Human-carnivore conflicts and mitigation options in Qinghai province, China

Journal Pre-proof Human-Carnivore Conflicts and Mitigation Options in Qinghai Province, China Yunchuan Dai, Diqiang Li

PII:

S1617-1381(19)30182-7

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2019.125776

Reference:

JNC 125776

To appear in:

Journal for Nature Conservation

Received Date:

17 May 2019

Revised Date:

17 November 2019

Accepted Date:

20 November 2019

Please cite this article as: Dai Y, Li D, Human-Carnivore Conflicts and Mitigation Options in Qinghai Province, China, Journal for Nature Conservation (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2019.125776

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Published by Elsevier.

Human-Carnivore Conflicts and Mitigation Options in Qinghai Province, China

Yunchuan Dai, Diqiang Li* [email protected] Chinese Academy of Forestry

*Corresponding

author

Abstract Human-carnivore conflicts often result in reduced tolerance by local communities for

ro of

long-term carnivore species conservation. Increasing conflicts and inefficient resolutions exacerbate fear for personal safety and loss of property. Effective resolution to mitigate conflict is of top

priority for carnivore management and conservation. Understanding human-carnivore conflict

patterns in highly affected areas is imperative for designing and implementing effective mitigation

-p

measures. We analyzed the current status and patterns of human-carnivore conflicts in Qinghai

province based on reported incidents from January 2014 through December 2017. The results show

re

that: (1) a total of 7,494 incidents were reported, with $4,030,918 USD paid to victims as compensation over the 4 year period; (2) 27 counties reported incidents, primarily in Zhiduo (n =

lP

4,296, 57%); (3) conflict types consisted of livestock depredation, house break-ins and attacks on humans; (4) all attacks on humans and house break-ins were caused by brown bears, while most livestock depredation was caused by wolves; (5) autumn is the peak season for reports of livestock

na

predation and house break-in incidents, while summer is the peak season for reports of attacks on humans; and (6) conflict areas were primarily found in or adjacent to national parks. We propose various measures and research options to mitigate human-carnivore conflicts with snow leopards,

ur

wolves and brown bears, including a wildlife damage compensation program, electric fences, bear spray, diversionary feeding and ceasing small mammal poisoning. If shown to be effective, these

Jo

measures could be applied to conflict reduction efforts and wildlife conservation planning across the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, particularly in regions with high biodiversity. Keywords coexistence; compensation; house break-ins; livestock depredation; brown bear; wolf

1 Introduction

Conflicts involving carnivore species are referred to as ‘human-carnivore conflicts’, and such conflicts were commonly partitioned into two components: (i) impacts that deal with the direct interactions between humans and carnivore species; and (ii) conflicts that centre on human interactions between those seeking to conserve species and those with opposing goals (Redpath et al., 2013). The human-carnivore conflicts threaten the livelihood of people and has significant consequences for species survival (Teel et al., 2010; Hewitt, 2004; Chase et al., 2017; Dai et al., 2019a; Dai et al., 2019b). This conflict is widely recognized as one of the most challenging issues for species preservation and is anticipated to increase in severity (Dickman, 2010; Kansky & Knight, 2014; Dai et al., 2019a; Dai et al., 2019b). Carnivore attacks on humans and their property are a primary driver of conflict and carnivore species decline globally (Miller et al., 2015 a, b).

ro of

Although problems have been well known for many years, increasing conflict in regions with high biodiversity indicates that improved strategies are urgently needed (Dickman et al., 2010;

Dorresteijn et al., 2014; Goswami et al., 2015; Van et al., 2017; Morehouse et al., 2018). Humancarnivore conflicts emerge when humans and carnivores share the same limited habitats and

resources (Oseiowusu & Bakker, 2008; Dai et al., 2019b). Humans have greatly dominated these

-p

landscapes, with every ecosystem on earth being influenced by anthropogenic activities, causing

re

carnivores to exploit new human resources to survive (Strum, 2010; Samojlik et al., 2018). Human-carnivore conflicts result in negative outcomes for humans or their resources, and carnivores and their habitats (Garshelis et al., 1999; Can et al., 2014; Lamichhane et al., 2018).

lP

Conflicts types occasionally include human injury and death (White & Ward, 2010; Pozsgai, 2017), livestock depredation (Peterson et al., 2010; Meinecke et al., 2018), crop raiding (Liu et al., 2010),

na

and disease transmission (DeCandia et al., 2018). For carnivores, consequences include removal, retaliatory killing, and reduced tolerance for coexistence, which can lead to population decline, fragmentation (Proctor et al., 2012), and elevated conservation concerns (Dickman, 2010; Li et al.,

ur

2013). Human attacks by endangered carnivores that are legally protected are especially controversial (Prasad et al., 2016). Human-carnivore coexistence strategies are difficult to

Jo

understand and manage, as they can be influenced by many factors, including religion, cultural and economic value of wildlife body parts, and the financial losses stemming from the conflict (Dickman, 2010; Li et al., 2013). Nonlethal responses such as insurance (Marino et al., 2016), compensation programs (Baker et

al., 2000; Karanth et al., 2013; Ravenelle & Nyhus, 2017; Morehouse et al., 2018; Bautista et al., 2019), and mitigation efforts such as physical deterrents (Huygens et al., 1999; Baker et al., 2000; Kioko et al., 2008; Van et al., 2016) have been proposed and implemented to foster human2

carnivore coexistence. For instance, wildlife damage compensation programs were introduced by the European Union to farmers to mitigate livestock losses from wolves (Fourli, 1999); Nagano prefecture in central Japan adopted electric fences to reduce Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) depredation during 1997 and 1998 (Huygens et al., 1999). Typically, efficacy of such measures is uncertain in practice due to lack of detailed knowledge regarding patterns and factors driving conflicts (Treves & Karanth, 2010). Carnivore managers should understand conflict patterns, investigate the drivers that cause conflict, and employ a mix of strategies involving nonlethal modification of carnivore behavior and encouragement of proactive community action to reduce conflicts (Treves & Karanth, 2010). For example, Proctor (2018) researched the causes of humanbear conflicts, applied a range of cause-specific reduction methods, and documented measurable

ro of

conservation improvements for small threatened brown bear (U. arctos) populations in western North America. Use of such a step-wise assessment to understand patterns of human-carnivore conflicts is a crucial step towards determining solutions and developing specific conservation implications and policies (Dickman et al., 2010).

