner. Since there is a lot of competition for airtime, it is essential that sound bytes be kept to 15 seconds. As with quotes in press releases, lead with the conclusion since that is the bite you want them to take. The less editing that must be done by the television producer, the better. Avoid jargon, use analogies, and be personal by explaining how the issue affects this particular audience. Be brief and direct. Know your show: Before you have your interview, you should watch several episodes of the talk show or news broadcast to familiarize yourself with the program and with the type of questions your interviewer might ask. Also talk to the booker or producer ahead of time about the overall format of the show, including whether your interview is taped or live and if there will be a studio audience. If you are on a talk show, find out if there are other guests and the order of their appearance. Know your message: Before the interview, know the main points you want to make. Anticipate questions but do not over-rehearse—you want to sound natural. Steer the interview toward the points you want to make before time runs out. You can take notes with you to the set, but do not read from them on the air. Reiterate your points: Make an effort to repeat your major point over and over, especially in taped interviews. Remember that portions of the interview may be edited, and you do not want to risk having your main point edited out. Take advantage of pauses in the interview to make your point. You have a right to complete your answers, so if you are interrupted, politely and firmly insist on finishing your answer. Request clarification if you are asked a question you do not understand, and do not fudge facts and figures. Bring visuals along if they will help make your point more memorable. ●
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Pay attention to body language: Avoid exaggerated hand movements, tapping your foot, saying “you know” and “uh” a lot and clearing your throat. If you are sitting, sit upright, lean slightly forward, and never cross your legs. Look at the interviewer, not the camera. Use moderate hand gestures, smile, and nod. Remember that everything you do will be magnified. Assume you are always on camera: Even if you think the camera is focusing on someone else, act like you are on camera at all times. Do not say anything, even jokingly, that could be taken out of context or picked up and used out of context. When you are in the studio, assume the cameras are always rolling. Dress carefully: Women should dress in solid-colored, simple suits or dresses. Avoid light colors, busy patterns, sparkling or noisy jewelry, and heavy makeup. If doing an in-studio interview, men should stick with light blue shirts and dark suits. Otherwise dress accordingly, look professional but do not overdress. Ties should not have wild colors. Both men and women should avoid clothes that are uncomfortable or that rustle and make noise against a microphone. Contact lenses are preferred over glasses.
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Appearing on Television 1. Television is visual! So be visually likable! People make up their mind about you in the first 10 seconds—it’s appearance, personae. Being nice, polite, and likeable is the key. Look presentable. Wear something appropriate to the location. Always wear a tie—unless out in the woods or in the rain. It shows respect. Do not wear loud colors/prints (red is bad, light blue is good), large jewelry, or anything with small prints or narrow stripes (even ties). Look sharp, respectful, and like the good guy. Hair needs to be combed. No hats or caps. Makeup should be worn (men too), even if it is just a little powder to reduce shine or to cover a sweaty forehead. Some camera crews carry makeup with them, but do not count on it. If you wear glasses, try nonreflective lenses, otherwise the cameraman may ask if you can remove them. Do not wear sunglasses. Make sure you do not have a piece of lettuce on the front of your teeth. Posture: leaning back in the chair makes you seem pompous. Sitting on the edge of the chair makes you seem engaged. It forces you to sit up straight—which seems engaged. It also allows you plenty of air to speak loudly—so you have presence. It fixes many problems. If legs are under the table, do not cross them. No moving around, bouncing, fidgeting, wiggling, or squirming. If hand gestures are needed, keep movements small and controlled. Be friendly—smile. And do not raise the tone of your voice. Imagine you are debating your grandmother. You are always nice and never condescending or ●
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angry or feeling like you have to pick up the pace. Once you turn slightly rabid, you lose no matter what. This also means no finger pointing. Would you try to intimidate grandmother? Smile, be polite, and very nice. Turn your torso towards the other person. This gives them your full attention and looks very respectful. Turning just your head can appear disdainful, sarcastic, etc. Make eye contact with and talk to the reporter. Do not look at the camera (unless you are participating in an interview via satellite). Do not lose eye contact with the other person. If they are talking and you are framing your next answer in your head, the tendency is to be looking down or away. This is rude. So keep eye contact at ALL times. Assume the camera is on you all the time. Do not be preparing notes, looking at your watch, etc. When you are not talking, still have your torso turned to who is speaking, on the edge of your chair, complete with eye contact. Background: Do not stand in front of a blank wall. If you are inside, make sure there is a sign or a poster behind you. If you are outside, almost anything works as long as it relates to the issue. Wherever you are do not stand in front of another organization’s signs. 2. How you sound is important too! Empathize with others. Frame answers so you show your empathy in a real way. Slow down—a universal problem for almost all of us. Anticipate the questions. Try to get the questions ahead of time. Have your sound bytes ready for response and know how you will use the question to get your sound byte. Do not turn away from the reporter or microphone while speaking. Be prepared to stop/wait/repeat yourself if there is an interruption (i.e., plane, loud truck). Avoid um, er, like, etc. No one-word answers. If a reporter asks a question that can be answered with yes or no, repeat the question in your answer. Do not lecture; be conversational. Politely correct the reporter if they have their facts wrong. Speak with the reporter beforehand and craft the sound byte to fit what they need. You do not need to be right on top of the microphone, but do not turn away from it while speaking. 3. Practice, practice, practice. Say it out loud in front of the mirror. Have others role play with you—it will also help you anticipate the questions. Tape and review the media work you do. It is the best way to improve. ●