-p

On the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, conflicts between local communities and carnivores are frequent (Worthy & Foggin, 2008; Li et al., 2013; Alexander et al., 2015; Dai et al., 2019a; Dai et al., 2019b;

re

Dai et al., 2019c). These are mainly associated with Tibetan brown bears (U. a. pruinosus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), wolf (Canis lupus linnaeus), lynx (Felis lynx), Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Conflict types primarily include carnivores preying on

lP

livestock (Dawa et al., 2006; Li et al., 2013; Alexander et al., 2015; Dai et al., 2019a; Dai et al., 2019b) and brown bears breaking into herders’ houses and tents in search of food (Fiona & Foggin

na

2008; Dai et al., 2019a; Dai et al., 2019b; Dai et al., 2019c). In Qinghai province, the majority of herders have expressed high concern for brown bears, as they pose the greatest threat to their physical safety (Worthy & Foggin, 2008; Dai et al., 2019c). With the goal of reducing human-

ur

carnivore conflict events in Qinghai province (Worthy & Foggin, 2008; Li et al., 2013; Alexander et al., 2015; Dai et al., 2019b; Dai et al., 2019c), we analyzed the current status of human-carnivore

Jo

conflict events based on reported incidents, and proposed multi-pronged mitigation strategies to reduce conflict occurrence.

2 Material and Methods 2.1 Study area

3

Qinghai province (between 89°35′ and 103°04′E, 31°39′ and 39°19′N) is located on the northeastern side of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China (Figure 1). Much of Qinghai’s geography consists of mountains and high plateaus with an average elevation of approximately 3,000 m. The Yellow River originates in the southern part of the province, while the Yangtze and Mekong have their sources in the southwestern region. The area contains one of the greatest concentrations of biodiversity among the world’s high altitude regions. There are 103 mammal species nationally protected by the Chinese government. Representative ungulates include Tibetan antelope, Tibetan gazelle, Tibetan wild ass, wild yak, and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) (Han et al., 2018). Dominant carnivores include brown bear, snow leopard, wolf and dhole (Cuon alpinus) (Han et al., 2018). Sanjiangyuan National Park (SNP), China’s first pilot national park established in 2016, also lies

ro of

here and encompasses about 123,000 km2, 14 times larger than Yellowstone National Park (Dai et al., 2019d). A variety of alpine flora and fauna are unique to this region (Shen & Tan, 2012). Hence the irreplaceability of local ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity makes the conservation of biodiversity in this region even more important. On the western side is the plateau basin; herds of cattle, yak, horse, and sheep represent the province’s major source of wealth. The population of

-p

Qinghai province is 5.29 million as of November 1, 2010, based on the sixth population census of

re

China.

Qinghai is a province with high incidence of human-carnivore conflicts in China, and there were no wildlife damage compensation programs until 2012. In order to strengthen the protection of

lP

carnivores and reduce herders’ economic loss, the Qinghai provincial government and Qinghai Forestry and Grassland Administration launched the Wildlife Damage Compensation Program

na

(WDCP) in 2012. The program was piloted in Delingha city, Wulan county, Tianjun county, Qilian county, Qumalai county, and Zaduo county. In 2013, the pilot areas covered Delingha city, Wulan county, Tianjun county, Qilian county, Chengduo county, and Qumalai county. WDCP expanded

ur

the program to all of Qinghai province in 2014. 2.2 Data source

Jo

Data on human-carnivore conflict events (from January 2014 through December 2017) were

obtained from the WDCP database provided by the Qinghai Forestry and Grassland Administration. Victims or witnesses reported losses from carnivores through applications to the local wildlife reserve office or forest police station primarily to claim compensation. Investigation groups would then go to the field to collect evidence (bite mark, footprint, hair, etc.). Local authorities annually submitted these evidence and case files (records, photographs and damage assessment report, etc.) to higher authorities. Conflict incidents were finally verified by higher authorities and compensation 4

released as per the guidelines. We collected relevant data from the summarized case files. Compensation data included information on incident date, location, damage species, damage category, and compensation amount. Compensation was borne by three parties - provincial government (50 %), prefectural government (25 %), and county government (25 %). 2.3 Data analysis Conflict incidents reported from each region were summarized and analyzed in Excel 2010. Data were categorized into three types of losses - livestock depredation (yak, sheep, goat and horse), house break-ins (wall, doors, windows, furniture, food, and daily supplies), and attacks on

ro of

human (death and injury).

3 Results

3.1 Overall patterns for human-carnivore conflict occurrences

Between January 2014 and December 2017, 7,494 human-carnivore conflict incidents were

-p

reported. Of these, 6,477 incidents were livestock attacks, 1,003 were house break-ins and 14 were human attacks. In total, $4,030,918 USD was paid to victims as compensation over the entire

re

period. The number of counties/cities involved increased from 13 in 2014 to 22 in 2017 suggesting a geographical expansion in conflicts. Annual compensation increased from $145,048 USD in 2012

lP

to $2,263,227 USD in 2017, a 15 fold increase (Table 1).

na

A total of 27 counties in Qinghai province reported conflict events, mainly in Zhiduo (n = 4,296, 57.3 %), Qumalai (n = 860, 11.5 %), Qilian (n = 796, 10.6 %), and Nangqian (n = 740, 9.9 %) (Table 2). Some areas of these counties are distributed within or close to national parks.

ur

Specifically, parts of Zhiduo and Qumalai are located in Sanjiangyaun National Park, and Nangqian county borders Sanjiangyaun National Park. Parts of Qilian county are located in Qilianshan

Jo

National Park.

3.2 Livestock depredation The number of reported human-carnivore conflict incidents in Zhiduo was higher than other areas of Qinghai province. Livestock depredation was common at 3,606 incidents reported from January 2014 to December 2017, culminating in a total of 4,948 losses, including 2,917 5

sheep/goats, 1,988 yaks and 43 horses. Sheep/goat were most predated, accounting for 59.3% of total livestock loss, followed by yak and horse, which accounted for 40.4% and 0.9% of the total loss of livestock, respectively. The number of confirmed livestock losses to wolves was 4,849, which took 98.0% responsibility. Snow leopards and brown bears only caused 80 and 19 livestock losses, which contributed 1.6% and 0.4%, respectively (Table 3). The annual trend of reported livestock depredation incidents in Zhiduo followed an upward trajectory (Figure 2a). There were 210 reported livestock depredation incidents in 2014, 345 in 2015, 950 in 2016 and 2,101 in 2017. The number of reported livestock depredation incidents in 2017 was about 10 times that in 2014. The season with the highest reported rate was autumn (September, October and November; n = 1,515, 42.01 %), followed by summer (June, July and (December, January and February; n = 422, 11.7 %) (Figure 2b).

-p

3.3 House break-in damage

ro of

August; n = 1,194, 33.11 %), spring (March, April and May; n = 475, 13.17 %) and winter

From January 2014 to December 2017, Zhiduo reported a total of 685 incidents of house

re

break-ins caused by brown bears. The main losses were doors/windows (n = 243, 35.5%), followed by furniture (n = 144, 21.0%), daily supplies (n = 141, 20.6%), wall (n = 93, 13.6%), and food (n =

lP

64, 9.3%) (Table 4). Brown bears break into homes by destroying doors and windows and occasionally a wall. In the process of searching for food (e.g., flour, yak butter, meat, and livestock

na

fodder), daily supplies (e.g., cabinets, shelves, teapots, bowls and calfskin bags) are damaged.

ur

The annual trend of house break-ins incidents in Zhiduo annually increased (Figure 3a). There were 84 reported house break-in incidents in 2014, 126 in 2015, 180 in 2016 and 295 in 2017. The

Jo

number of reported house break-in incidents in 2017 was about 3.5 times that in 2014. The season with the highest reported rate was autumn (September, October and November; n = 294, 42.92 %), followed by summer (June, July and August; n = 229, 33.43 %), spring (March, April and May; n = 137, 20 %) and winter (December, January and February; n = 25, 3.65 %) (Figure 3b).