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REFERENCES ARC Centre for Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, 2011. (Science Alert. Twitter Helping with Floods. 19 January 2011.. Anderson, J., 2013. Recovers Blog. #WaldoCanyonFire—5 Lessons for Social Media in a Crisis Situation. May 13, 2013. . Cohen, S.E., 2013. Emergency Management. Sandy Marked a Shift for Social Media Use in Disasters. March 7, 2013. . Covello, V.T., 2002. Keeping Your Head In A Crisis: Responding to Communication Challenges Posed by Bio-terrorism and Emerging Infectious Diseases. Association of State and Territorial Health Officers (ASTHO). . Garrow, J., 2012. The Face of the Matter. Top Five SMEM Lessons Learned in 2012: The Public Uses Social Media. December 18, 2012. . Keller, J., 2013. How Boston Police Won the Twitter Wars During the Marathon Bomber Hunt. Bloomberg Businessweek Technology. April 26, 2013. . Mussenden, S., 2013. Interviewed by Kim Haddow, 27 June, 2013. Poirier, C., 2013. How PIOs Should Use Social Media in Disaster Situations. Tech Page One. April 22, 2013. . Ranie, L., 2013. Pew Research Center. Fact Tank. Cell phone ownership hits 91 percent of adults, June 6, 2013. . Sutton, J., 2013. Interviewed by Kim Haddow on 9 July, 2013.
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How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment Working with the media—old and new—is core to effective disaster and emergency management communications. And working with the media has become increasingly important in these times of 24/7 news gathering and dissemination. The news hole will be filled—if not by official information channels, then by others. The information provided by citizen journalists and eyewitnesses armed with smartphones using Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and other social media platforms has proven to be profuse, mainly accurate, and occasionally inaccurate. But the bottom line is, disaster information is now broadly accessible and not controlled by the government agencies in charge of managing an event or the mainstream media charged with covering it. It is time for emergency managers at every level, especially at the local level, to integrate social media and the Internet into their communications plans and to capitalize on the opportunities created by open, two-way exchanges with the public and the media.
SOCIAL MEDIA AS A CRITICAL AND INDISPENSABLE ELEMENT IN DISASTER AND CRISIS COMMUNICATIONS Today’s suite of social media tools—Twitter, Facebook,YouTube, Google maps— is already shaping how crises are communicated and response and relief efforts are coordinated. According to Axel Bruns, Queensland University of Technology professor, social media is “a key component of every emergency response effort—as much part of the ‘equipment’ as the fire truck or chopper” (ARC, 2011). Government agencies have been slow to embrace social media tools and culture— but now the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA,) and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) are among the hundreds of U.S. government agencies that have multiple Facebook and Twitter accounts and FEMA, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) have all implemented social strategies into their emergency-management plans. It has taken time for agencies accustomed to being information gatekeepers, in control of the release of information, to overcome their concerns about the accuracy of content generated by the public and their ability to be heard over what they considered cacophony coming from on the ground witnesses, victims in need of help, bloggers, TV and radio outlets, first responders, utility companies, nongovernment agencies,
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and relief volunteers. Disaster sociologist Dr. Jeannette Sutton works with Project H.E.R.O.I.C., which is funded by the National Science Foundation with the goal of “better understand[ing] the dynamics of informal online communication in response to extreme events.” She believes “there is still a great deal of skepticism and concern about rumor and misinformation. That is what holds them back” (Sutton, 2013). A 2013 survey by the CNA and the National Emergency Management Association confirms her observation: “Of those surveyed, 59 percent of state emergency management agencies, 55 percent of county emergency management agencies and 41 percent of local response agencies trust social media less than traditional media” (Su et al., 2013). According to the survey “penetration of social media in state, county and local emergency management agencies remains incomplete….” The survey found that all state emergency management agencies use social media in some capacity; 68 percent of county emergency management agencies, and 85 percent of local response agencies. But that “many aspects of social media are still new to many emergency management professionals, especially when it comes to using social media to support real-world events … agencies are primarily treating social media as another means to push information out” (Su et al., 2013). The report concluded that while concerns about the reliability of information communicated through social media have kept emergency managers from fully integrating these tools into their communication planning and practices, “the main barrier to social media use in emergency management agencies is the lack of personnel to take on these additional responsibilities. Less than one in six agencies surveyed that use social media have dedicated social media personnel” (Su et al., 2013). The public has integrated social media into their lives. The fruits of that integration are demonstrated during every disaster. Digital Journalism Professor Sean Mussenden predicts, “Government reluctance to use social media tools is going to change. As more people make this part of their information diet, use traditional channels less, and mobile consumption of news becomes even more popular, they will have to adapt” (Mussenden, 2013). According to Jim Garrow, disaster planner with the Philadelphia Health Department, “Ignoring the state of the world is, for an emergency manager, tantamount to malfeasance. Our greatest lesson learned this year is that we can no longer ignore social media or keep it out of our planning” (Garrow, 2012). The good news is that it looks like that integration is happening: Hurricane Sandy—which devastated the northeast in October 2012—marked a shift in the use of social media by government agencies—an acknowledgement and embrace of social media’s critical role in disasters in disseminating information, connecting people, and controlling rumors. In Sandy, more than ever before, government agencies turned to mobile and online technologies to communicate with the public and response partners (Cohen, 2013).
How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
The Boston Marathon bombings were also considered a watershed event; a moment that marked forever the changed role of social media and the fully participatory public in breaking news events and coverage. The New York Times wrote, “It is America’s first fully interactive national tragedy of the social media age” (Kakutani, 2013). From marathon runners giving their accounts on Facebook, to law enforcement officials using Twitter to give real-time updates and asking for help identifying and capturing the suspects, to The Boston Globe converting its homepage to a live blog that pulled in tweets from Boston authorities, news outlets, and ordinary citizens, social media showed itself to be an indispensable tool with a unique role to play and contribution to make in response to a terrorist attack. Finally, social media tools, including Twitter, Facebook, and photo sharing platforms, were used during both the above events to verify information and dispel rumors. For example, when false reports and images began circulating on the Internet, including a photo of the New York Stock Exchange under 3 feet of water, first responder agencies such as the New York City Fire Department posted messages on Twitter and other social media sites to correct misinformation. FEMA launched a Hurricane Sandy: Rumor Control page, which helped to distinguish the truth from false information about contractors, cash cards, food stamps, and shelters (Cohen, 2013). In Boston, the police used Twitter aggressively to counteract the false claims that were spreading across social networks. For example, on April 17, when, according to Bloomberg Businessweek, “The online news ecosystem was in the midst of a misinformation disaster, with rumors gleaned from the official police scanner and from inaccurate sources on major TV networks … the Boston PD tweeted: “Despite reports to the contrary there has not been an arrest in the Marathon attack.” The department’s tweet clarifying that there was no arrest shortly after the bombings saw more than 11,000 retweets (Keller, 2013). Clearly, social media has proven itself to be a powerful force in shaping and controlling the flow of information during a disaster. So how can social media be best harnessed to benefit emergency management agencies and institutions?
BEST SOCIAL MEDIA PRACTICES FOR EMERGENCY MANAGERS Have active social media accounts in place before the event: People in charge of the organization’s social media during attacks or disasters should have active Twitter, Facebook, and other social media accounts already in place before a crisis occurs. Networks of public followers, organizations, and media allies need to exist before the event: Connections between organizations need to exist ahead
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of time. “From what we can learn from public response to alerts and warnings— theme, style, existing network are all predictors of whether a message will be retweeted” and reach the largest numbers of people possible (Sutton, 2013). Connections to media outlets and journalists are key: They have a team of people to monitor and verify information and send it out to a larger audience. “Not until information gets to someone with a ton of followers does the information reach a broad audience,” according to T. J. Ortenzi at The Washington Post. Newsrooms add value—observed news agencies have more retweets. “They have a broader reach. There is a close correlation between the number of followers as a predictor of retweets” (Sutton, 2013). Be the official source: New technology should not affect this most-essential of Public Information Officer (PIO) functions. “Think of it this way: The PIO’s job hasn’t changed in light of what social media can do, it has simply expanded. Social media is just another tool that the communications professional can use to reach his or her target audience” (Poirier, 2013). Create a joint strategy with other emergency agencies and with media hubs that have many followers to achieve a broader reach: Dr. Sutton advises emergency managers to coordinate and assign agency roles, “Determine who will be tweeting from the scene—who will be retweeting and adding health and safety information, for example.” Tweets during a disaster should come from “cascading messengers” (Sutton, 2013). Have a dedicated person manning the Twitter and Facebook accounts during the disaster and be sure they have clear authority to operate on behalf of their organization: “Take some time to look at how your organization handles information flow. You may find that it’s not your tools, but your processes that need to be improved” (Poirier, 2013). In the Colorado Springs Waldo Canyon Fire, government and emergency agencies worked together—using the same hashtag, consistent messaging, and the same person to manage all accounts, tweeting for the city of Colorado Springs’ mayor, sheriff, county health, police and fire departments—all reaching different followers and creating the broadest network possible (Anderson, 2013). Jacob Anderson, Innovation Analyst for the city of Colorado Springs, who was responsible for managing those accounts during the fire, had this advice for other social media managers: Get a dashboard in place: “Throughout the fire, we used Hootsuite to control the multiple official Colorado Springs Twitter accounts … Having a central dashboard allowed us to post a message simultaneously across all accounts and manage their status all in one location. Many dashboards include analytics to keep track of which posts are having the greatest impact and reaching the most people.” ●