3.4 Human attacks 6

14 human attack incidents caused by brown bears were reported in Qinghai province from January 2015 and December 2017. Among them, 6 incidents occurred during house break-ins and 8 occurred on pasture. There was no obvious trend for human attack incidents (Table 1). The season with the highest reported rate was summer (June, July and August; n = 6, 42.86 %), followed by spring (March, April and May; n = 5, 35.71 %) and autumn (September, October and November; n = 3, 21.43 %). There was no human attack incidents reported in winter.

4 Discussion 4.1 Characteristics of human-carnivore conflicts

ro of

4.1.1 Human-carnivore conflict types and incidents reporting season

According to the reported incidents from the database of WDCP, we found three representative types of human-carnivore conflicts in Qinghai province: livestock depredation, attacks on humans, and house break-ins. Compared with livestock losses attributed to wolves, snow leopards and brown

-p

bears caused much lower loss. Wolves clearly pose the most serious threat to livestock in Qinghai province. However, the number of reported incidents for livestock depredation may be biased by

re

local herders' preference for wild animals. Local herders, for example, generally have higher tolerance for snow leopards than wolves (Li et al., 2013), so livestock depredation caused by snow

lP

leopards may be not fully reported. All attacks on humans and house break-ins were caused by brown bears, likely because brown bears are omnivorous and attracted to human-sourced foods unlike other carnivores who seek prey (Xu et al., 2006; Can et al., 2014). Brown bear raiding

na

probability may be also directly related to the ready availability of accessible food. Herders in Qinghai province store food in their permanent winter houses over the summer while they are away. Over time, brown bears have learned to exploit this novel food resource.

ur

Autumn is the peak season for reports of livestock predation and house break-in incidents. This is because herders begin to move from summer pastures to winter pastures in autumn and livestock

Jo

tend to stray during the movement, which gives carnivores hunting opportunities. In addition, since most of the permanent winter houses are uninhabited during the summer, the herders who live far away in the summer pastures do not know whether their houses are damaged or not. Although some herders would irregularly go back to the winter pasture to check the house for any damage, most herders would report the house damages to the government when they return to winter houses in the autumn. Summer is the peak season for reports of human attack incidents, as herders often move around in remote areas during the summer, while summer is also the season for digging Chinese 7

caterpillar fungus and picking mushrooms, increasing the chance that herders encounter brown bears in the mountains. 4.1.2 The most feared species threatening human life In Qinghai province, brown bears have been the most dangerous species for humans (Worthy & Foggin, 2008; Han et al., 2018; Dai et al., 2019c). They not only predate livestock, but also break into houses and occasionally attack people. Most local herders will tolerate wildlife preying on freerange livestock, but injury to people and personal homesteads are harder to accept (Dawa et al., 2006). Currently, local herders have adopted a variety of strategies to reduce conflict with bears, such as using herd dogs, setting up scarecrows, lighting firecrackers, strengthening doors and walls and building fences around homes (Han et al., 2018). When families move to their summer

ro of

pastures, economic losses that could be caused by bears to their winter homes can be decreased in a number of ways. These include placing 24-hour solar-powered radios in winter homes to create the illusion that the house is inhabited, leaving doors and windows open, carrying all food with them when moving to summer pastures, asking relatives to keep watch of their houses, and putting iron

-p

nail plates around houses (Worthy & Foggin, 2008; Han et al., 2018; Dai et al., 2019b; Dai et al., 2019c).

re

4.1.3 Primary conflict areas

Conflicts caused by carnivores are primarily found in counties within or adjacent to national

lP

parks, such as Zhiduo, Qumalai and Nangqian. This might be related to the richness of biodiversity in national parks, although these areas offer some degree of refuge to carnivores from human

na

disturbance and are vital for carnivore species conservation, many have insufficient resources to harbor large populations of carnivore species (Dai et al., 2019c). Carnivores often find readilyavailable food sources in areas of herder settlement that border national parks (Teel et al., 2010).

ur

Meanwhile, Zhiduo, Qumalai and Nangqian county constitute a large proportion of continuous alpine meadow patches, which provided suitable habitat for large carnivores (Xu et al., 2006; Figure

Jo

1). As a result, human-carnivore conflicts tend to be more common in these regions. 4.1.4 The trend in reported human-carnivore conflict events As WDCP expanded to the whole of Qinghai province in 2014, herders gradually realized that

they could minimize the financial burden of losses by reporting incidents. As herders’ consciousness of protection rights increased, the number of reported incidents likely intensified. In addition, changes in herders’ practices may have also contributed to an increase in conflict. Herders have gradually changed their grazing methods and lifestyle from nomadism to settlement. This has 8

induced the evolution from traditional (all-day guarding livestock) to semi-traditional (driving livestock back into fenced enclosures in the evening) management, which provide carnivores with more opportunity to prey on livestock and damage property. Alternatively, carnivore conflicts may have increased over the past few years as a result of the removal of guns from herders, plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) poisoning (starting in1958 the Chinese government launched a massive poisoning campaign aimed to control or eradicate populations of plateau pikas across the QinghaiTibet Plateau), heightened pressure on pasture quality through increased human livestock numbers, and effective wildlife management and conservation policies targeted at protecting threatened native species (Smith & Foggin, 1999; Dawa et al., 2006; Badingqiuying et al., 2016). Even though the number of reported incidents is growing, the true number of human-carnivore

ro of

conflict incidents is likely higher. First, WDCP did not cover the entirety of Qinghai province until 2014. Second, some herders may not have reported incidents as they are influenced by their Tibetan buddhist faith, in which carnivores such as snow leopards are viewed favorably (Li et al., 2013), or

4.2 Conservation implications

re

4.2.1 Wildlife Damage Compensation Program

-p

failed to obtain the evidence necessary for a successful compensation case.

Even though compensation programs are criticized (Alexander et al., 2015; Ravenelle &

lP

Nyhus, 2017) due to major flaw such as lack of clear guidelines, insufficient or delayed payments, inefficient administrative procedures, and failure to evaluate damage verification protocols (Nyhus et al., 2005; Alexander et al., 2015; Marino et al., 2016; Ravenelle & Nyhus, 2017; Bautista et al.,

na

2019), it is still one potential avenue to increase tolerance for wildlife while minimizing financial losses people incur when wildlife prey on livestock and damage property (Baker et al., 2000; Boitani et al., 2010; Pettigrew et al., 2012; Karanth et al., 2013). For cases in which wild animals

ur

caused minor damage, there is lower probability for herders to report and call for compensation. Herders, however, could retaliate against wild animals once the damage goes beyond their scope of

Jo

acceptance (Dawa et al., 2006). Hence, compensation programs play a particularly important role in supporting herders that live in high conflict areas within national park boundaries. Herders in Qinghai province currently receive relatively low compensation at about only half of the animals’ market value, and compensation claims are complex, so some victims may choose not to report incidents (Dai et al., 2019b). Low reporting rates are not conducive to wildlife protection (Miller et al., 2015).

9

To avoid the flaws of traditional compensation programs, responsible agencies should involve multiple parties, improve the acquisition of evidence, guide herders to legally protect their rights and interests, and assess the monetary impact of livestock depredation and house break-ins in order to understand the consequences on loss of income and whether current compensation schemes are appropriate (Alexander et al., 2015; Dai et al., 2019b). In addition, local governments should be proactive, focus on prevention-based policies and periodically evaluate the effectiveness of compensation programs in an adaptive manner (Bautista et al., 2019). With this purpose and to identify further solutions for conflict mitigation, we call for a Qinghai-Tibet Plateau database of wildlife damage occurrence, management actions and associated costs. Furthermore, it should be noted that while compensation programs have a place in a more comprehensive conflict mitigation

ro of

strategy, they do not directly implement actions that reduce conflicts in the first place, and thus need to be accompanied by management actions that provide effective means to prevent negative interactions between humans and wildlife.

4.2.2 Mitigation strategies for reducing human-carnivore conflict

-p

So far, no conservation conflict has ever been fully resolved in the sense that conflict is

eliminated (Redpath et al., 2013). However, there are a range of non-lethal measures that have to

re

varying degrees been successful at minimizing human-carnivore conflicts (Woodroffe et al., 2005; Linnell et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2011; Proctor et al., 2018). Hence, we propose some potential

lP

mitigation options for diminishing the number and severity of incidents between local herders and carnivores, including effective electric fences, guard dogs, steel bins, bear spray, diversionary feeding and the halting of plateau pika poisoning. Such measures focus on mitigating conflicts with

na

snow leopards, wolves, and brown bears.

Properly designed and constructed electric fences are affordable and effective at protecting

ur

houses (as well as the resources and individuals inside) from brown bear intrusions and can also protect penned livestock from snow leopard and wolf depredation (Smith et al., 2000; Baker et al., 2008). These have been effective in many parts of the world (Huygens & Hayashi, 2000; Ambarli &

Jo

Bilgin, 2008; Proctor et al., 2018). Carnivores shocked by contact with such fences might also be dissuaded from approaching houses and corrals in the future. Failures of previous electric fencing trials on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau have been due to a number of technical issues (possibly grounding issues in the arid soils), not a failure of electric fences per se. We recommend that the fences have sufficient strands (e.g., 8 alternating hot and cold wires) so that carnivores cannot crawl under or go over, and that any contact with the fence yields a shock. Standard electric fencing is reliant on a ground stake to complete the circuit, but this may fail in arid conditions like those of 10

Qinghai province due to poor conductivity through the soil (from the carnivores’ feet to the ground stake). We therefore recommend a lower wire touching the ground along the whole fence, so the circuit is completed across just a few centimeters from where the carnivore species is standing when its nose touches the fence. We also recommend that an electric fencing professional be brought in to initially train the team of local people that will build and maintain the fences. Guard dogs are commonly used to protect livestock from predator attacks (Van & Johnson, 2015). The idea of using dogs to provide predator protection for livestock is an ancient concept (Smith et al., 2000). The actual techniques of using dogs as guardians are thoroughly described in a collection of papers written in 150 BC on Roman farm management (Coppinger & Coppinger, 1993). In contemporary society, livestock guardian dogs have been effectively used against bear,

ro of

wolf and cheetah (Smith et al., 2000). However, the untrained Tibetan mastiffs have been used by herders on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau with limited success. This area would benefit from bettertrained dogs, such as German shepherd dog (Canis lupus familiaris) that could effectively protect free-ranging livestock and herders (Fuchs et al., 2005; Van & Johnson, 2015).

-p

Steel bins have been used in North America for protecting stored food from bears (Schirokauer & Boyd, 1998). Once purchased, bins require no maintenance or special training to operate. Bins

re

could be small and used for each house, or large and shared by multiple families. Both would be effective at preventing bears from accessing food. However, bins would not deter bears from

lP

entering homes and destroying property inside. However, without a food reward inside of the home, break-in behavior may cease over time. Houses would benefit from the installation of electrical fences to prevent further invasions.

na

Bear spray, containing capsaicin, a hot pepper that is incapacitating when sprayed into the nose and eyes, is a common effective bear deterrent in North America (Smith et al., 2011; Miller et al.,

ur

2019). It is an important safety measure for people working and recreating in areas occupied by brown bears (Smith et al., 2011). Bears are quickly repelled by the irritating hot pepper when sprayed directly into their eyes and nose. When used during a close encounter with a bear, the

Jo

animal typically flees as opposed to fights. These interactions over time may alter future behavior by reducing boldness and propensity of the bear to approach people. Bear spray is not currently available (or legal) in China, but could be manufactured in country and made legal for use by local people. This would provide a protective measure from a bear attack, and would establish fear of people.

11

Diversionary feeding is commonly used in some European countries to mitigate bear conflicts (Kubasiewicz et al., 2016). The concept is to provide a readily available food that substitutes for the sustenance bears seek in and around human dwellings. The provisioned food diverts the bears and retrains them to consume this resource instead. However, provisioned food must be continually available and of equal or higher value (calories and taste) than the food available in houses. Diversionary feeding would be a short-term strategy to alter bear behavior while deterrent mechanisms are put in place, or could be a longer-term strategy to ensure that bears stay away from people. Diversionary feeding must be used cautiously to avoid artificially increasing the numbers of bears in an area, and should provide a high-quality alternate food not normally found in people’s homes (e.g., corn). The devices should be applied in combination with other management tools such

ro of

as electric fencing (Kaplan et al., 2011), or repellant devices (Conover, 2002), and patterned after programs used successfully elsewhere. We recommend careful attention to where such feeders are located (i.e., in places near perpetual problem sites, which need to be identified prior to

implementation). We also recommend that experiments initially be conducted with a few feeders to

-p

test whether they function to attract and divert bears.