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Respect the community: “In social media, the community decides everything. As the official account, you are a part of the conversation, but you are only one participant. Want to change the hashtag? Good luck—you can’t force people to use your vocabulary. The city is but one source of information in the social media community. Social media has natural hubs and key influencers: Use them well as these can be your greatest asset. If key influencers are misinformed, focus on engaging them. This will provide maximum impact in spreading better information. The community can naturally self-correct: There were several times during the fire when members of the Twitter community corrected erroneous tweets before we (as the “official” Twitter accounts) could get to them. Everyone had a stake in communicating truthfully, so we were all on the same team” (Anderson, 2013). Take advantage of the two-way street: “Gone are the days when the job of a PIO was simply to push information. With today’s technology, PIOs can act as a conduit for information to and from the public. Opening up this two-way dialog during an emergency allows PIOs to get the important, validated information out while taking in new information from their target audience” (Poirier, 2013). Be your own publisher and emergency broadcast system: “Organizations can be their own best advocates. Craig Fugate at FEMA does a fantastic job,” according to The Washington Post’s Ortenzi. Correct rumors: There are consequences if organizations leave them uncountered. Be honest: “Before social media, it was more difficult for PIO organizations to be completely open and transparent during disaster situations. This older model encouraged communications professionals to release only 100 percent confirmed information, while remaining silent on unresolved or unconfirmed issues. Platforms like Facebook and Twitter make it easier for PIOs to quickly obtain, validate, and disseminate information directly to the public. One of the best ways to gain trust and establish authority is to be as honest as possible” (Poirier, 2013). Recruit volunteers: “PIOs and their teams tend to be dramatically understaffed. Many shops don’t have the personnel required to sift through the social media noise that floods in when disaster strikes. Fortunately, there are volunteer organizations that exist purely to fill in the gaps during emergencies, and it’s time more PIOs begin making use of such resources. If you train these individuals on the basics of emergency management and your organization’s unique processes, then you can put them in front of computers and let them help organize information as it comes in. This not only relieves pressure from the PIO, but also ensures that the public is heard and that answers are provided. Volunteers are crucial when it comes to staffing the manpower necessary to ensure the two-way communications street doesn’t become one-way” (Poirier, 2013).
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Lessons from the Waldo Canyon Fire As part of Project H.E.R.O.I.C, a National Science Foundation initiative “to better understand the dynamics of informal online communication in response to extreme events,” researchers at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs and the University of California-Irvin did an analysis of tweets surrounding the June 23, 2012 Waldo Canyon Fire. The fire forced the evacuation of over 32,000 residents from Colorado Springs, Manitou Springs, and Woodland Park and destroyed more than 346 homes. The research team collected over 100,000 tweets that used the hashtag #Waldocanyonfire from more than 25,000 unique Twitter users. As Kim Stephens reported in iDisaster 2.0, “They examined the data based on several factors: time of day Tweets were posted, content, who was posting (citizens or government organizations connected to the response effort) and who was following those accounts. Specifically they asked: Did these accounts have an increase in followers, and if so, what Tweeting behavior led to the greatest increase? Not surprisingly, they found that the more information an organization provides, the more people follow them” (Stephens, 2012). In terms of content, the word “evacuation” was the most often mentioned, as shown in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Infographic showing the frequency of words in tweets during the emergency. Researchers assumed that government information would be retweeted most often during the emergency—what they learned was it was local organizations that saw the largest increase. Source: Project H.E.R.O.I.C.
How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
Based on their findings they drew some conclusions: When an event occurs, local organization gain large numbers of followers. In establishing a social media strategy, a pre-event is important. Organizations should not judge attention-demand for social media during a nonevent periods. Content generation on Twitter varies in a predictable way based on the time of day. Interpreting changes in attention needs to take this diurnal cycle into account. Original content tends to be produced by local organizations, while retweeted content tends to come from nonlocals. Low rates of directed messaging indicate a trend to use Twitter as a broadcast channel more than a conversational channel. The inclusion of URLs may show that these organizations recognize the limitations of information shared via Twitter—perhaps due to the character lengths—requiring links be used to get additional information. Hashtag use indicates these organizations are developing a sophistication in how to participate effectively during a disaster event. ● ●
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Excerpt from: Stephens (2012).
MEDIA RELATIONS 101 Clearly, the infrastructure of news operations and the tools and tactics used to research, build, verify, and tell a story have changed dramatically in the last decade, but the basic rules of engaging and working with the media have not. It is imperative that emergency operation centers (EOCs) and all government and nongovernmental organizations involved in disaster response understand the needs of the media and how to fulfill those needs as an ongoing and well-thought-out part of the response plan that now includes the media and the public as main players in the response.