The on-going pika poisoning program should cease, as there is no evidence suggesting that the

re

objectives of the pika poisoning program have been achieved (Pech et al., 2007; Delibes-Mateos et al., 2011), and mounting research has shown that pikas provide important ecological services to local biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (Schaller, 1998; Smith & Foggin, 1999; Wilson &

lP

Smith, 2014). Being that natural food diversity for brown bears in Qinghai province is limited with virtually no natural fruits, it stands to reason that stopping the poisoning of plateau pikas (and

na

marmots) would increase natural food availability for bears. This in turn should lessen bear motivation for human-related foods. This should be studied in more depth via a control area where plateau pika poisoning is stopped, and bear behavior is recorded. Further, it would be useful to map

ur

past plateau pika poisoning efforts and compare them to patterns of conflict sites. We believe it is imperative to not only initiate the above mitigation actions, but also to

Jo

concurrently conduct more research of brown bears as they are the most feared species threatening human life in Qinghai province. Research efforts should specifically be aimed at: Gaining knowledge of the number (and percent) of bears involved in human-carnivore

conflicts. This information would be useful in understanding whether many or just a few bears need retraining. Methodology could include the use of camera traps (bears seem to have unique coat color patterns that make them recognizable) and hair-snares (e.g., strands of barbed wire to collect hair for DNA-based individual identification) to identify individuals. These noninvasive collection 12

tools could be placed at diversionary feeding sites, electric fencing sites, and across a larger area to estimate the percentage of conflict bears. Multi-year monitoring efforts would be useful in determining any changes in bear behavior. Monitoring brown bear population trends. This would be helpful in understanding impact of food-diversity and availability on bears abundance, and provide guidance for mitigation actions in the future. One way of accomplishing this would be noninvasive genetics to look at individual identification and abundance. Individuals could be identified by extracting DNA from samples of bear scat, urine and hair. Another method would be the implementation of sign surveys to document and estimate abundance based on recorded occurrences of bear scat, footprints, hair, and dens. A third method would be Mark and Recapture using camera trapping followed by individual

ro of

identification of individuals via unique markings.

Testing the effectiveness of the mitigation actions. This would allow for an adaptive

management program whereby improvements can be made and failures readily addressed. Such especially on the spatial distribution of bear problems).

re

5 Conclusions

-p

testing requires a solid understanding of the current situation (i.e., gathering baseline information,

The reported incidents of human-carnivore conflicts have soared in the past 4 years, inflicting

lP

significant economic losses on herding households victimized by this conflict. Therefore it is urgent that measures be taken to address these human-carnivore conflicts. While herders single out brown bears as the most serious wildlife problem on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, conflicts involve nearly all

na

large predators (Dawa et al., 2006). As the widespread return of wildlife to suburban America in recent years has shown, it is possible for humans and many wildlife species to coexist with minimal conflict (DeStefano 2003; Dawa et al., 2006), however, much work will be required before a similar

ur

balance is achieved in Qinghai province. We proposed some specific measures to mitigate conflicts caused primarily by snow leopards, wolves and brown bears, and advocate that these measures

Jo

could be applied to the wildlife conservation planning in other regions.

Declaration of interests

13

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Jo

ur

na

lP

re

-p

ro of

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:

14

References Ambarli, H., & Bilgin, C. C. (2008). Human–Brown Bear conflicts in Artvin, Northeastern Turkey: Encounters, Damage, and Attitudes. Ursus, 19(2), 146–153. https://doi:10.2192/1537-617619.2.146 Alexander, J., Chen, P., Damerell, P., Youkui, W., Hughes, J., Shi, K., & Riordan, P. (2015). Human wildlife conflict involving large carnivores in Qilianshan, China and the minimal paw–print of snow leopards. Biological Conservation, 187, 1–9. https://doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2015.04.002 Baker, P. J., Boitani, L., Harris, S., Saunders, G., & White, P. C. L. (2008). Terrestrial carnivores and human food production: impact and management. Mammal Review, 38(2-3), 123–166. https://doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2008.00122.x

ro of

Boitani, L., Ciucci, P., & Raganella-Pelliccioni, E. (2010). Ex–post compensation payments for wolf predation on livestock in Italy: a tool for conservation? Wildlife Research, 37(8), 722. https://doi:10.1071/wr10029 Badingqiuying, Smith, A. T., Senko, J., & Siladan, M.U. (2016). Plateau Pika Ochotona curzoniae Poisoning Campaign Reduces Carnivore Abundance in Southern Qinghai, China. Mammal Study, 41(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3106/041.041.0102

-p

Bautista, C., Revilla, E., Naves, J., Albrecht, J., Fernández, N., Olszańska, A., … Selva, N. (2019). Large carnivore damage in Europe: Analysis of compensation and prevention programs. Biological Conservation, 235, 308–316. https://doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.04.019

re

Coppinger, L. & Coppinger, R. (1993). Dogs for herding and guarding livestock. In Grandin, T. (ed.) Livestock Handling and Transport. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 179–196

lP

Can, Ö. E., D’Cruze, N., Garshelis, D. L., Beecham, J., & Macdonald, D. W. (2014). Resolving Human–Bear conflict: A Global Survey of Countries, Experts, and Key Factors. Conservation Letters, 7(6), 501–513. https://doi:10.1111/conl.12117

na

Chase Grey, J. N., Bell, S., & Hill, R. A. (2017). Leopard diets and landowner perceptions of human wildlife conflict in the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa. Journal for Nature Conservation, 37, 56–65. https://doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2017.03.002

ur

Dawa, T., John, F., & Kelsang, N. (2006). Human–Wildlife conflict in the Chang Tang Region of Tibet: The Impact of Tibetan Brown Bears and Other Wildlife on Nomadic Herders. WWF China-Tibet Program. https://docplayer.net/50335804-Human-wildlife-conflict-in-the-changtang-region-of-tibet.html

Jo

Dickman, A. J. (2010). Complexities of conflict: the importance of considering social factors for effectively resolving human–wildlife conflict. Animal Conservation, 13(5), 458–466. https://doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2010.00368.x Delibes-Mateos, M., Smith, A. T., Slobodchikoff, C. N., & Swenson, J. E. (2011). The paradox of keystone species persecuted as pests: A call for the conservation of abundant small mammals in their native range. Biological Conservation, 144(5), 1335–1346. https//doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.02.012

15

Dorresteijn, I., Hanspach, J., Kecskés, A., Latková, H., Mezey, Z., Sugár, S., & Fischer, J. (2014). Human–carnivore coexistence in a traditional rural landscape. Landscape Ecology, 29(7), 1145–1155. https://doi:10.1007/s10980-014-0048-5 DeCandia, A. L., Dobson, A. P., & vonHoldt, B. M. (2018). Toward an integrative molecular approach to wildlife disease. Conservation Biology, 32(4), 798–807. https://doi:10.1111/cobi.13083 Dai, Y. C., Li, D. Q., Liu, F., Zhang, Y. G., Zhang, Y., Ji, Y. R., & Xue, Y. D. (2019a). Summary comments on human‐bear conflict mitigation measures and implications to Sanjiangyuan National Park. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 39(22). https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201904060672

ro of

Dai, Y. C., Xue, Y. D., Cheng, Y. F., Zhang, Y. G., Zhang, L. S., Zhang, Y., Luo, P., & Li, D. Q. (2019b). The human‐bear conflicts and herder attitudes and knowledge in the Yangtze River Zone of Sanjiangyuan National Park. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 39(22). https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201904 270867 Dai, Y. C., Hacker, C. E., Zhang, Y. G., Li, W. W., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Bona, G., Liu, H. D., Li, Y., Xue Y. D., & Li, D. Q. (2019c). Identifying the risk regions of house break-ins caused by Tibetan brown bears (Ursus arctos pruinosus) in the Sanjiangyuan region, China. Ecology and Evolution. https://doi:10.1002/ece3.5835.