Tips for Interacting with the Media and the Public To be effective, communicate early and often. Be right and be right there. Be proactive and do not wait to be asked. Be accurate and open. Put what you know—and can sustain factually—out there. Tell the truth and be transparent—admit what you do not know yet—and explain how you plan to get answers to their questions. Do not hold back bad news. Get it out fast—nothing damages credibility faster than not sharing the negative news. No matter what the issue, positive or negative, being open and responsive to the public’s need for accurate information is a priority. Be available—in person or as an office—at all times to answer questions and meet requests. ●
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Let the medium be the message. Use tools that reach the most people the fastest— Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr, Instagram, whatever. Go where the people—and the media—are already. Remember old media can give your tweets, posts, and pictures a much bigger audience. Have accounts and networks already in place before a disaster hits.You cannot build a network in a day or a make a friend when flames are crackling in your ears. Be the trusted, reliable source.
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Getting Emergency Information to—and from—the Media Research has shown that the public’s belief that an emergency response was effective correlates with how much access to information they had during the crisis. The fundamental challenge is speed versus accuracy where both are important. Social Media Hundreds of national and local government agencies—including FEMA and the CDC—have social media accounts and networks. Make sure you have active accounts, and a plan to build your likes and retweets to maximize the reach of your network. Social media is used to: Communicate in real-time, immediate situational awareness. That works to the advantage of first responders, relief providers, the media, and the public. Reach a large number of already connected people who have other networks they will inform. Facilitate interactive communications and community. Build and maintain relationships with the media. Dispel rumors by providing accurate information quickly. Provide website links where reporters and the public can go to get more information. A brief reminder as to why social media should be used to push out information: Mobile use is on the rise. Over 90 percent of Americans have cellphones; 56 percent have smart phones (Ranie, 2013). It is the fastest way to reach the most people. It can be used to push out content and pull in new information. Even though monitoring can be a daunting task, millions of new—and many of them useful— posts, pictures, and videos are added to YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, and other social media platforms every day. So how can a public health, first responder, or emergency management agency sort through all of that data? It can be especially overwhelming, when “less than one in six agencies surveyed that use social media have dedicated social media personnel” (Su ●
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et al., 2013). The first step is to establish objectives: determine why you are listening and what is the expected outcome? Your emergency management organization might decide to specify a number of objectives.
Excerpt from Strategically Monitoring Social Media A post by Kim Stephens, who is the lead blogger on iDisaster 2.0, recommends monitoring social media: To determine if the organization’s message is getting across or if conflicting information (rumors) is being conveyed. To determine public sentiment regarding the organization or, during a crisis, about the overall government’s response effort. To determine the most commonly asked questions and concerns. To quickly answer direct questions, or questions directed at the community political leadership on topics that involve your organization: To determine what other organizations are saying in order to both ensure messages are coordinated and to amplify mission-related content. To determine the extent of damage and impact of the disaster event. The following simple steps for operationalizing your social media monitoring are based on processes described by emergency managers who have made the most of the free tools at their disposal. 1. Create lists and like pages of response partners. 2. Read. 3. Actively ask for information. ●
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Excerpt from: Stephens (2013).
Working with Reporters What Do Reporters Want? Reporters want and need the following: Timely answers to their questions. Access to experts. Visuals to support their news stories. These needs are the same in an emergency, only the time pressure is much greater. When a story is seen as “breaking news,” time becomes paramount. Anticipating questions from the media can help you prepare and respond. ●
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This list of “77 Questions Commonly Asked by Journalists during a Crisis” (Covello, 2002) is included in the Center for Disease Control’s social media tool kit, “SocialMediaWorks.” Journalists are likely to ask six questions in a crisis (who, what, where, when, why, how) that relate to three broad topics: (1) what happened; (2) what caused it to happen; (3) what does it mean. Specific questions include: 1. What is your name and title? 2. What are your job responsibilities? 3. What are your qualifications? 4. Can you tell us what happened? 5. When did it happen? 6. Where did it happen? 7. Who was harmed? 8. How many people were harmed? 9. Are those that were harmed getting help? 10. How certain are you about this information? 11. How are those who were harmed getting help? 12. Is the situation under control? 13. How certain are you that the situation is under control? 14. Is there any immediate danger? 15. What is being done in response to what happened? 16. Who is in charge? 17. What can we expect next? 18. What are you advising people to do? 19. How long will it be before the situation returns to normal? 20. What help has been requested or offered from others? 21. What responses have you received? 22. Can you be specific about the types of harm that occurred? 23. What are the names of those that were harmed? 24. Can we talk to them? 25. How much damage occurred? 26. What other damage may have occurred? 27. How certain are you about damages? 28. How much damage do you expect? 29. What are you doing now? 30. Who else is involved in the response? 31. Why did this happen? 32. What was the cause? 33. Did you have any forewarning that this might happen? 34. Why wasn’t this prevented from happening? 35. What else can go wrong? 36. If you are not sure of the cause, what is your best guess?
How to Adapt to the Changing Media Environment
37. Who caused this to happen? 38. Who is to blame? 39. Could this have been avoided? 40. Do you think those involved handled the situation well enough? 41. When did your response to this begin? 42. When were you notified that something had happened? 43. Who is conducting the investigation? 44. What are you going to do after the investigation? 45. What have you found out so far? 46. Why was more not done to prevent this from happening? 47. What is your personal opinion? 48. What are you telling your own family? 49. Are all those involved in agreement? 50. Are people over-reacting? 51. Which laws are applicable? 52. Has anyone broken the law? 53. How certain are you about whether laws have been broken? 54. Has anyone made mistakes? 55. How certain are you that mistakes have not been made? 56. Have you told us everything you know? 57. What are you not telling us? 58. What effects will this have on the people involved? 59. What precautionary measures were taken? 60. Do you accept responsibility for what happened? 61. Has this ever happened before? 62. Can this happen elsewhere? 63. What is the worst-case scenario? 64. What lessons were learned? 65. Were those lessons implemented? 66. What can be done to prevent this from happening again? 67. What would you like to say to those that have been harmed and to their families? 68. Is there any continuing the danger? 69. Are people out of danger? Are people safe? 70. Will there be inconvenience to employees or to the public? 71. How much will all this cost? 72. Are you able and willing to pay the costs? 73. Who else will pay the costs? 74. When will we find out more? 75. What steps need to be taken to avoid a similar event? 76. Have these steps already been taken? If not, why not? 77. What does this all mean? Source: Covello (2002).
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During an unfolding emergency, media may not react as they usually do. Expect the following: Diminished information verification: Tentative, or even incorrect, information will be broadcast without the usual confirmation from multiple sources. Diminished adversarial role: Journalists are people too. They will have genuine concerns about what is occurring. They will want to help by providing important messages to the public. Do not expect the media to continue this throughout the entire crisis. In the beginning, however, the “them” versus “us” ratio diminishes. An Emergency Operations Center (EOC) for consolidated information is expected for some crises: The media still expects information and official briefings from government officials and agencies from a well-functioning media command center. Inadequate scientific expertise might be a concern: During an event involving technology or engineering (how levees fail, how bombs are built), most media personnel will not have the scientific background to quickly grasp new information or the nuances of that information. Be prepared to fill in the blanks. Do not assume that everyone knows the technical jargon. Use plain language. Start with the basics and bring reporters—and the public—along. Incorporate citizen journalists, eyewitness-generated tweets, postings, photos, and videos: These are very valuable and plentiful during the first moments of a crisis. These enrich and broaden coverage and should be monitored, verified, and integrated into your briefings. Acknowledge what people on the ground are seeing and contributing. Journalists interviewing other media personnel: This will be common throughout the event. The media has hired in-house experts to add dimension to their coverage—and they will use them (CDC, 2012). ●
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Press Conferences and Briefings The media will expect you to set up a command post and to hold press conferences and briefings. Be ready for the press conference to be different than you planned. The following tips may help: Reporters will ask whatever questions they please, despite your directions. Be sure the officials know who will respond to controversial questions. This is the person who will refer the reporter’s question back to the appropriate organization or the subject matter expert. Get agreement from all of the officials involved; if the answer does not fall within the scope of their responsibility, they cannot respond. This may be hard for some of them who may have a good answer to share. Have a backup plan for such glitches as the loss of sound equipment. ●
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Either before the officials enter the room or at the end of the event, tell reporters how to get more information and additional answers. Decide ahead of time if officials are going to do standup media interviews for individual reporters following the event If you allow a standup interview after the press conference, expect radio and print media to surround the television reporter conducting the interview or vice versa. These interviews are really like another small, informal press conference (CDC, 2012). ●
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Using Visuals Make any presentation used in a news conference available to the media on multiple platforms. Try to agree on what will be presented downloadable. ●
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Handouts If possible, have copies of the presentations, useful fact sheets, and backgrounders available. Do not forget to provide background information on the organization, such as a simple mission statement, organizational chart, and basic facts. Have brief speaker bios to handout. This helps build their credibility for reporters and the public who may read about them (CDC, 2012). ●