re

-p

Dai, Y. C., Hacker, C. E., Zhang, Y. G., Li, W. W., Zhang, Y., Liu, H. D., Zhang, J. J., Ji, Y. R., Xue Y. D., & Li, D. Q. (2019d). Identifying climate refugia and its potential impact on Tibetan brown bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus) in Sanjiangyuan National Park, China. Ecology and Evolution. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.5780

lP

Fourli, M. (1999). Compensation for damage caused by bears and wolves in the European Union: experiences from the LIFE-Nature projects. Report to Directorate General XI of the European Commission, Bruxelles, Belgium.

na

Fuchs, T., Gaillard, C., Gebhardt-Henrich, S., Ruefenacht, S., & Steiger, A. (2005). External factors and reproducibility of the behaviour test in German shepherd dogs in Switzerland. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 94(3-4), 287–301. https://doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2005.02.016

ur

Garshelis, D. L., Sikes, R. S., & Birney, A. E. C. (1999). A selection of papers from the eleventh international conference on bear research and management, Graz, Austria, September 1997, and Gatlinburg, Tennessee, April 1998 || landowners\" perceptions of crop damage and management practices related to black bears in East–Central Minnesota. Ursus, 11, 219–224.

Jo

Goswami, V. R., Medhi, K., Nichols, J. D., & Oli, M. K. (2015). Mechanistic understanding of human–wildlife conflict through a novel application of dynamic occupancy models. Conservation Biology, 29(4), 1100–1110. https://doi:10.1111/cobi.12475 Huygens, O. C. , & Hayashi, H. (2000). Using electric fences to reduce asiatic black bear depredation in Nagano prefecture, central Japan. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 27(4), 959–964. https://doi: 10.1016/S0169-5347(99)01720-6 Hewitt, D. G. (2004). Resolving Human–Wildlife conflicts: The Science of Wildlife Damage Management. Journal of Wildlife Management, 68(1), 218–221. https://doi:10.2193/0022541x(2004)068 16

Han, X. F., Zhang, J., Cai, P., Zhang, Y., Wu, G. S., Wang, E. G., & Xu, A. C. (2018). The status and characteristics of, and solutions to, human–Tibetan brown bear conflicts in the Qinghai province. Acta Theriologica Sinica, 38 (1), 28–35. https://doi:10.16829/j.slxb.150106 Kioko, J., Muruthi, P., Omondi, P., & Chiyo, P. I. (2008). The performance of electric fences as elephant barriers in Amboseli, Kenya. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 38(1), 52– 58. https://doi:10.3957/0379-4369-38.1.52 Kaplan, B. S., O’Riain, M. J., van Eeden, R., & King, A. J. (2011). A Low–Cost Manipulation of Food Resources Reduces Spatial Overlap Between Baboons (Papio ursinus) and Humans in conflict. International Journal of Primatology, 32(6), 1397–1412. https://doi:10.1007/s10764011-9541-8

ro of

Karanth, K. K., Gopalaswamy, A. M., Prasad, P. K., & Dasgupta, S. (2013). Patterns of human– wildlife conflicts and compensation: Insights from Western Ghats protected areas. Biological Conservation, 166, 175–185. https://doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.06.027 Kansky, R., & Knight, A. T. (2014). Key factors driving attitudes towards large mammals in conflict with humans. Biological Conservation, 179, 93–105. https://doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.09.008

-p

Kubasiewicz, L. M., Bunnefeld, N., Tulloch, A. I. T., Quine, C. P., & Park, K. J. (2015). Diversionary feeding: an effective management strategy for conservation conflict? Biodiversity and Conservation, 25(1), 1–22. https://doi:10.1007/s10531-015-1026-1.

re

Linnell, J. D. C., Rondeau, D., Reed, D. H., Williams, R., Altwegg, R., Raxworthy, C. J., … Pettorelli, N. (2010). Confronting the costs and conflicts associated with biodiversity. Animal Conservation, 13(5), 429–431. https://doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2010.00393.x

lP

Liu, F., McShea, W. J., Garshelis, D. L., Zhu, X., Wang, D., & Shao, L. (2011). Human–wildlife conflicts influence attitudes but not necessarily behaviors: Factors driving the poaching of bears in China. Biological Conservation, 144(1), 538–547. https://doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.10.009

na

Li, J., Yin, H., Wang, D., Jiagong, Z., & Lu, Z. (2013). Human–snow leopard conflicts in the Sanjiangyuan Region of the Tibetan Plateau. Biological Conservation, 166, 118–123. https://doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.06.024

ur

Lamichhane, B. R., Persoon, G. A., Leirs, H., Poudel, S., Subedi, N., Pokheral, C. P., & de Iongh, H. H. (2018). Spatio–temporal patterns of attacks on human and economic losses from wildlife in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. PLOS ONE, 13(4), e0195373. https://doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195373

Jo

Miller, J. R. B. (2015). Mapping attack hotspots to mitigate human–carnivore conflict: approaches and applications of spatial predation risk modeling. Biodiversity and Conservation, 24(12), 2887–2911. https://doi:10.1007/s10531-015-0993-6 Miller, J. R. B., Jhala, Y. V., & Jena, J. (2015). Livestock losses and hotspots of attack from tigers and leopards in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Central India. Regional Environmental Change, 16(S1), 17–29. https://doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0871-5 Marino, A., Braschi, C., Ricci, S., Salvatori, V., & Ciucci, P. (2016). Ex post and insurance–based compensation fail to increase tolerance for wolves in semi-agricultural landscapes of central 17

Italy. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 62(2), 227–240. https://doi:10.1007/s10344-0161001-5 Meinecke, L., Soofi, M., Riechers, M., Khorozyan, I., Hosseini, H., Schwarze, S., & Waltert, M. (2018). Crop variety and prey richness affect spatial patterns of human-wildlife conflicts in Iran’s Hyrcanian forests. Journal for Nature Conservation, 43, 165–172. https://doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2018.04.005 Morehouse, A. T., Tigner, J., & Boyce, M. S. (2018). Coexistence with Large Carnivores Supported by a Predator-Compensation Program. Environmental Management, 61(5), 719–731. https://doi:10.1007/s00267-017-0994-1

ro of

Miller, Z. D., Freimund, W. A., Metcalf, E. C., Nickerson, N. P., & Powell, R. B. (2019). Merging elaboration and the theory of planned behavior to understand bear spray behavior of day hikers in Yellowstone national Park. Environmental Management, 63(3), 366–378. https://doi:10.1007/s00267-019-01139-w Nyhus, P., Osofsky, S., Ferraro, P., Fischer, H., Madden, F. (2005). Bearing the costs of humanwildlife conflict: the challenges of compensation schemes. In: Woodroffe, R., Thirgood, S., Rabinowitz, A. (Eds.), People and Wildlife: Conflict or Coexistence? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 107–121. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511614774