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Reality Check Record press conferences (at least on audio) if at all possible. It will help with questions and answers after the fact, and is your record of what was said. Do not rely on memory, especially during a crisis. Consider the following tips: Arrange for media monitoring following your conference to see if your messages were clearly reported. Prepare the materials needed to push those messages out as clearly and concisely as possible (CDC, 2012). It is important to understand that reporters will not allow you to simply feed them headlines without asking questions. They will decide what to tell their viewers or listeners about what is occurring. Do not treat them like members of your staff. Offer suggestions, but do not dictate. This will help you establish a cooperative relationship. Keep in mind, reporters may seem sensitive to your needs and requirements. You may think reporters are eager to print only positive news about your organization or agency. The reality is that reporters have an obligation to report the facts objectively, even if they feel those facts are contrary to your organization’s goals. When an issue has national significance, reporters will probably show some distance: Reporters have a job to do, and they will do what it takes to get it done. The relationship between reporters and disaster communicators will be more serious. ●
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No favors should be expected from either side. Remember that it is the journalist’s job to provide balance by looking for alternative perspectives and interpretations of events, and ensuring that other points-ofview receive coverage. Make your points clearly and consistently. Keep it easy for journalists to do their jobs. This enhances the effectiveness of communication during a crisis. If the media present incorrect information, especially if it could be harmful to the public, you should quickly communicate correct information to the public and the media. Expect only limited success in influencing that part of the crisis coverage devoted to debate, discussion, and speculation. This is especially true in the 24-hour news arena. Remember that emergency managers and reporters or commentators see stories from different angles. What seem like facts to you might seem less black-and-white to reporters and commentators (CDC, 2012). Do not ignore the parameters of the journalist’s job; they have space and time to fill, and endless demands for content to meet. One way to destroy effective professional relationships with the media is to ignore their needs. It is imperative that you provide equal access to information and help journalists acquire that information: Distribute messages that are essential to the well-being or safety of the public equally. Use social media and teleconferencing so reporters in remote locations can participate. Give journalists a reasonable timeframe in which new information will be provided. Establish a schedule for information releases. Everyone involved will appreciate some ground rules. Base groundrules on the type and phase of the crisis Be available—if necessary, around the clock—to help reporters get the facts right, before their deadline (CDC, 2012). ●
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KEYS TO ALL SUCCESSFUL MEDIA OUTREACH 1. Relationship building. You will not be dealing with these news organizations just once. You have many stories to tell in many ways. You want to be able to call this reporter again—and you want the reporter to call you for comment on news stories or for background information. Never lie. When you do not know an answer, admit it and tell the reporter you will get back to them. Get back when you say you will. ●
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Try to build personal relations—being followers on Twitter or friends on Facebook is necessary, but not sufficient. 2. Tell the tale well. Use compelling visuals—even for newspaper and magazines. Imagery, action. Use credible, prepared, and attractive messengers. 3. Get the message out. A few strategic rules will help you get the message out: Know the message. What one thing do you want the viewer to remember when you are finished? Say it out loud several times to get the words right before you are on camera. The goal is to go into an interview knowing the exact sound bytes you are going to get out. And no matter what is asked—get those sound bytes out. You are in control—they cannot make you say anything—they can only write/play what you say. Start with your conclusion—that is usually your message. Most of us have been taught to build the case and then reach the logical conclusion—you will not be given enough time in a television interview to do that - Wrong way: “The number of violent storms and extreme weather events are increasing. There are proven, inexpensive ways to save lives and property. That’s why you need to take steps now to prepare for the next natural disaster.” - Right way: “You need to take steps now to prepare for the next natural disaster.” Then if time allows, you can give specifics. But leading with your conclusion will help ensure that the media does not edit out or cut short your message. Keep it short - In the 1960s, the average sound bite was almost 40 seconds long. - In the 1980s, it was about 20 seconds long. - Now, it is about 6 seconds long. - Tweets are 140 characters. If you speak in sound bites longer than that, you increase the odds your message will be edited. The law of diminishing returns applies here too: the longer you talk, the less attention the viewer pays. People remember what they hear first. Remember people want to know what time it is, not how to build the watch. Craft your message with the time constraints of broadcast in mind. What you create for television and radio will work in print; but not the other way around. 4. Be consistent and disciplined. Seize all media opportunities as a chance to repeat yourself. You will be much more likely to cut through the clutter if you are consistent. Odds are people will remember a consistent message of “2222222” better than they will remember a random array of different numbers “3,12,15,99,62,7.” That is the heart of message discipline. ●
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5. Use value-laden language every day. Avoid jargon, acronyms, and talking about process. Use the language and tap into the values of your target audience. People want to protect their loved ones, their homes, and businesses from disasters. 6. Remember who you are talking to—and it is not the reporter. The reporter is not your friend or a debating partner to be convinced. Reporters are a means to an end—you must pass through them to have a conversation with a larger audience not normally available to you—people impacted by a disaster.
Interview Tips Television Interviews Whether you are on a live talk show or being taped for the local evening news, the following tips will help you make the most of a television interview: Pick the right spokesperson: Your spokesperson must first and foremost be somebody who knows the angles of your program and issue well, and has had some experience talking about and debating the topic. His/her belief and commitment to the issue should be immediately apparent. Master the sound byte: A sound byte is a quote or succinct one-liner that summarizes an opinion in a colorful but simple manner. Since there is a lot of competition for airtime, it is essential that sound bytes be kept to 15 seconds. As with quotes in press releases, lead with the conclusion since that is the bite you want them to take. The less editing that must be done by the television producer, the better. Avoid jargon, use analogies, and be personal by explaining how the issue affects this particular audience. Be brief and direct. Know your show: Before you have your interview, you should watch several episodes of the talk show or news broadcast to familiarize yourself with the program and with the type of questions your interviewer might ask. Also talk to the booker or producer ahead of time about the overall format of the show, including whether your interview is taped or live and if there will be a studio audience. If you are on a talk show, find out if there are other guests and the order of their appearance. Know your message: Before the interview, know the main points you want to make. Anticipate questions but do not over-rehearse—you want to sound natural. Steer the interview toward the points you want to make before time runs out. You can take notes with you to the set, but do not read from them on the air. Reiterate your points: Make an effort to repeat your major point over and over, especially in taped interviews. Remember that portions of the interview may be edited, and you do not want to risk having your main point edited out. Take advantage of pauses in the interview to make your point. You have a right to complete your answers, so if you are interrupted, politely and firmly insist on finishing your answer. Request clarification if you are asked a question you do not understand, and do not fudge facts and figures. Bring visuals along if they will help make your point more memorable. ●
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Pay attention to body language: Avoid exaggerated hand movements, tapping your foot, saying “you know” and “uh” a lot and clearing your throat. If you are sitting, sit upright, lean slightly forward, and never cross your legs. Look at the interviewer, not the camera. Use moderate hand gestures, smile, and nod. Remember that everything you do will be magnified. Assume you are always on camera: Even if you think the camera is focusing on someone else, act like you are on camera at all times. Do not say anything, even jokingly, that could be taken out of context or picked up and used out of context. When you are in the studio, assume the cameras are always rolling. Dress carefully: Women should dress in solid-colored, simple suits or dresses. Avoid light colors, busy patterns, sparkling or noisy jewelry, and heavy makeup. If doing an in-studio interview, men should stick with light blue shirts and dark suits. Otherwise dress accordingly, look professional but do not overdress. Ties should not have wild colors. Both men and women should avoid clothes that are uncomfortable or that rustle and make noise against a microphone. Contact lenses are preferred over glasses.
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Appearing on Television 1. Television is visual! So be visually likable! People make up their mind about you in the first 10 seconds—it’s appearance, personae. Being nice, polite, and likeable is the key. Look presentable. Wear something appropriate to the location. Always wear a tie—unless out in the woods or in the rain. It shows respect. Do not wear loud colors/prints (red is bad, light blue is good), large jewelry, or anything with small prints or narrow stripes (even ties). Look sharp, respectful, and like the good guy. Hair needs to be combed. No hats or caps. Makeup should be worn (men too), even if it is just a little powder to reduce shine or to cover a sweaty forehead. Some camera crews carry makeup with them, but do not count on it. If you wear glasses, try nonreflective lenses, otherwise the cameraman may ask if you can remove them. Do not wear sunglasses. Make sure you do not have a piece of lettuce on the front of your teeth. Posture: leaning back in the chair makes you seem pompous. Sitting on the edge of the chair makes you seem engaged. It forces you to sit up straight—which seems engaged. It also allows you plenty of air to speak loudly—so you have presence. It fixes many problems. If legs are under the table, do not cross them. No moving around, bouncing, fidgeting, wiggling, or squirming. If hand gestures are needed, keep movements small and controlled. Be friendly—smile. And do not raise the tone of your voice. Imagine you are debating your grandmother. You are always nice and never condescending or ●
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angry or feeling like you have to pick up the pace. Once you turn slightly rabid, you lose no matter what. This also means no finger pointing. Would you try to intimidate grandmother? Smile, be polite, and very nice. Turn your torso towards the other person. This gives them your full attention and looks very respectful. Turning just your head can appear disdainful, sarcastic, etc. Make eye contact with and talk to the reporter. Do not look at the camera (unless you are participating in an interview via satellite). Do not lose eye contact with the other person. If they are talking and you are framing your next answer in your head, the tendency is to be looking down or away. This is rude. So keep eye contact at ALL times. Assume the camera is on you all the time. Do not be preparing notes, looking at your watch, etc. When you are not talking, still have your torso turned to who is speaking, on the edge of your chair, complete with eye contact. Background: Do not stand in front of a blank wall. If you are inside, make sure there is a sign or a poster behind you. If you are outside, almost anything works as long as it relates to the issue. Wherever you are do not stand in front of another organization’s signs. 2. How you sound is important too! Empathize with others. Frame answers so you show your empathy in a real way. Slow down—a universal problem for almost all of us. Anticipate the questions. Try to get the questions ahead of time. Have your sound bytes ready for response and know how you will use the question to get your sound byte. Do not turn away from the reporter or microphone while speaking. Be prepared to stop/wait/repeat yourself if there is an interruption (i.e., plane, loud truck). Avoid um, er, like, etc. No one-word answers. If a reporter asks a question that can be answered with yes or no, repeat the question in your answer. Do not lecture; be conversational. Politely correct the reporter if they have their facts wrong. Speak with the reporter beforehand and craft the sound byte to fit what they need. You do not need to be right on top of the microphone, but do not turn away from it while speaking. 3. Practice, practice, practice. Say it out loud in front of the mirror. Have others role play with you—it will also help you anticipate the questions. Tape and review the media work you do. It is the best way to improve. ●
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REFERENCES ARC Centre for Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, 2011. (Science Alert. Twitter Helping with Floods. 19 January 2011.
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