-p

Oseiowusu, Y., & Bakker, L. (2008). Human–wildlife conflict: elephant. Technical manual. Wildlife Management Working Paper. https://agris.fao.org/agrissearch/search.do?recordID=XF2008436499

re

Pech, R. P., Arthur, A. D., Yanming, Z. , & Hui, L. (2007). Population dynamics and responses to management of plateau pikas Ochotona curzoniae. Journal of Applied Ecology, 44(3), 615– 624. https//doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01287.x

lP

Peterson, M. N., Birckhead, J. L., Leong, K., Peterson, M. J., & Peterson, T. R. (2010). Rearticulating the myth of human-wildlife conflict. Conservation Letters, 3(2), 74–82. https://doi:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2010.00099.x

ur

na

Proctor, M. F., Paetkau, D. , Mclellan, B. N. , Stenhouse, G. B. , & Kendall, K. C. (2012). Population Fragmentation and Inter–Ecosystem Movements of Grizzly Bears in Western Canada and the Northern United States. Wildlife Monographs, 180, 1–46. https://doi:10.1002/wmon.6

Jo

Pettigrew, M., Xie, Y., Kang, A., Rao, M., Goodrich, J., Liu, T., & Berger, J. (2012). Humancarnivore conflict in China: a review of current approaches with recommendations for improved management. Integrative Zoology, 7(2), 210–226. doi:10.1111/j.17494877.2012.00303.x Prasad, A. K., Kumar, P. P., Raj, N. P., Michael, K., & Bi-Song, Y. (2016). Human–wildlife conflicts in Nepal: Patterns of human fatalities and injuries caused by large mammals. PLOS ONE, 11(9), e0161717-. https://doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161717 Pozsgai, G. (2017). Conservation and human-wildlife conflicts on farmland: Book Review. Conservation Biology, 32(1), 1-3. https://doi:10.1111/cobi.13032

18

Proctor, M. F., Kasworm, W. F., Annis, K. M., MacHutchon, A. G., Teisberg, J. E., Radandt, T. G., & Servheen, C. (2018). Conservation of threatened Canada-USA trans-border grizzly bears linked to comprehensive conflict reduction. Human Wildlife Interactions, 12, 348–372. https://doi:org/10.26077/yjy6-0m57 Redpath, S. M., Young, J., Evely, A., Adams, W. M., Sutherland, W. J., Whitehouse, A., … Gutiérrez, R. J. (2013). Understanding and managing conservation conflicts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 28(2), 100–109. https://doi:10.1016/j.tree.2012.08.021 Ravenelle, J., & Nyhus, P. J. (2017). Global patterns and trends in human–wildlife conflict compensation. Conservation Biology, 31(6), 1247–1256. https://doi:10.1111/cobi.12948 Schaller, G. B. (1998). Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 373.

ro of

Smith, A. T., & Foggin, J. M. (1999). The plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) is a keystone species for biodiversity on the Tibetan plateau. Animal Conservation, 2(4), 235–240. https://doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.1999.tb00069.x Smith, M. E., Linnell, J. D. C., Odden, J., & Swenson, J. E. (2000). Review of Methods to Reduce Livestock Depradation: I. Guardian Animals. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A Animal Science, 50(4), 279–290. https://doi:10.1080/090647000750069476

-p

Spencer, R. D., Beausoleil, R., A ., & Martorello, D. A. (2007). How agencies respond to humanblack bear conflicts: a survey of wildlife agencies in north America. Ursus, 18(2), 217–229. https://doi: 10.2192/1537-6176(2007)18

lP

re

Strum, S. C. (2010). The Development of Primate Raiding: Implications for Management and Conservation. International Journal of Primatology, 31(1), 133–156. https://doi:10.1007/s10764-009-9387-5 Smith, T. S., Herrero. S., Debruyn, T. D., & Wilder, J .M. (2011). Efficacy of bear deterrent spray in Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management, 72(3), 640–645. https://doi:10.2193/2006-452

na

Shen, X., & Tan, J. (2012). Ecological Conservation, Cultural Preservation, and a Bridge between: the Journey of Shanshui Conservation Center in the Sanjiangyuan Region, Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China. Ecology and Society, 17(4), 375–384. https://doi:10.5751/es-05345-170438

ur

Samojlik, T., Selva, N., Daszkiewicz, P., Fedotova, A., Wajrak, A., & Kuijper, D. P. J. (2018). Lessons from Białowieża Forest on the history of protection and the world's first reintroduction of a large carnivore. Conservation Biology, 32(4), 808–816. https://doi:10.1111/cobi.13088

Jo

Samojlik, T., Selva, N., Daszkiewicz, P., Fedotova, A., Wajrak, A., & Kuijper, D. P. J. (2018). Lessons from Białowieża Forest on the history of protection and the world’s first reintroduction of a large carnivore. Conservation Biology, 32(4), 808–816. https://doi:10.1111/cobi.13088 Thirgood S, Woodroffe R & Rabinowitz A. (2005). The impact of human–wildlife conflict on human lives and livelihoods. Pages 13-26 in R. Woodroffe, S. Thirgood, and A. Rabinowitz, editors. People and Wildlife: Conflict or Coexistence? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. 19

Teel, T. L., Manfredo, M. J., Jensen, F. S., Buijs, A. E., Fischer, A., Riepe, C., & Jacobs, M. H. (2010). Understanding the Cognitive Basis for Human–Wildlife Relationships as a Key to Successful Protected-Area Management. International Journal of Sociology, 40(3), 104–123. https://doi:10.2753/ijs0020-7659400306 Treves, A., & Karanth, K. U. (2010). Human–carnivore conflict and perspectives on carnivore management worldwide. Conservation Biology, 17(6), 1491–1499. https://doi:10.2307/3588897 Van Bommel, L., & Johnson, C. N. (2014). How guardian dogs protect livestock from predators: territorial enforcement by Maremma sheepdogs. Wildlife Research, Wildlife Research, 41(8), 662-672. https://doi:10.1071/wr14190

ro of

Van Eden, M., Ellis, E., & Bruyere, B. L. (2016). The Influence of Human–Elephant Conflict on Electric Fence Management and Perception Among Different Rural Communities in Laikipia County, Kenya. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 21(4), 283–296. https://doi:10.1080/10871209.2016.1149746 Van Eeden, L. M., Crowther, M. S., Dickman, C. R., Macdonald, D. W., Ripple, W. J., Ritchie, E. G., & Newsome, T. M. (2017). Managing conflict between large carnivores and livestock. Conservation Biology, 32(1), 26–34. https://doi:10.1111/cobi.12959

-p

Woodroffe, R., Thirgood, S. & Rabinowitz, A. (2005). People and wildlife: conflict or coexistence? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

re

Worthy, Fiona R., & Foggin, J. Marc. (2008). Conflicts between local villagers and Tibetan brown bears threaten conservation of bears in a remote region of the Tibetan Plateau. Human– Wildlife Interactions, 2: 200–205. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/hwi/59

lP

White, P. C. L., & Ward, A. I. (2010). Interdisciplinary approaches for the management of existing and emerging human–wildlife conflicts. Wildlife Research, 37(8), 623. https://doi:10.1071/wr10191

na

Wilson, M. C., & Smith, A. T. (2014). The pika and the watershed: The impact of small mammal poisoning on the ecohydrology of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. AMBIO, 44(1), 16–22. doi:10.1007/s13280-014-0568-x

ur

Wu L. (2014). Ecological Study on Human-Brown Bear Conflicts in Sanjiangyuan Area, Tibetan Plateau, China. Ph.D Thesis, Peking University, Beijing.

Jo

Xu, A. C., Jiang, Z. G., Li, C. W., Guo, J. X., Wu, G. S., & Cai, P. (2006) Summer food habits of brown bears in Kekexili nature reserve, Qinghai: Tibetan Plateau, China. Ursus, 17(2), 132– 137. https://doi:10.2307/3873090 Zimmermann, B., Wabakken, P., & Dötterer, M. (2003). Brown bear–livestock conflicts in a bear conservation zone in Norway: are cattle a good alternative to sheep? . Ursus, 14(1), 72–83. https://doi:10.2307/3872959

20

-p

ro of Spring

700 600 500 400

Autumn

Winter

ur

800

Summer

300 200 100 0

2014

2015

2016

Year

2017

Number of repor ted livestock depredation incidents

(a) 900

na

1000

Jo

Number of repor ted livestock depredation incidents

lP

re

Figure 1 Map of Qinghai province, China

1600

(b)

1400

1200 1000 800

600 400

200 0 Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Season

Figure 2 The annual (a) and seasonal (b) trend of livestock depredation by carnivores in Zhiduo from January 2014 to December 2017. 21

350

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

120

100 80 60

40 20

(b) 300

250 200

150 100 50

0

0 2014

2015

2016

Spring

2017

ro of

(a)

Number of repor ted house break-ins incidents

Number of repor ted house break-ins incidents

140

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Season

Year

Figure 3 The annual (a) and seasonal (b) trend of house break-ins by brown bears in Zhiduo from

Jo

ur

na

lP

re

-p

January 2014 to December 2017.

22

Table 1 Statistics of reported human-carnivore conflict incidents in Qinghai province from January 2014 to December 2017.

Conflict areas*

No. of reported incidents Livestock depredation

No. of

House Human County/city name break-ins attacks

469

167

0

2015

781

229

4

counties

Delingha, Dulan, Gangcha, Haiyan, Ledu, Menyuan, Qilian, Qumalai, Tianjun, Wulan, Yushu, Zaduo, Zeku, Zhiduo Chengduo, Delingha, Dulan, Gangcha, Gonghe, Haiyan, Hualong, Ledu, Maqin, Menyuan, Nangqian, Qumalai, Qilian, Xinghai, Zeku, Zhiduo.

14

145,048

16

434,776

-p

2014

Compensation (US$)

ro of

Year

9

*

ur

3350

335

Jo

2017

15

1,187,867

Delingha, Datong, Qilian, Gangcha, Gonghe, Guinan, Guide, Haiyan, Huangyuan, Jiuzhi, Menyuan, Maduo, Maqin, Nangqian, Qumalai, Tianjun, Wulan, Xunhua, Yushu, Zeku, Zhiduo, Zaduo.

22

2,263,227

re

272

lP

1877

na

2016

Delingha, Gangcha, Gonghe, Haiyan, Menyuan, Maqin, Nangqian, Qilian, Qumalai, Tianjun, Wulan, Xinghai, Zeku, Zhiduo, Zaduo.

1

Conflict areas were calculated according to the reported data. Unreported and unverified incidents are not shown in this table.

23

Table 2 Summary of reported human-carnivore conflict incidents in different counties/cities of Qinghai province from January 2014 to December 2017. Percentage of reported incidents (%)

1

1

0.01

17

0

78

1.04

4

0

0

4

0.05

Datong

6

0

0

6

0.08

Gangcha

18

0

0

18

0.24

Gonghe

52

0

0

52

Guinan

1

0

0

1

Guide

1

0

0

1

Haiyan

92

0

0

92

Hualong

1

0

0

Huangyuan

0

0

1

Jiuzhi

6

0

0

Ledu

11

1

0

Menyuan

32

0

Maduo

0

13

Maqin

69

Nangqian

570

Qumalai

795

Livestock depredation

House break-ins

Human attacks

Chengduo

0

0

Delingha

61

Dulan

-p

County/city

ro of

Total reported incidents

na

No. of reported incidents

0.69 0.01 0.01 1.23

1

0.01

6

0.08

12

0.16

0

32

0.43

0

13

0.17

0

0

69

0.92

165

5

740

9.87

63

2

860

11.48

790

6

0

796

10.62

47

30

0

77

1.03

Wulan

80

11

0

91

1.21

Xunhua

1

0

0

1

0.01

Xinghai

2

0

0

2

0.03

Yushu

16

2

0

18

0.24

Zeku

171

0

0

171

2.28

Qilian

Jo

Tianjun

24

lP

re

0.01

ur

1

3,606

685

5

4,296

57.33

Zaduo

45

10

0

55

0.73

Jo

ur

na

lP

re

-p

ro of

Zhiduo

25

Table 3 Summary of livestock depredation by different carnivore species in Zhiduo from January 2014 to December 2017.

incidents

Depredation

Livestock loss* Yak

Sheep/Goat

Horse

Total loss

Percentage of total livestock loss responsibility (%)

Wolf

3503

1976

2830

43

4849

98.00

Snow leopard

97

12

68

0

80

1.62

Brown bear

6

0

19

0

19

0.38

3606

1988

2917

43

4948

100

Total

ro of

Cause

No. of Species reported

Jo

ur

na

lP

re

-p

* Livestock loss did not include losses caused by disease or other unknown reasons.

26

Table 4 Summary of house break-ins by brown bears in Zhiduo from January 2014 to December 2017. Damaged categories

Reported incidents

Doors/Windows Furniture

Food

Daily supplies

No. of reported incidents

93

243

144

64

141

Percentage of reported incidents (%)

13.58

35.47

21.02

9.34

20.58

Jo

ur

na

lP

re

-p

ro of

Wall

27